Quantifying The Effects of The Blacks Run Stream Restoration At Purcell Park By Implementing A Variety of Stream Quality Assessment

Techniques

A proposal submitted to the Integrated Science and Technology Program at James Madison University in partial fulfillment of ISAT - 491/492/493 By Shanna K. Murphy Under the faculty guidance of Dr. Robert Brent, PhD.

May 2013

Submitted by:

Shanna K. Murphy

(Signature)

Accepted by:

Dr. Robert Brent

(Signature)

Abstract
In 1996, Blacks Run in Harrisonburg, Virginia, was placed on the states list of impaired waters due to unacceptable levels of fecal coliform and benthic aquatic life impairments. Over 8 miles of the 10.74-mile stream runs through urban development before entering a predominantly rural area south of Harrisonburg. In March of 2009, an extensive stream restoration project was conducted at Purcell Park, which included reestablishing the natural curvature of the stream, scaling of the steep and eroding banks, addition of rock and log structures in the channel, and the planting of approximately 3,500 native trees and grasses. This thesis project is a continuation of post-restoration monitoring efforts and provides a comprehensive water quality profile of Blacks Run in order to quantify the effect of the restoration on the water quality and overall health of the stream. Data were gathered at four different locations along Blacks Runupstream in an urban setting, two in Purcell Park, and one downstream in a rural area. Data collection included bimonthly testing of water quality parameters and levels, macroinvertebrate counts, total phosphorus concentrations, and ion chromatography analysis. A riparian buffer survey was conducted in order to map and classify the trees planted during the restoration based on species, height, and condition. In collaboration with the Department of Game and Inland Fisheries, a fish population survey was also carried out at three different sites along Blacks Run to document the abundance, diversity, and overall health of fish in the river. Overall, data analysis shows that the restoration has had a positive effect on Blacks Run, although a benthic macroinvertebrate assessment portrayed that the stream was still ecologically impaired. Further monitoring is essential in evaluating the long-term effects of the restoration.

Table of Contents
Abstract1 List of Figures and Tables.4 Acknowledgements...7 Introduction8
Blacks Run Stream Restoration ..9 Urban Stream Syndrome...11 Urban Streams in a Social Context ...14 Fish Population Surveys as a Depiction of Stream Health ...15 Stream Restoration Techniques....16

Methodology.18
Water Quality Parameters. 19 Total Phosphorus Method and Nutrient Analysis ....23 Water Levels23 Riparian Buffer Survey..24 Macroinvertebrate Survey....26 Fish Species Survey.......27

Data Collection.27
Water Quality Parameters....27 Temperature. 28

pH..30 Dissolved Oxygen... 32 Specific Conductivity ..33 Total Phosphorus and Nutrient Analysis ......35 Phosphorus...36 Chloride..37 Nitrate.....38 Sulfate.....39 Water Levels.....41 Nutrient Data Summary .41 Riparian Buffer Survey...42 Macroinvertebrate Survey..46 Fish Species Survey.....49

Analysis...51 Conclusion..57 Appendix I: Phosphorus Protocol...59 Appendix II: Virginia Tree Species Identification....62 Appendix III: Virginia SOS Field Guide, Metric, and Index...66 Appendix IV: Fish Species Identification...69 Works Cited76

Figures
Figure 1. Blacks Run land use map....9 Figure 2: Rainfall properties before and after urbanization..12 Figure 3: Anthropogenic activities and resulting symptoms14 Figure 4: Map of data collection sites....19 Figure 5: Site #1urban settingBR-BIKE.19 Figure 6. Site #2restoration settingBR-PARK..20 Figure 7. Site #3restoration/confluence settingSC-PARK.20 Figure 8. Site #4rural settingBR-CWB...21 Figure 9: HOBO water level data logger location...24 Figure 10: Dense vegetation of riparian buffer26 Figure 11: Temperature...28 Figure 12: Average temperature ...29
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Figure 13: Winter vs. summer average temperature .30 Figure 14: pH31 Figure 15: Average pH ...31 Figure 16: Dissolved oxygen..32 Figure 17: Average dissolved oxygen .....33 Figure 18: Specific conductivity ...34 Figure 19: Average specific conductivity ...34 Figure 20: Phosphorus levels ...35 Figure 21: Average phosphorus levels ...36 Figure 22: Chloride levels .37 Figure 23: Average chloride levels ..37 Figure 24: Nitrate levels .38 Figure 25: Average nitrate levels ..39 Figure 26: Sulfate levels .39 Figure 27: Average sulfate levels .40 Figure 28: Water level data41 Figure 29: Screenshot of trees recorded as dead vs. alive.43 Figure 30: Screenshot of trees portraying recorded condition of each...44 Figure 31: Screenshot portraying each species recorded..45 Figure 32: Screenshot portraying tree height.45 Figure 33: Invertebrate species observed during riparian buffer survey.......55

Figure 34: Post-restoration erosion of banks..56 Figure 35: Fish collected during the survey...57

Tables
Table 1: Tree health condition criteria....25 Table 2: Sample table of field data for tree survey....25 Table 3: Summary of collected water quality parameters28 Table 4: Summary of phosphorus and nutrient data collection from 2001-2013..42 Table 5: Summary of collected tree data.42 Table 6: Summary of tree conditions...43 Table 7: Species identification of surveyed trees...44 Table 8: Macroinvertebrate count for BR-PARK46 Table 9: Macroinvertebrate VA SOS metric scores for BR-PARK46 Table 10: Macroinvertebrate count for SC-PARK...47 Table 11: Macroinvertebrate VA SOS metric scores for SC-PARK..47 Table 12: Macroinvertebrate count for BR-BIKE....47 Table 13: Macroinvertebrate VA SOS metric scores for BR-BIKE....48 Table 14: Macroinvertebrate count for BR-CWB....48 Table 15: Macroinvertebrate VA SOS metric scores for BR-CWB48 Table 16: Summary of VA SOS multimetric index scores.49 Table 17: Macroinvertebrate population densities.50

Table 18: Fish species data collection...50

Acknowledgements
The entirety of this project was sponsored and advised by Dr. Robert Brent and the James Madison Universitys Integrated Science and Technology department. With a grant from the ISAT department, I was able to acquire a HOBO U20 Water Level Data Logger to measure stream flow rates. I would especially like to thank Dr. Brent for all of his help throughout the entirety of my project; he not only kept me on track, but also provided the insight and direction that was essential in the completion of this thesis. I would like to thank Erica Harriman for working tirelessly with me on this project and preparing me to undertake it on my ownespecially with the time-consuming phosphorus runs. Erica and I also conducted the tree survey together and spent countless hours out in the field collecting data. A big thank you to the environment lab coordinatorsWC Price and Fred Copithorn for providing me with help in the lab every step of the way. Whether it was locating elusive chemicals in Freds closet or just simply answering questions, they were both very helpful throughout the entire process. I would also like to thank Dr. Benzing for providing extremely helpful consultation throughout my project even though he is not my advisor. I am also especially appreciative for his efforts in contacting the Virginia Department of Game and Inland Fisheries in order to acquire their help for my fish survey.

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Introduction
High quality water is more than the dream of the conservationists, more than a political slogan; high quality water, in the right quantity at the right place at the right time, is essential to health, recreation, and economic growth. -Edmund S. Muskie U.S. Senator speech (1966) The Clean Water Act (CWA) was established in 1972 in order to regulate the discharge of pollutants and set quality standards for the waters of the United States. Under section 303(d) of this Act and the United States Environmental Protection Agencys Water Quality Planning and Management Regulations, states and other territories must provide an inventory of all impaired waters that are too contaminated to meet specific water quality standards. These waters are then placed on a federally mandated impaired waters list. A Total Maximum Daily Load (TMDL) must be developed for each of these waters. A TMDL is a reduction plan that determines the total amount of pollutant that can enter a water body and still safely comply with water quality standards. A water quality Implementation Plan (IP) must also be presented, which identifies the impairments of the water source, proposed actions to fix the issues, and quantifiable standards to assess the health (VDEQ, 2012). On March 26, 2012, the Virginia Department of Environmental Quality (DEQ) released a draft of the 2012 Virginia Water Quality and Impaired Waters Report (as required per section 305(b) of The Clean Water Act). Included in this assessment is an evaluation of the conditions in Virginias waters, as well as a list of all waters that do not satisfy the states standards for water quality. Theses standards define the quality of water that is required in order to designate certain uses for waters. According to the DEQ, there are six designated uses for surface waters in Virginia:

Aquatic life Fish consumption Public water supplies (where applicable) Recreation (swimming) Shellfishing Wildlife

A body of water will not be able to support one or more of its designated uses if the amount of contamination present exceeds the limits set by water quality standards. Out of the 52,255 rivers/streams that are located in Virginia, 18,492 were assessed for water quality in the 2012 VDEQ report. Out of those surveyed, 29% (5,347) of the rivers and streams were classified as non-impaired, whereas 71% (13,145) were listed as impaired.

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In recent years, there has been a significant rise in public awareness of the necessities of healthy rivers and streams. As a result, there has been a drastic increase in efforts aimed at restoring the health of impaired waters; approximately 315 previously unacceptable water bodies have been fully restored, and over 1,500 waters have partially restored parameters (VDEQ, 2012).

Blacks Run Stream Restoration

Blacks Run is located in the South Fork Shenandoah River Basin and is part of the Chesapeake Bay watershed. The stream originates close to Eastern Mennonite University, flows through Rockingham County and the City of Harrisonburg, and joins with Cooks Creek before draining into the North River near Mount Crawford (Jost, 1999). The Blacks Run watershed itself is comprised of 12,255 acres. A number of tributaries and over 8 miles of the 10.74-mile stream run through urban development before entering a primarily rural area in the lower portion. From a Geographic Information System (GIS) land use assessment developed by the Virginia Department of Conservation and Recreation (VADCR), it was determined that 66% of the Blacks Run watershed is urban/suburban, 16% is pasture/hayland, 9% is cropland, and 8% is forest (Moyer & Hyer, 2003). Below is a figure depicting the land use in the Blacks Run watershed:

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In 1996, Blacks Run was placed on Virginias list of impaired waters due to unacceptable levels of fecal coliform and benthic aquatic life impairments (CleanStream, 2009). The quality of a water bodys aquatic community is directly related to the health of the stream. With a predominantly urban stream such as Blacks Run, increased sediment load, channelization, and storm water runoff are all contributing factors to the streams high impairment. Due to these violations, this water body does not support the designated uses of primary contact recreation and aquatic life. For Blacks Run to be considered impaired for fecal coliform, the water quality standard would have to have been surpassed over 10.5% of the time over the course of an assessment period (VDEQ, 2006). In 2006, the Virginia Department of Environmental Quality and Conservation and Recreation completed TMDL Implementation Plans for fecal coliform and benthic aquatic life impairments for Blacks Run. From the fecal coliform TMDL, significant contributors of bacteria to the stream were attributed to direct erosion and runoff from agricultural livestock, untreated human waste disposal, wildlife, and residential and urban land runoff. The aquatic life TMDL identified the overabundance of sediment and phosphorus as principle stressors to the streams impairment. According to results from a fecal coliform model, in order for Blacks Run to comply with its designated uses and TMDL, the current load of fecal coliform draining from the watershed would have to be reduced by 95% (Moyer & Hyer, 2003). In March of 2009, a massive restoration project took place in an effort to improve the overall health and habitat of the stream. The Canaan Valley Institute (CVI) led the Blacks Run restoration project. This nonprofit organization was established in 1995 to aid companies and communities in their efforts at quantifying water quality issues and implementing solutions. CVI collaborated with the City of Harrisonburg and other organizations including Friends of Blacks Run Greenway (FBRG), a local land trust, the Nature Conservancy, and the Virginia Department of Conservation and Recreation. The efforts produced a conceptual plan for restoring the 3000-foot section of stream that runs through the park. The Virginia Aquatic Resources Trust Fund eventually contributed funding for the design and construction of the restoration project that eventually restored approximately 4,750 feet of Blacks Run and two neighboring tributaries (CleanStream, 2009). Construction equipment was used to re-establish meander bends on the unnaturally straight waterway, and the previously steep and eroding banks were scaled back to accommodate new vegetation and prevent further erosion (Dickler, 2009).

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Approximately 3,500 oak, sycamore, ash, cottonwood, birch, redbud, dogwood, and maple trees were planted in the project zone, and over 2,000 live stakes were planted along the stream banks. Rock and log structures were also added to the channel, which serve to slow the speed of water and provide habitats for aquatic organisms (CleanStream, 2009). The areas of added vegetation, or riparian buffers, stabilize the stream banks by preventing erosion, slow the flow rate of water, enhance aquatic and terrestrial habitat, and contribute shaded areas to aid in temperature regulation. Buffer zones are also vital in the regulation of sediment and pollutants that enter a water body. The dense root systems aid in the reduction of sediments flowing downstream and provide a natural filter for pollutants. Studies conducted by the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) have shown that riparian buffers can reduce nitrogen from agricultural runoff by 68% (Klapproth & Johnson, 2009).

Urban Stream Syndrome

We live in the Blacks Run watershed before we get out to the river or the bay. This is our home, and our stream. The bigger picture is important, but so is taking care of our back yard. -Thanh Dang Public Works Planner (2009) With approximately 66% of Harrisonburgs storm water flowing directly into Blacks Run (CleanStream, 2009), the physical impacts are apparent in the response of the biological communities present in the stream. These impairments can be broadly attributed to urban stream syndrome, which is the consistent observation of a streams ecological degradation that drains urban land (Walsh et al., 2005). This condition results in extravagant hydrographs, which are representations of stream discharge in relation to time. Other symptoms of urban stream syndrome include changes in channel structure, excessive nutrient and sediment contamination, and an overabundance of permissive species with a decline in biological diversity. Unlike in underdeveloped areas where the surface flow of water is inhibited by vegetation and percolates into the ground, urbanized areas contain an abundance of impermeable surfaces. This results in an increased volume of storm water runoff and a significantly higher flow rate. Otherwise known as discharge, stream flow is the volume of water that moves over a designated point in a specific period of time. The rate of flow is a function of stream velocity and volume; thusly, the amount of water that travels down a watershed into a stream is directly proportional to the flow of the stream. This flow increases exponentially during rainstorms and decreases during the dry season (Walsh et al., 2005). Stream flow has a direct effect on aquatic life and the habitats they reside in. Fast-moving waters will generally have elevated levels of

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dissolved oxygen due to increased aeration. Some organisms can survive in fastmoving water, whereas others require calm waters (USEPA, 1997). The velocity of the stream and the quantity of riparian vegetation present along the banks are primary factors in determining the amount of erosion that a stream will experience. Silt and sediment from erosion will settle more rapidly in slow-moving waters, and sediment that is introduced to a stream with a higher flow rate will be suspended longer in the water (USEPA, 1997).

A hydrograph of an urban water body will often portray steep vertical jumps and equally steep declines. The stream will undergo a considerable increase in flow rate directly after the emergence of a precipitation event and will almost immediately return to its normal rate after the precipitation ends. With such high flow events, the increase in velocity in the stream channel will often result in increased erosion along the banks. This leads to bank instability and altered channel morphology. Changes in nature, size, amount, and source of sediment that can result from construction and other modification to the land will cause the channel to widen (USEPA, 1997). Streams are naturally inclined to attain a state of equilibrium between the erosion of banks and the resulting deposition of sediments downstream. This inherent relationship can be easily disrupted by anthropogenic activities. In order to conform to developing infrastructure and prevent flooding, such as with Blacks Run, many urban streams will be artificially straightened and confined by impervious surfaces by redirecting the water body into concrete channels (Kelly, 2001). The idea was that the practice of straightening a sinuous river would increase the gradient and thus increase the flow rate, essentially causing water levels to drop before they reach flood height. In reality, artificial channel straightening can lead to bank instability, excessive sediment, and the possibility of flooding downstream. The natural hydrologic cycle of urban catchments is often severely affected with the removal of riparian buffers. Besides providing bank stabilization, these vegetative areas also slow the rate of runoff and filter harmful pollutants. Riparian buffers also provide food, habitat, and temperature

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regulation, thus forming the basis of a healthy aquatic ecosystem (Klapproth & Johnson, 2009). As rainwater flows across open streets and rooftops, it will accumulate motor oil, litter, and any other debris in its path. Runoff from pervious surfaces can also incorporate pollutants, such as insecticides and animal waste. Excessive contamination of runoff results in sedimentation and erosion of streams, as well as an overall decline in water quality and biodiversity. One of the primary reasons for the impairment of Blacks Run is nutrient pollution. Nitrogen and Phosphorus are a vital component of aquatic ecosystems that aid in the growth of algae and plants, but can be harmful to normal aquatic processes in large quantities. Phosphorus is considered a limiting factor for algae and plant growth; even a modest increase can set off a chain of undesirable events in a stream ecosystem. Algal blooms can also be exacerbated by changes in the amounts of nitrogen and phosphorus, which will result in a depletion of the necessary oxygen levels of certain aquatic species. Anthropogenic activity is often the cause of nutrient overload, which can pollute the water and exceed the capacity that ecosystems can handle. An overabundance of nitrogen and phosphorus in water systems is most commonly attributed to fertilizer from agricultural regions and storm water runoff from urban areas (Dubrovsky & Hamilton, 2010). Human alteration to streams will often lead to a loss of habitat diversity for many aquatic organisms and an overall decline in health. The distribution of small, aquatic organisms called macroinvertebrates can be used as biological indicators of the health of a stream. Certain species of macroinvertebrates, such as aquatic worms and leeches, can survive in waters with low dissolved oxygen levels, which is often attributed to higher amounts of pollution and sediment. Increased sediment loads will deposit on the stream floor, covering residual pools and other habitats. Excessive sediment can also find its way into small cracks and crevices, smothering the eggs of fish and other organisms. Immoderate sediment loads can lower the amount of dissolved oxygen, greatly affecting fish and gilled macroinvertebrates that require clean water for respiration. Many macroinvertebrates also depend on clean, silt-free surfaces in order to prevent themselves from being washed downstream. The amount of suspended solids in a stream can also contribute to a reduction in visibility, which creates a disadvantage for organisms that rely primarily on the sense of sight (Helfman, 2007). The presence of pollutants in a stream can result in a less diverse ecosystem and a smaller distribution of biological organisms. Below is a figure depicting the effects of anthropogenic activities on stream ecology and the resulting biological responses.

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Urban Streams in a Social Context

Urban streams are not only a visually pleasant and important environmental amenity, they are also becoming increasingly rare. Streams in an urban setting are sometimes the only visible link to the natural world and can be widely used as teaching tools to younger generations. With a constant growth of population and rapidly expanding urbanization, streams and other natural spaces are often disregarded. Urban streams were natural streams before humankind interfered with the natural processes; because of this, it is the responsibility of the citizens and surrounding communities to protect and preserve these water bodies. Many people do not realize the extent of anthropogenic impacts on water resources. As urbanization increases and development spreads, streams are often subjected to a multitude of pollutants and wastes. The perceptions of those that reside in the area play a vital role in determining whether or not stream health can be restored. Because Blacks Run has been listed as impaired for over fifteen years, many residents regard the stream as a drainage ditch rather than a recreational opportunity (Dickler, 2009). Besides the intrinsic value of a bountiful stream, people are generally more attracted to a vibrant, healthy stream than a degraded one. A stream that has been restored, such as Blacks Run, can provide an immeasurable education opportunity for the 12,000 or more visitors that use the park each year. Blacks Run traverses straight through downtown Harrisonburg and can be viewed at numerous locations. If the waterway is clean and thriving, the overall value of the area increases and can potentially attract additional visitors for shopping and recreation. As of today, the City of Harrisonburg also utilizes the North River as a source for drinking water and will likely use the South Fork of the

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Shenandoah River in the future (VDEQ, 2006). The Shenandoah fish kills call attention to the importance of water quality health and anthropogenic effects on aquatic habitats. The social context of restoring the health of Blacks Run has implications that exceed the local community. Blacks Run eventually flows into the Chesapeake Bay and although a successful reduction in nutrient and sediment loads in the Blacks Run watershed might only slightly benefit the fragile ecosystem of the Chesapeake Bay, it will still play a vital role in the effort to restore its health. The outlook on urban streams has begun to change; people are beginning to see these small sources of water as important natural resources that should be preserved and maintained. This transition has also begun to change peoples attitudes towards what they consider to be a visually pleasant stream system. Rather than the perfectly manicured lawns that have overtaken parks and riversides, people are beginning to see that a healthy, vegetated buffer is an essential component of a water body.

Fish Population Surveys as a Depiction of Stream Health

Urbanization is almost always related to a significant loss of biological diversity in stream ecosystems. A primary intention of stream restorations, including that of Blacks Run, is to improve habitat conditions enough to reestablish these losses. Biotic recovery is assumed to naturally follow if water quality, hydrology, erosion, and structural habitat are even incrementally improved. Urban streams also tend to house more non-native fish species than that of natural streams. In some cases, researchers will compare restored urban streams to nonrestored urban streams, as well as nonurban and reference (minimally degraded) streams. However, research has shown that the biological diversity of restored urban streams is more similar to nonrestored urban streams and is in fact lower than nonurban and reference streams (Stranko, Hilderbrand & Palmer, 2011). Research into this topic does not provide high success rates in terms of substantial, long-term biological increases in urban streams that have been restored. Failures may be attributed to the inability to identify and eliminate all possible factors that could degrade the streams condition. Many studies have proposed that restored urban streams are essential for aesthetics, erosion minimization, and flood control, but that the probability of reestablishing a diverse, biological community is minimal, if any (Stranko et al., 2011). In some cases, as with restoration work that was conducted on Sligo Creek in Montgomery County, Maryland, efforts to improve the variety of fish species eventually led to the decision to stock the creek with fish. From 1990 to 2007, the stream

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was stocked 6 times with 23 different species of fish in order to promote the recolonization of populations after the area was restored. The Montgomery County Department of Environmental Protection later documented successful reproduction rates of stocked species, however, fish kills greatly attributed to reductions in numbers. This evidence, as well as a multitude of others, contributes to the difficulty in managing restored urban streams and the explanation of why the successful restoration of biological diversity is often hindered. Researchers do suggest, however, that an analysis of fish populations and biodiversity occur on less-impacted, smaller, streams (Stranko et al., 2011). On November 18, 2008, Harrisonburg reported a sewage overflow in Purcell Park that entered Seiberts Creek and eventually Blacks Run; the Department of Environmental Quality inspected the overflow and observed large amounts of sewage deposits throughout the stream. During this investigation, DEQ also noted that five fish were dead directly above the confluence with Blacks Run. Georges Foods LLC, a local chicken hatchery in Harrisonburg, VA, has also recently been fined nearly $10,000 for unpermitted runoff from the companys feed mill that made its way into Blacks Run (Domenech, Paylor & Owens, 2013). This runoff contained a multitude of chicken feed that is comprised of high concentrations of nitrogen and phosphorus (Sipos, 2013). Events like this, although fairly rare, could potentially be a reason for the slow recovery of Blacks Run. In addition to the benthic macroinvertebrate study that was conducted at Blacks Run, a fish population survey also took place on March 15, 2013, at three different sites on Blacks Run. It is predicted that the overall abundance and diversity of fish would be lower in the urban setting compared to that of the rural setting, which passes water that runs through the restored section of stream. An essential contribution to the overall success of a stream restoration is a healthy, diverse community of benthic macroinvertebrates and fish species. Although fish populations at Blacks Run were previously sampled only once on June 19, 2008 by a group from the Virginia Department of Game and Inland Fisheries, this data was still compared to the data collected on March 15, 2013. A future survey is planned for the summer of 2013 as well.

Stream Restoration Techniques

Public awareness and concern for environmental health is continuing to increase and people have begun to favor ecologically efficient restoration techniques over harsh river engineering strategies that can halt the natural processes of a water body. Rather than confining streams into concrete channels or building artificially enforced levees, bioengineering practices are beginning to advance in utilization. There are numerous

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practices that can be implemented in the effort to restore certain aspects of a stream. In the case of Blacks Run, overabundances of fecal coliform, sediment, and stormwater runoff are primary contributors to the streams impairments. Many causes of stream impairment cannot simply be fixed with a specific restoration technique. A significant cause of the degradation of Blacks Run is fecal coliform contamination and one of the main sources of this is pet waste. The City of Harrisonburg has attempted to bring this problem to the publics awareness by installing numerous bag dispensers and implementing educational programs, but this source of fecal coliform will most likely always be an issue. Even if every single person disposed of their pets waste properly, there would still be other sources of fecal coliformagriculture, ducks, humans, etc. This is why a vegetative buffer is essential in maintaining adequate stream health. After years of mowing up to the edge of the stream banks and other harsh landscaping practices, the riparian buffer on Blacks Run was almost non-existent. As previously mentioned, approximately 3,500 native species of vegetation were planted around the stream to act as a buffer zone. These large areas of vegetation stabilize the banks, act as a filtration system, and provide habitat for aquatic and terrestrial organisms. Before the restoration at Purcell Park, the majority of the stream banks were undergoing constant erosion, which was then interfering with park infrastructure. As well as the application of the riparian buffer, banks located upstream and downstream of the project were scaled back to reduce the sharp angles that promote erosion. A number of structures were placed inside the stream channel, such as cross vanes, J-hooks, and log structures in order to provide channel stability and natural habitats for aquatic organisms. A large majority of data on restoration success includes only the physical responses itself, leaving numerous biota inadequately assessed. Biological responses of fish and invertebrates are essentially more difficult to monitor, yet this data is the most significant measure of restoration success. Log structures and stream bank alterations are often unsuccessful in establishing the expected habitat conditions so it is crucial to first figure out the causes of habitat degradation in order to determine the necessary modifications (Roni, Beechie, Bilby, Leonetti, Pollock & Pess, 2002). Two major stressors that negatively impact water quality are stormwater and sewage runoff. Infiltration time is essential in order to reduce max discharge and allow adequate filtration of nutrients and other pollutants; riparian buffers, treatment wetlands and vegetated swales all provide a substrate for this to occur. Tertiary treatment of wastewater will further contribute to a healthier discharge (Reale, 2012). Low Impact Development (LID) has been found to be greatly effective in controlling pollution due to stormwater runoff. Its strategies include green space, native landscaping, natural

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hydrologic functions, and various other techniques to decrease runoff from developed areas containing high amounts of impervious surfaces. The primary goal of LID is to keep rainwater contained before slowly releasing it to allow for natural rates of infiltration. Other techniques of LID that integrate land and infrastructure management include: rain gardens and bioretention, green roofs, sidewalk storage, rain barrels and cisterns, permeable pavers, soil amendments, and impervious surface reduction (Clar, 2001). A number of data collection techniques were also used to survey the restoration area such as LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) data and Optech ALTM 3100 sensors, which are used to navigate an aerial view and collect millions of elevation data points and images. Together, this data generated contour interval maps of the region, which researchers then used to visualize the final project; these maps also depicted how the stream flow will be affected by the restoration (LDPA, 2002). With so many restoration techniques available, it is essential that appropriate measures be taken prior to the projects commencement to ensure that the best possible practices will be implemented. Even after this, it is impossible to accurately portray all of the future effects from a restoration. In order for the restoration to be completely effective, monitoring procedures must be carried out and data pertaining to stream health must be continuously collected. This thesis project is a continuation of the efforts at measuring and quantifying the direct impacts of the stream restoration at Purcell Park. Water quality data and observations of stream-health indicators will be recorded and analyzed over the next seven months and then compared to past data in order to characterize the post-restoration condition and determine whether or not Blacks Run can meet its designated usages.

Methodology
Matthew Penning of the JMU ISAT program began collecting data for this project in June 2011 and continued until January 2012. Erica Harriman, also an ISAT major, joined the study in February 2012 and continued the monitoring practices until August 2012. The data and assessments for this specific project will span from June 2012 to January 2013 and will continue the collection and analysis of the restoration parameters. Data collection will occur at four sites on Blacks Run that were originally chosen by Matt Penning.

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The first site (BR-Bike) is in an exclusively urban setting and is located upstream of the restoration in downtown Harrisonburg. At this site, the stream has been artificially straightened and diverted through a concrete tunnel in order to run parallel to a large parking garage. The red line portrays the diversion of the stream underneath infrastructure.

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The second and third sites (BR-Park and SC-Park) are located in Purcell Park, where the restoration took place. SC-Park is located at the conjunction of Blacks Run with Seiberts Creek, a tributary of Blacks Run that was also restored.

The last site (BR-CWB) is located downstream of the restoration in a primarily rural setting.

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Water Quality Parameters

The difficulty with managing water quality health is the necessity of adequately measuring the current state of the water source, as well as predicting the future conditions of the waters. In order to assess the health of Blacks Run as it pertains to its ability to support aquatic life, a number of water quality parameters will be investigatedtemperature, dissolved oxygen, pH, and specific conductivity. All measurements were taken bimonthly at each of the four sites along Blacks Run. The equipment that was used was a HydroLab multi-parameter water quality instrument. The field data was recorded in a notebook before being entered into an Excel spreadsheet. Samples were taken to the lab and preserved for later analysis.

Temperature
Temperature can affect the rates of biological and chemical processes by changing the oxygen content of the water. As temperature increases, oxygen levels become lower which can inhibit the metabolic rates of aquatic organisms and the photosynthetic rates of aquatic plants. Temperature changes are a result of not only weather, but can also be affected by a lack of shading vegetation along stream banks. Wastes often raise the temperature of water as well; this lowers the oxygen content of the stream, which can be detrimental to aquatic life (USEPA, 1997). The Blacks Run watershed is considered a Class 4 mountainous zone by the VA DEQ and it is recommended that freshwater in this region not exceed 31C (FOSR, 2012).

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Dissolved Oxygen (DO)

Aquatic organisms breathe oxygen that is dissolved in water, rather than air. The velocity of the stream plays a significant role in the generation of oxygen; water that flows over rocks and logs traps oxygen and mixes it in. Temperature also plays a vital role because cold water holds more oxygen than warm water. Pollution and other contaminants lower oxygen levels and contribute to poor water quality. When water quality is diminished, DO will become depleted and aquatic life is often hindered (USEPA, 1997). The majority of aquatic organisms usually require a minimum DO level of 5 mg/L, although the minimum DO standard for the majority of the streams west of the Blue Ridge is 4.0 mg/L (FOSR, 2012).

Potential Hydrogen (pH)

Potential Hydrogen (pH) is a measurement of the acidity or basicity of an aqueous solution and is involved in a multitude of chemical and biological processes that occur in the water. At a low pH level, naturally occurring metals such as iron and magnesium are able to dissolve more readily in water. If pH levels fall outside of a certain range, the physiological systems and reproductive rate of many aquatic organisms can be inhibited (USEPA, 1997). Although most organisms prefer a pH range of 6.5 to 8.0, due to the high amount of geologic limestone in the Shenandoah Valley, pH readings outside the range of 6.5-9.5 are considered to be in violation of the Water Quality Standards of Virginia (FOSR, 2012).

Specific Conductivity
Specific conductance is a measurement of the ability of water to pass an electrical current and is proportional to the concentration of inorganic dissolved solids present in the water. Excessive discharge, such a failing sewer, would raise the conductivity due to the presence of specific ions, whereas oil or alcohol would lower it. Conductivity is also influenced by temperature, as warmer waters have a higher conductance. A high concentration of dissolved solids will decrease dissolved oxygen levels and can interfere with the flow of water in and out of the cells of aquatic organisms. The conductivity of rivers in the U.S. usually ranges between 0.05-1.5 ms/cm. Research has shown that streams with a high diversity of fish species generally fall between 0.15-0.5 ms/cm (USEPA, 1997).

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Total Phosphorus Method and Nutrient Analysis

The samples were analyzed using a Dionex Ion Chromatograph (IC) to test for major anions in the water samples including chloride, nitrate and sulfate. Each sample was poured into a separate vial, along with six different standards. A vial containing a standard was placed into the set after every ten vials. The ion chromatograph works by separating the different anions and cations in each sample and measuring the retention time of the individual pollutants. Total phosphorus levels in each sample were also analyzed using the APHA 4500 total phosphorus method for low concentrations in water. This method is an alteration of standard method 4500-P (B&E), which is outlined in Appendix I. This test quantifies all four types of phosphorus in the samples by first digesting each sample. After acid washing the glassware and rinsing any residue with deionized water, the samples underwent digestion where they were heated and acidified. This process transformed all other forms of phosphate in the sample into orthophosphate. The orthophosphate was then measured using the ascorbic acid method, which calculates the amount of dissolved and suspended orthophosphate. The reduction formed the color blue, which increased based on the amount of phosphorus present. This amount was measured spectrophotometrically at 880 nm. These measurements were then plotted on a standard curve that was generated using known concentrations of phosphorus in water.

Water Levels
Otherwise known as discharge, stream flow is the volume of water that moves over a designated point in a specific period of time. The rate of flow is a function of stream velocity and volume; thusly, the amount of water that travels down a watershed into a stream is directly proportional to the flow of the stream. This flow increases exponentially during rainstorms and decreases during the dry season. Stream flow has a direct effect on aquatic life and the habitats they reside in. Fast-moving waters will generally have elevated levels of dissolved oxygen due to increased aeration. Some organisms can survive in fast-moving water, whereas others require calm waters (USEPA, 1997). A HOBO U20 Water Level Logger was used to monitor changes in the water level of Blacks Run at a location downstream of the restoration, but upstream of site #4 at Cecil Wampler Bridge. Water level data was recorded from October 26, 2012 to March 1, 2013 in an Excel spreadsheet. Below is a map of the data loggers location:

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Riparian Buffer Survey

During the months of August and September, Erica Harriman and I conducted an extensive survey on the health and overall success of the riparian buffer that was implemented during the stream restoration. As previously described, a multitude of native vegetations were planted along the riparian zone of the stream banks in order to prevent erosion, enhance aquatic and terrestrial habitat, and contribute shaded areas to aid in temperature regulation. The tree survey consisted of collecting field data on the exact location of each tree in a growing tube using a GEO XS GPS unit, as well as the individual species, height, and overall health. Erica created a field containing native Virginian tree species, which was frequently used to identify each tree and can be seen in Appendix II. The criteria for judging the condition of each tree can be seen below in Table 1:

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Table 1. Tree Health Condition Criteria

Condition Good Fair

Criteria No holes, bites, discoloration, invasive species, or breakage to the leaves, limbs, or trunk. Minimal, affecting less than one-third of the tree, and only one of the following: holes, bites, or discoloration to the leaves, limbs, or trunk. More than one third of the tree and/or more than one of the following: holes, bites, or discoloration to the leaves, limbs, or trunk. Non-existent, broken, or no leaves present.

Poor

Dead

A table portraying samples of the field data collected during the riparian buffer survey can be seen below in Table 2:
Table 2: Sample table of field data for tree survey

Data Point 1 2 3 4

Latitude (N) 38 25 49.120 38 25 49.107 38 25 49.204 38 25 49.181

Longitude (W) 78 52 57.522 78 52 57.370 78 52 57.230 78 52 57.332

Dead or Alive Alive Alive Alive Dead

Height (in) 45 44 67 47

Species Birch

Condition Fair

Dogwood Fair Maple Maple Good Dead

Erica Harriman also converted each GPS coordinate into decimal degrees and imported them into ArcMap. Multiple layers were created to communicate the different parameters of data taken. Ericas explanation for how to create the map is stated as follows: To create the map in ArcMap, first a base layer was imported. Then the latitude and longitudinal data was imported as XY data where the X was set to longitude and the Y was set to latitude. The coordinate system was set to the North American Datum of 1983 (NAD83). In the option for Z data, all of the parameters, such as height and species, were imported. After replicating the layers, each was set to display a different parameter and color key. These maps can now be used to visually interpret the diversity and successfulness of the riparian buffer portion of the restoration, while the data can be interpreted in Excel to output qualitative data.

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A few sources of error do exist in the tree survey, however. To our knowledge, there was not a map of any sort created during the restoration that portrayed location data for each tree. Data was collected only for trees growing inside tubes or at areas where there were visible signs of a previously planted tree (such as a weed mat). Although an empty tube describes a failed growth, that tree would still be counted and listed as dead. Tubes could potentially have been washed away during a rainstorm or collected by park groundskeepers and their data would not have been collected. Below is an image depicting a section of trees that were counted during the survey.

Macroinvertebrate Survey
The presence of pollutants in a stream can result in a less diverse ecosystem and a smaller distribution of biological organisms. The distribution of small, aquatic organisms called macroinvertebrates can be used as biological indicators of the health of a stream. Certain species of macroinvertebrates, such as aquatic worms and leeches, can survive in waters with low dissolved oxygen levels, which is often attributed to higher amounts of pollution and sediment levels (Helfman, 2007). Macroinvertebrate collections occurred on October 5, 2012 at each of the four sites and the samples were sorted and scored using the Virginia Save Our Streams (VASOS) methods seen in Appendix III. A surber sampler was used to collect samples four different times at four different areas of each site. These areas were chosen at different locations, such as

29

riffles or pools, to ensure the capture of an adequate diversity of species. After the net was placed on the bottom of the stream, loose dirt and gravel upstream were disheveled and larger rocks were wiped clean to remove any attached organisms. In order to calculate the population density for each specific area of the streambed that was sampled, the overall population count was simply divided by the number of collections4.

Fish Species Survey

The objective of this study was to investigate the efficiency of the stream restoration at Blacks Run with regard to the biological diversity of the fish populations that inhabit it and compare it to a previous record taken in 2008 by researchers at Virginias DGIF. On March 15, 2013, in collaboration with DGIF, a fish population survey was conducted at three different sites on Blacks Runupstream in the urban setting, at the restoration in Purcell Park, and downstream at the rural setting. An electroshocking backpack was used to temporarily stun the fish so that they could be identified, measured, and weighed. The device used was a Smithroot LR-24 electro-fisher mounted on a backpack frame; a direct current of about 0.5 amps was used to temporarily stun the fish, which is safer to use than an alternating current. Electricity was passed through the water using two types of electrodesthe anode (positive) and cathode (negative). Each site in the stream that was being sampled was traversed upstream using an alternating sweeping motion to cover each side of the stream. The temporarily paralyzed fish were collected in dip nets and later counted and identified according to their species by DGIF personnel and utilization of Appendix IV.

Data Collection
Water Quality Parameters
General water quality measurements include temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen (DO), and Specific Conductivity (SC). Matthew Pennings data began in June 2011 and continued until January of 2012. Erica Harriman took over data collection in February and stopped in August. The specific data range for this thesis spanned from September 2012 to January 2013. The black lines that can be seen in each scatter plot portray a change from one individuals data to another.

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Table 3: Summary of collected water quality parameters

Parameter Temperature Dissolved Oxygen pH Specific Conductivity Turbidity Phosphorus Chloride Nitrate Sulfate

Units C mg/L Standard pH units ms/cm NTU ppm ppm ppm ppm

Location of Data Collection Field Field Field Field Field Lab Lab Lab Lab

Method Multi-probe water quality meter Multi-probe water quality meter Multi-probe water quality meter Multi-probe water quality meter Multi-probe water quality meter APHA Method 4500-P (B&E) Ion Chromatograph Ion Chromatograph Ion Chromatograph

Temperature
Figure 11 below depicts the temperatures of each of the four sites over the course of about 19 months.

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Throughout the 19-month sampling span, temperatures ranged from 1C to 25C. As can immediately be seen, temperature data collected for this thesis, which was primarily during the winter season, is much lower than that of the previous years winter. The average temperature at each of the four sites during the entire sampling range can be seen below in Figure 12.

The graph above shows that BR-Bike had the highest average temperature out of the four sites with an average of 14.8C, followed by BR-CWB at 14.54C. SC-Park came in third with 14.41C, and BR-Park comprised the lowest average temperature of 14.31C. Figure 13 below portrays the comparison between the average winter and summer temperatures collected for each site during the entire monitoring period.

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During the winter months for both 2011 and 2012 (late October/early November to late January/early February), the lowest temperatures were recorded at site #4, BR-CWB. Site #1, BR-Bike, almost always held the highest temperatures. During the warmer, summer months, the roles were reversed; BR-CWB comprised the majority of the highest temperatures while BR-Bike had the lowest temperatures.

pH
Figure 14 below shows pH levels for all four sites over the course of the 19-month sampling period.

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The pH measurements taken at BR-Bike were generally the lowest besides a sharp drop experienced in SC-Park on December 5, 2012. BR-Bike, although consistently having the lowest pH values besides this point, also dropped suddenly on December 5. The average pH for each of the four sites during the 19-month span can be seen below in Figure 15.

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As can be seen above, BR-Bike has a much lower average pH than the other sites at 7.75. The next closest average is SC-Park at 8.22, followed by BR-Park at 8.32. The highest average pH was attributed to BR-CWB at 8.41.

Dissolved Oxygen
Figure 16 below exhibits collected measurements of dissolved oxygen at all four sites over the 19-month span.

From the figure above, it can be seen that dissolved oxygen levels are generally lower at the BR-Bike site, with the exception of a faulty DO probe that caused an outlier on October 16, 2012 (this measurement was not included in the portrayal of DO data or its analysis). BR-CWB primarily maintained the highest oxygen levels throughout the monitoring period. The average DO for each of the four sites during the entire course of study can be seen below in Figure 17.

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As can be seen from the graph above, BR-Bike held the lowest average during the 19month monitoring period with an average DO of 8.36 mg/L. BR-CWB has the highest oxygen levels at 11.58 mg/L, followed by SC-Park at 10.42 mg/L and then BR-Park with an average of 9.98 mg/L.

Specific Conductivity
Figure 18 below shows specific conductivity levels for all four sites over the course of the 19-month sampling period.

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The graph above shows that the specific conductivity measurements taken at BR-CWB were almost always lower than the other three sites, except for once where BR-Bike was lower. SC-Park was generally the highest reading. The average specific conductivity for each of the four sites during the entire course of study can be seen below in Figure 19.

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As can be seen above, BR-CWB has a much lower average specific conductivity than the other sites at 0.582 ms/cm. The next closest average is BR-Bike at 0.638 ms/cm, followed by BR-Park at 0.664 ms/cm. The highest average specific conductivity was attributed to SC-Park at 0.679 ms/cm.

Total Phosphorus and Nutrient Analysis Phosphorus

After every three data collections or so, a total phosphorus test was conducted on each sample. Phosphorus levels from each sample during the 19-month testing period are depicted below in figure 20.

From the figure above, it is clear that BR-Bike experienced two significant peaks throughout the entire collection period. BR-Park also experienced a few smaller peaks near the federal level for total dissolved phosphorus, as well as one noteworthy peak on September 7, 2012. Figure 21 below is a graph of the average phosphorus levels at each site over the entire sampling period.

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Figure 21 shows that BR-Bike holds the highest average phosphorus levels out of all four sites during the 19-month sampling period at 0.049 ppm. BR-Park was the second highest average with 0.041 ppm, followed by BR-CWB at 0.029 ppm, and lastly SC-Park at 0.023 ppm.

Ion Chromatograph
Each sample was run through an ion chromatograph to test for a number of anions. Chloride, sulfate, and nitrate anions were the only ones recorded when the samples were put through the IC. Chloride levels of each sample taken over the 19-month sampling period can be seen below in Figure 22.

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As can be seen by Figure 22 above, all four sites experienced a peak on February 2, 2012 and a gradual increase during the winter months of 2013. As with previous monitoring periods, SC-Park primarily held the majority of the highest chloride levels. In Figure 23 below, the average chloride levels collected from all four sites are portrayed:

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Nitrate levels of each sample taken over the 19-month monitoring period can be seen below in Figure 24.

Figure 24 shows that nitrate levels experienced several peaks during the monitoring period, most of which occurred during high rain events. A notable peak where all four sites exceeded the federal standard for nitrate levels in drinking water was on February 17, 2012. On this date, the highest nitrate level was recorded at 44.14 ppm at BR-PARK. During the entire monitoring period, BR-BIKE primarily held the highest nitrate levels and exceeded the federal standard of 10 ppm a total of 18 times. BR-PARK, however, was not far behind and surpassed the standard a total of 15 times. SC-PARK and BRCWB only passed the standard 6 times and 5 times, respectively. During this projects specific sampling period (September 2012-January 2013), BR-BIKEs nitrate levels were consistently higher, specifically on January 5, 2013 when the highest level in the entire 19-month monitoring period was recorded at 54.13 ppm. In Figure 25 below, the average nitrate levels recorded at each site during the 19-month monitoring period can be seen.

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From the figure above, BR-BIKE had the highest average nitrate levels throughout the entire monitoring period at 13.93 ppm. SC-PARK held the lowest average nitrate level at 6.29 ppm, followed by BR-CWB at 7.22 ppm and BR-PARK at 11.16 ppm. Sulfate levels for each sample taken during the monitoring period can be seen below in Figure 26.

Sulfate levels showed no real trend throughout the 19-month monitoring period. Levels did peak sporadically, however, including a large jump at all four levels on February 17, 2012, which is most likely attributed to a large rain event. On October 16, 2012, BR42

PARK experienced the largest peak out of all four sites during the entire monitoring period at 168.87 ppm. BR-BIKEs largest peak occurred on January 5, 2013 at 145.537 ppm. Figure 27 below portrays the average sulfate levels at all four sites during the 19month monitoring period.

From the figure above, BR-PARK held the highest average sulfate levels at 49.03 ppm, followed by BR-BIKE at 40.32 ppm, and BR-CWB at 35.42 ppm. SC-PARK held the lowest average sulfate level at 22.15 ppm.

Water Levels
Water levels were recorded from October 26, 2012 to March 1, 2013 in order to compare changes in recorded water quality parameters to storm events. A graph of the water level data collected can be seen below in Figure 28.

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Figure 28. Water levels collected from October 26, 2012 to January 16, 2013.

Nutrient Data Summary

Table 4, shown below, portrays the nutrient data collected by the Virginia Department of Environmental Quality (VADEQ) pre-restoration, at a site downstream of the farthest downstream monitoring site for this project, BR-CWB. Following this is the data collected by Matthew Penning from 6/2011 to 1/2012 labeled Matts Data. Below that is the data collected for the monitoring period of 2/2012 to 8/2012 by Erica Harriman (Ericas Data) and the data collected from 9/2012 to 1/2013 that pertains to this specific project (Shannas Data). The top number in each cell is the average of the data collected during the specified year. The bottom two numbers are the minimum and maximum of the data collected during the specified year. Between the monitoring period done by the VADEQ and Matts data, the nutrient levels decrease in the first three columns; Phosphorus, Chloride, and Sulfate. The bottom row of data however is higher than the previous. The Nitrate levels in Blacks Run at the VADEQ monitoring site were fairly low, but the levels found during Matts data collection were considerably higher. Out of the 19-month monitoring period, the levels of phosphorus and all three anions during this specific project (9/2012-1/2013) are the highest, although chloride levels did decrease from VADEQs data in 2001.

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Table 4: Summary of phosphorus and nutrient data collection from 2001-2013

Year 2001 (10 pts) 2002 (8 pts) 2003 (3 pts) 2005 (6 pts) 2006 (12 pts) 2007 (12 pts) 2008 (12 pts) 2009 (12 pts) Matts Data (BR-CWB) Ericas Data (BR-CWB) Shannas Data (BRCWB)

Phosphorus (mg/L) 0.029 (0.02|0.06) 0.055 (0.02|0.07) 0.037 (0.01|0.06) ---

Chloride (mg/L) 71.5 (23.3|153) -----

Sulfate (mg/L) 35.1 (26.3|48.2) -----

Nitrate (mg/L) 1.66 (0.43|6.29) 1.73 (0.29|3.98) 3.05 (2.3|3.98) 1.39 (0.44|3.17) 1.97 (1.13|3.24)

0.031 ---(0.02|0.06) 0.024 ---(0.01|0.04) 0.029 ---(0.01|0.1) 0.021 39.6 31.4 6.22 (0.0007|0.13) (12.7|56.0) (11.0|59.1) (1.17|14.25) 0.023 41.4 32.7 6.56 (0.005|0.057) (19.5|97.7) (10.8|117.8) (0.98|28.22) 0.048 56.51 44.31 9.35 (.111|0.006) (104.63|19.92) (84.026|13.621) (3.36|20.76)

Riparian Buffer Survey

Data collected during the tree survey that was conducted at Purcell Park between August and September of 2012 is portrayed below. Table 5 shows that 406 of the trees planted during the restoration were analyzed during the survey. Of these 406 trees, 288 (70.94%) were still alive and the average height was 76.63 inches.
Table 5: Summary of collected tree data

Summary Total Trees Average Height (in) Total Alive Percentage

406 76.63 288 70.94%

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Alive

Figure 29 depicts the trees based on the criteria of dead or alive. The trees that were recorded to be alive are marked as green and those counted as dead are portrayed in red. As stated in Table 5, 70.94% of the 406 trees initially surveyed were recorded as being alive.

Figure 29. Screenshot of trees recorded as dead vs. alive

In Table 6, it can be seen that of the 406 trees planted during the restoration that were surveyed, 141 trees were categorized as good, 129 were classified as fair, 18 as poor, and 118 were dead.
Table 6: Summary of tree conditions

Good 141 35%

Fair 129 32%

Poor 18 4%

Dead 118 29%

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Figure 30 below depicts the condition of each tree surveyed. Trees in good condition are portrayed as green, those in fair condition are yellow, those in poor condition are orange, and trees that are dead are marked with red.

Figure 30. Screenshot of trees portraying the recorded condition of each

Table 7 shows the identification of each tree surveyed, as well as the percentage of each species recorded. The average height of each species is also portrayed in the table. The number of Birch trees more than doubled that of any other species.
Table 7: Species identification of surveyed trees

Species Birch Dogwood Maple White Ash Oak Cottonwood Sycamore

Count Percentage Average Height (in) 112 37.46% 93.7 33 11.04% 68.3 32 10.70% 75.5 2 0.67% 53.0 29 9.70% 70.8 47 15.72% 163.4 44 14.72% 117.4

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Figure 31 portrays this data spatially, with each species comprising a different color. These colors and the corresponding species can be seen in the legend included in Figure 31 below.

Figure 31. Screenshot portraying each species recorded and the corresponding legend

Figure 32 represents the height recorded for each tree during the survey. The heights are displayed in blue and the empty tree tubes are portrayed with a white circle. The tallest tree is represented with a dark blue circlea cottonwood that measured 435 inches.

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Figure 32. Screenshot portraying tree height

Benthic Macroinvertebrate Survey

The benthic macroinvertebrate survey was conducted on October 5, 2012 at each of the four sites and the results are as follows:

BR-PARK
Table 8 below displays the number of each macroinvertebrate species collected at BRPARK. As can be seen, the majority of the population was beetles.
Table 8: Macroinvertebrate count for BR-PARK on 10/5/12

Macroinvertebrate Worm Crayfish Netspinner Beetle Lunged Snail Clam

Count 12 1 7 17 8 2

Table 9 is a breakdown of the individual metric scores for BR-PARK, which was calculated by following the Virginia SOS method outlined in Appendix III.
Table 9: Macroinvertebrate VA SOS Metric Scores for BR-PARK collection on 10/5/12

Metric Number 1 2 3 4 5 6

Metric Score 0 14.9 17 36.17 46.8 48.9

Index Score 0 2 0 2 2 0

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SC-PARK
Table 10 below displays the number of each macroinvertebrate species collected at SCPARK. As with BR-PARK, the majority of the collected population was beetles.
Table 10: Macroinvertebrate count for SC-PARK on 10/5/12

Macroinvertebrate Flatworm Crayfish Mayfly Beetle Clam

Count 9 2 3 37 5

Table 11 is a breakdown of the individual metric scores for SC-PARK, which was calculated by following the Virginia SOS method.
Table 11: Macroinvertebrate VA SOS Metric Scores for SC-PARK collection on 10/5/12

Metric Number 1 2 3 4 5 6

Metric Score 5.56 0 0 68.5 25.9 29.6

Index Score 0 2 2 2 2 0

BR-BIKE
Table 12 below displays the number of each macroinvertebrate species collected at BRBIKE, the majority of which are worms. The total sample population of 17 macroinvertebrates was the lowest out of all four sites and well under VA SOSs recommended population of 200 macroinvertebrates.
Table 12: Macroinvertebrate count for BR-BIKE on 10/5/12

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Macroinvertebrate Worm Leech Crayfish Mayfly Gilled Snail Lunged Snail

Count 6 4 4 1 1 1

Table 13 is a breakdown of the individual metric scores for BR-BIKE, which was calculated by following the Virginia SOS method.
Table 13: Macroinvertebrate VA SOS Metric Scores for BR-BIKE collection on 10/5/12

Metric Number 1 2 3 4 5 6

Metric Score 5.9 0 5.9 0 64.7 94.1

Index Score 0 2 0 0 0 0

BR-CWB
Table 14 below displays the number of each macroinvertebrate species collected at SCPARK. The majority of the collected population was worms.
Table 14: Macroinvertebrate count for BR-CWB on 10/5/12

Macroinvertebrate Worm Flatworm Mayfly Damselfly/Dragonfly Helgramites Lunged Snail Clam

Count 9 3 4 1 1 6 52

Table 15 is a breakdown of the individual metric scores for BR-CWB, which was calculated by following the Virginia SOS method.
Table 15: Macroinvertebrate VA SOS Metric Scores for BR-CWB collection on 10/5/12

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Metric Number 1 2 3 4 5 6

Metric Score 5.2 0 7.89 0 93.4 92.1

Index Score 0 2 0 0 0 0

Table 16 shows a summary of the VA SOS multimetric indices calculated for each of the four sites from the macroinvertebrate survey that occurred on October 5, 2012 compared to the macroinvertebrate survey previously conducted by Matthew Penning on Novemeber 11, 2011. These indices were calculated using each of the six individual metrics shown in tables 9, 11, 13, and 15, according to the VA SOS procedure.
Table 16: Macroinvertebrate VA SOS Multimetric Index scores and resulting ecological condition for all sites from the previous collection on 11/11/2011 and this projects collection on 10/5/12

Site BR-PARK (Restoration 1) SC-PARK (Restoration 2) BR-BIKE (Urban) BR-CWB (Rural)

Date of Survey 11/2/11 10/5/12 11/2/11 10/5/12 11/2/11 10/5/12 11/2/11 10/5/12

VA SOS Multimetric Index 4 6 9 8 4 4 2 4

Ecological Condition Unacceptable Unacceptable Acceptable Gray Zone Unable to Determine Unacceptable Unacceptable Unacceptable Unacceptable

Table 17 shows the population density for each of the four sites. This was based on the square area of the surber sampler and the resulting population that was collected. This number was then divided by the number of times the samples were collected, which was four per site. This does not take into the account the species of specimen collected as the VA SOS method does, but it does portray the differences in population density between sites, as well as the change in density from 2011 to 2012. BR-CWB comprised the highest population densities in both 2011 and 2012 at 16.5 specimen/ft2 and 19 specimen/ft2, respectively. Between 2011 and 2012, the population densities at both BRPARK and SC-PARK increased; BR-PARK rose from 5.255 specimen/ft2 to 11.75
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specimen/ft2 and SC-PARK climbed from 7.25 specimen/ft2 to 14 specimen/ft2. The only site to experience a decrease in population density was BR-BIKE, which fell from 11.75 specimen/ft2 to 4.25 specimen/ft2.

Table 17: Macroinvertebrate population density for all sites from the previous collection on 11/11/2011 and this projects collection on 10/5/12

Site BR-PARK SC-PARK BR-BIKE BR-CWB

Population Density (2011) 5.25 7.25 11.75 16.5

Population Density (2012) 11.75 14 4.25 19

Fish Species Survey

Table 18 displays the number of each fish species found at each site during the survey on March 15, 2013. At BR-BIKE, the number of individual fish collected and the number of different species both increased from 2008 to 2013, but all other sites experienced a slight decrease.
Table 18: Fish species data collection from DGIFs 2008 survey and the most recently collected data from 2013 BRPARK BR-CWB BIKE BR-BIKE PARK BR-CWB Species (2008) (2008) (2008) (2013) (2013) (2013) -DGIF -DGIF -DGIF Common Shiner Bluntnose Minnow White Sucker Green Sunfish Bluehead Chub Redbreast Sunfish Yellow Bullhead Blacknose Dace Long-Nosed Dace Margined Madtom Fathead Minnow Banded Killifish 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 11 0 0 0 0 40 9 10 0 28 0 0 116 2 0 0 0 44 66 16 2 18 14 0 49 0 0 11 6 15 49 12 10 25 5 2 6 0 0 0 0 15 23 8 0 8 6 4 0 0 0 0 0 37 5 0 0 18 19 2 0 0 1 0 0

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SPT Total Species Total

0 11 1

0 205 6

0 226 9

0 124 8

7 71 7

0 82 6

Data Analysis
Water Quality Parameters
General water quality measurements are an essential component when quantifying a streams overall health. Water quality standards are established by the U.S. EPA and are based on the designated uses of the water body. In the case of Blacks Run, the designated uses are listed as primary contact recreation and aquatic life. Nutrient load standards are set according to Total Maximum Daily Load (TMDL) analyses conducted by the VADEQ. These standards and maximum loads are put in place in order to protect both human and environmental health from outside sources. Although some parameters that were measured do not have federal or state regulations, their importance is still taken into account using general guidelines and/or recommendations.

Temperature
During the 19-month monitoring period, temperatures at all four sites ranged from 1C to 25C and averaged between 14-15C. The expected trends were followed and there were no extreme outliers. Because the Blacks Run watershed falls under VA DEQs category of Class 4 mountainous zone, it is recommended that freshwater temperatures do not exceed 31C (FOSR, 2012). During the entire 19-month monitoring period, no individual measurements exceeded this criterion. When comparing the average temperatures during summer and winter, BR-BIKE experienced the warmest temperatures during the winter months and the coldest during the summer months. This is most likely attributed to the influence of a nearby natural spring that feeds into Blacks Run near the urban setting. The BR-BIKE sample site also empties water that was channelized through an underground tunnel, which is significantly shaded from infrastructure. Due to this, the water near the urban setting is consistently cooler
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during the summer months and does not receive the adequate amount of sunlight necessary for aquatic plant growth. The channelization also aids in blocking cold winds, allowing for warmer water during the winter months. BR-CWB, the rural site, does not have a sufficient amount of vegetation, which allows the water at this site to warm easily in the summer months and cold winds to penetrate the surface of the stream in the winter.

Dissolved Oxygen
Another important water quality parameter is dissolved oxygen. DO is essential for the majority of aquatic organisms and is a primary indicator of the health of the aquatic plant population. During the duration of the 19-month period, every sample that was taken met the recommended criterion of 5 mg/L for healthy aquatic life and 4 mg/L west of the Blue Ridge Mountains (FOSR, 2012). The DO levels followed the expected trendlevels were higher during the winter months and warmer during the summer because colder water is able to hold more oxygen. BR-BIKE regularly held the lowest amount of dissolved oxygen, but levels continued to increase while moving downstream. Although levels at BR-BIKE never fell below 5 mg/L (besides the faulty DO probe on October 16, 2012), the consistently low average could be attributed to the deficiency of riffle sequences present in the stream. As levels increase further downstream, the number of riffle pools and in-stream structures also increase. It is also visually apparent that BR-BIKE has the lowest amount of vegetation and aquatic plant life, thus contributing to the lack of dissolved oxygen into the water.

pH
The optimal pH range for most aquatic life is between 6.5 and 8.0 and a measurement outside of this range has the potential to cause physiological and reproductive stress to aquatic organisms, thus negatively impacting the biological diversity of a water body. Due to the high amount of limestone in the Shenandoah Valley, however, the Virginia Water Quality standards have been adjusted to a range of 6.5 to 9.5 for Blacks Run (FOSR, 2012). During the 19-month monitoring period, no measurements exceeded or fell below the required range and are therefore in compliance. BR-BIKE consistently held the lowest pH levels out of all four sites, both in the bi-monthly and average measurements. As previously stated, the urban setting does not comprise a healthy riparian buffer and aquatic plant life is low. Due to this, there is an excess of carbon dioxide in the water body, which is a primary contributor to the sites low pH.

Specific Conductivity

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There are no federal or state regulations pertaining to specific conductivity levels in a water body, but it is an essential indicator of the amount of total dissolved solids, including phosphate, chloride, and nitrate levels. The recommended criterion for specific conductivity is between 150 and 500 S/cm, or 0.150 ms/cm to 0.500 ms/cm (USEPA, 1997). During the 19-month period, BR-CWB fell inside this healthy range the most at only 7 times. SC-PARK and BR-BIKE fell inside this range only once, while BR-PARK exceeded the standard each time. This portrays the high levels of dissolved solids in Blacks Run that are also apparent in the ion chromatography data.

Water Quality Parameters Phosphorus

Because phosphorus is not considered a human health hazard, there is no state or federal standard for levels in a water body. Phosphorus is an essential component of aquatic plant growth and is considered a limiting factor in freshwater. Because of this, any small fluctuation in phosphorus concentration has the potential to cause detrimental effects on an aquatic ecosystem. High levels of phosphorus allow for the proliferation of algae and aquatic plants, which then decompose and consume large amounts of dissolved oxygen (FOSR, 2012). This increase in phosphorus is often attributed to non-point source runoff as a result of fertilizers and other agricultural runoff. EPA water quality criteria states that phosphate levels should not exceed 0.1 mg/L in streams or flowing waters not discharging into lakes or reservoirs in order to control algal growth and support aquatic life (Bartenhagen, Turner, & Osmond, n.d.). Maximum diversity is listed at 0.01 mg/L for total phosphorus levels, which was frequently transcended. During the 19-month monitoring period, no average phosphorus levels exceeded the criterion of 0.1 mg/L, although individual bimonthly measurements often did. BR-PARK surpassed this criteria 5 times, followed by BRBIKE at 3 times, and SC-PARK and BR-CWB once. Although BR-PARK exceeded the criteria more often on an individual basis, BR-BIKE held the highest average phosphorus levels throughout the monitoring period. A number of phosphorus peaks were experienced during the spring months, when stormwater runoff often contains high levels of fertilizers. As of December 31, 2012, the state of Virginia has banned the sale of residential fertilizers that contain phosphorus. Because Blacks Run is so heavily impacted by agricultural and residential land use, this ban on phosphorus-containing fertilizers will most likely have a significant effect on the health of Blacks Run.

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Nitrate
As with phosphorus, nitrate is an essential component of aquatic plant growth and is often found in fertilizers. While phosphorus is considered a limiting factor in freshwater systems, nitrate is a limiting factor in saltwater. However, an alteration in the amount of nitrate present in a stream still has the potential to contribute to eutrophication and thusly, a decline in the amount of available dissolved oxygen. Unlike phosphorus, high levels of nitrate can cause negative health effects on humans, especially babies. Methernoglobinemia, otherwise known as Blue Baby Syndrome, greatly inhibits an infants ability to breathe and is caused by the ingestion of water with nitrate levels exceeding the Virginia WQS for drinking water 10 ppm (FOSR, 2012). As can be seen in Figures 24 and 25, bimonthly and average levels frequently exceeded the federal standard. Blacks Run is not a source of drinking water and these standards do not need to be met. However, Blacks Run eventually flows into the North River, which is used as a drinking supply to many residents in the area.

Chloride
Chloride is a common nutrient found in surface waters and is often dispersed into streams as a result of winter runoff from roads that have been treated with salt, as well as from agricultural areas. Because high levels of chloride do not pose any known human health hazard, the EPA categorizes this nutrient as a secondary drinking water standard and recommends a maximum concentration of 250 ppm (USEPA, 2012). During the entire 19-month monitoring period, no measurements exceeded this standard, even when samples were taken at their highest during storm events.

Sulfate
As with chloride, sulfate is classified as a secondary drinking water standard and has a recommended maximum concentration of 250 ppm (USEPA, 2012). It is known to produce a salty taste in drinking water at high concentrations. The data collected at all four sites during the 19-month monitoring period never exceeded the recommended 250 ppm.

Riparian Buffer Survey

The riparian buffer survey conducted at the primary restoration site in Purcell Park brought forth entirely positive results. 71% of the trees planted during the restoration that were surveyed were still alive, and 67% of those were considered to be in good or

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fair condition. As well as bank stabilization, sediment and nutrient filtration, and temperature regulation, these trees also provide essential habitat for a multitude of organisms, both aquatic and terrestrial. Numerous species were seen during the survey including garter snakes, mallards, cottontails, robins, and a number of insects. Figure 32 displays a few of the invertebrate species observed during the tree survey.

Figure 33. Invertebrate species observed during riparian buffer survey. From left to rightGrasshopper, Praying Mantis, Argiope Orb Spider.

SC-PARK consistently held the lowest levels of phosphorus, nitrate, and sulfate levels, which could be attributed to the large amount of vegetation present at this site. The healthy riparian buffer that was planted along both Blacks Run and its confluence with Seibert Creek proved to be vital in the filtration of nutrients. This buffer is also necessary in Purcell Park due to its proximity to baseball fields and playgrounds, which require fertilizers, pesticides, and continuous mowing. The native trees and grasses planted along the banks of Blacks Run were put in place to naturally filter nutrients and other pollutants entering the stream, as well as to slow the rate of water during storm events that result from the large amount of impervious surfaces upstream. The previously eroding banks were scaled back and the buffer was installed to in order to aid in bank stabilization. As seen in Figure 33, the high rate of runoff in downtown Harrisonburg during storm events is continuing to cause the erosion and flooding at the downstream sites, and some of the banks along Blacks Run have begun to erode again. The roots of the trees are unable to adhere to anything and

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eventually fall into the stream, contributing to the high sediment load that is inhibiting the aquatic life of Blacks Run.

Figure 34. Eroding banks after the restoration cause a tree to fall into Blacks Run.

Fish Species Survey

At the urban site, the number of individual fish collected and the number of different species both increased from 2008 to 2013, but all other sites experienced a slight decrease. A few new species were also found during this survey, including a margined madtom at the rural site and a yellow bullhead at the park site. Although the data was not completely compatible with DGIFs data from 2008 due to seasonal differences, beneficial information was still collected on species counts and individual numbers. In order to further determine the status of aquatic biota in Blacks Run, continued monitoring is essential. Kevin Weissgold and Dave DiPascale will maintain this portion of the project and continue data collection with the Virginia Department of Game and

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Inland Fisheries in the summer of 2013. Below is a photo of fish that were collected during the survey.

Figure 35. Fish collected during the survey conducted on March 15, 2013.

Conclusion

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After 19 months of monitoring, it is apparent that the condition of Blacks Run is improving but has a long way to go before it can be delisted as an impaired stream. One of the main reasons for Blacks Runs impaired listing is due to the poor quality of benthic aquatic life, which is primarily due to excessive nutrient and sediment loads. In both 2011 and 2012, the rural site downstream of the restoration comprised the highest macroinvertebrate population density. Between 2011 and 2012, the population density at the first restoration site significantly increased while the second site at the restoration dropped slightly, moving from the acceptable zone to the gray zone. The urban site held the lowest population density for both monitoring years. The fish survey portrayed an increase in the number of individual fish collected and the number of different species only at the urban site, while all other sites experienced a slight decrease. Due to seasonal differences in data collected by the Virginia Department of Game and Inland Fisheries from 2008, this projects data collection is not entirely comparable. Continuation of this survey is crucial in determining whether or not the fish population of Blacks Run is being restored. The riparian buffer survey proved to be the most successful of all the parameters monitored with a 71% survival rate out of the 406 trees surveyed. The implementation of this vegetative buffer not only provides bank stability and inhibits the flow rate of water during storm events, it also allows for the natural filtration of nutrients and other pollutants entering Blacks Run. From the bimonthly water quality monitoring and ion chromatography data, it is clear that much of the impairments on Blacks Run are introduced in the upstream, urban location. The urban setting consists of the lowest amount of vegetation and aquatic plant life, thus contributing to the multitude of impairments found at that site. Over the course of 19 months, this area had the lowest levels of dissolved oxygen and pH, and the highest concentrations of nitrogen and phosphorus. These negative implications eventually affect the rest of Blacks Run as the water moves downstream to the other sites. Although Blacks Run is also impacted by other non-point sources of runoff, especially in the downstream rural site, none are as significant as the 66% of downtown Harrisonburg that drains into the stream. Multiple best management practices (BMPs) such as rain gardens have already been implemented in order to reduce high-flow storm events. However, some of the stream banks that were previously scaled back to prevent erosion have begun to wear away yet again. It is essential that more BMPs and pervious surfaces be established near Blacks Run in order to prevent the cycle of erosion from reoccurring. Continued data monitoring is also essential to track the progress of the restoration in order to mitigate the anthropogenic effects on the stream and to ensure that the integrity of the restoration at Blacks Run will not be compromised.

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Appendix IPhosphorus Protocol

Based on the Total Phosphorus Method for Low Concentrations in Water APHA Method 4500-P (B&E) Revised by Matt Penning Preparation Acid Wash the Glassware Fill a tub full with 1% HCl acid wash Gather the necessary glassware for the phosphorus run o [1] Erlenmeyer flask, [1] 50 mL volumetric flask, and [1] 100 mL volumetric flask for EACH standard and sample to be analyzed For example: Blank, Std 1, Std 2, Std 3, Std 4, Std 5, Std 6, = [7] Erlenmeyer flasks, [7] 50 mL volumetric flasks, and [7] 100 mL volumetric flasks = [21] pieces of glassware total o [4] 100 mL graduated cylinders

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o [1] 500 mL volumetric flask o [2] spectrometer cuvettes Submerge the glassware in the acid bath, wait 15 minutes, and rinse out each individual piece of glassware with DI water Place the rinsed out glassware on a tray to dry

Gathering of Materials Grab samples from the freezer or refrigerator o If frozen, add samples to a tub filled with warm water to thaw Grab the black container with opaque HDPE and dark, glass-stoppered bottles from Dr. Brents cabinet From the glassware/pipet storage closet, gather the following: o [1] 5-50 L micro-pipet (orange knob), along with the small pipet tips (in a yellow top box) o [1] 1-5 mL milli-pipet (grey knob), along with the large pipet tips (in a clear Ziploc bag) o Box of transfer pipets/droppers In Freds chemical closet: o Phenolpthalein indicator (small bottle encased in aluminum foil) o Potassium persulfate (K2S2O8) o Ascorbic acid o Ammonium molybdate (NH4)6MO7O244H2O o Potassium antimonyl tartrate K(SbO)C4H4O61/2H2O o Phosphorus stock solution o Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) o Sulfuric acid (H2SO4) Other materials scattered around lab: o [1] weigh tray for EACH standard and sample to be analyzed o Scale o Safety gloves o Parafilm (stretchy wax paper) o Spectrometer o DI water jug o DI squirt bottle o Kwik wipes Procedure Organize glassware in rows of Erlenmeyer flasks, 50 and 100 mL volumetric flasks, with the respective standard and sample glassware lined up accordingly Make the (Initial) Reagents as necessary o 1 M NaOH 20 g NaOH in 500 mL OR 4 g NaOH in 100 mL o 30 % Sulfuric acid Fill the 500 mL volumetric flask with 300 mL of DI water Add 150 mL of H2SO4 to 500 mL volumetric flask of DI Fill to volume with DI water

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o Phenolphthalein indicator solution (if necessary) In a 250 mL volumetric flask, prepare by dissolving 0.10 g in 188 mL reagent ethanol Dilute to volume with DI water Pour the samples into respective 50 mL volumetric flasks Prepare the standards in respective 100 mL volumetric flasks, in this order: [Conc]: o Std 6 = 40 L of Phosphorus stock, fill to volume with DI water [0.400 ppm] o Std 5 = 20 L of Phosphorus stock, fill to volume with DI water [0.200 ppm] o Std 4 = 10 L of Phosphorus stock, fill to volume with DI water [0.100 ppm] o Std 3 = 5 L of Phosphorus stock, fill to volume with DI water [0.050 ppm] o Std 2 = 6.25 mL of Std 6, fill to volume with DI water [0.025 ppm] o Std 1 = 2.5 mL of Std 6, fill to volume with DI water [0.010 ppm] o Blank = All DI water [0.000 ppm] Transfer standards into 50 mL volumetric flasks Transfer standards and samples into 125 mL Erlenmeyer flask Add 1 drop of phenolphthalein solution to each sample and standard o If a pink color is observed, add small drops of acid solution to decolorize Add 1 mL of 30% (H2SO4) to each sample and standard use the tall pipet with the green attachment Measure out 0.5 g K2S2O8 in weigh trays and add to each sample/standard Digest samples/standards on a hot plate at a setting of 7-8; be careful not to allow any splatter o In the meantime, make combined reagent (see Combined Reagents section) Allow the flasks to cool to near room temperature, and then add about 20 mL of DI water using squirt bottle to bring the total volume to about 30 mL Add 1 drop of phenolphthalein and swirl gently to mix Add drops of 1 M NaOH solution using dropper until faint pink is apparent and lasts more than a couple of minutes when swirled gently o Usually takes at least 5 full squeezes of M NaOH dropper Transfer to a 100 mL volumetric flask Dilute to volume with DI water (add so therell be 100 mL) Pipet 50 mL of the sample/standard back into the Erlenmeyer flasks Add 1 drop of phenolphthalein o If pink or red, add drops of 2.5 M sulfuric acid until color disappears Pipet 8 mL of combined reagent and mix thoroughly Set spectrometer to 880 nm Adjust the spectrometer with the Blank (tear/zero it) Collect the absorbance data 10 minutes after adding the combined reagent, but before 30 minutes

Data Analysis Graph the calibration curve plot the blank/standards concentrations on the X-axis and their corresponding absorbances on the Y-axis

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o Generate the linear regression line and equation (set the intercept = 0) o Rearrange the trendline equation to solve for the concentration o Plug the samples absorbance values into the rearranged trendline equation to determine the samples unknown concentrations (Combined) Reagent Solutions and Instructions 2.5 M sulfuric acid (H2SO4) solution o Fill the 500 mL volumetric flask with 400 mL of DI water o Slowly add 70 mL of concentrated sulfuric acid to the 500 mL volumetric flask of DI water o Allow to cool, fill to 500 mL with DI water, then transfer to a clean HDPE bottle Ammonium molybdate solution o Dissolve 20 g of (NH4)6MO7O244H2O in 500 mL of DI water o Store in a dark, glass-stoppered bottle 0.1 M ascorbic acid solution o Dissolve 1.76 g of ascorbic acid in 100 mL of DI water o Store in a opaque plastic bottle Potassium antimonyl tartrate solution o Fill the 500 mL volumetric flask with 400 mL of DI water o Dissolve 1.3715 g K(SbO)C4H4O61/2H2O in the 500 mL volumetric flask of DI water o Fill to 500 mL with DI water o Store in a dark, glass-stoppered bottle Combined reagent (200 mL) make in plastic bottle labeled Combined Reagent o Add 100 mL of 2.5 M sulfuric acid solution o Add 10 mL of potassium antimonyl tartrate solution o Add 30 mL ammonium molybdate o Add 60 mL 0.1 M ascorbic acid solution

Appendix IIVirginia Tree Species Identification

Oak

Figure 1: Blackjack Oak

Figure 2: Black Oak

Figure 3: Chestnut Oak

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Figure 4: Northern Red Oak Figure 5: Pin Oak

Figure 6: Post Oak

Figure 7: Scarlet Oak

Figure 8: White Oak

Sycamore

Figure 9: Sycamore

Ash

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Figure 10: Green Ash

Figure 11: White Ash

Cottonwood

Figure 12: Eastern Cottonwood

Birch

Figure 13: Black Birch

Figure 14: River Birch

Figure 15: Yellow Birch

Redbud

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Figure 16: Redbud

Dogwood

Figure 17: White Dogwood

Maple

Figure 18: Red Maple

Figure 19: Silver Maple

Figure 20: Sugar Maple

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Appendix IIIVirginia SOS Field Guide, Metric, and Index

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71

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Appendix IVFish Species Identification

Blacknose Dace

Bluehead Chub

Fathead Minnow

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Redbreast Sunfish

Common Shiner

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Green Sunfish

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White Sucker

Bluntnose Minnow

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Banded Killifish

Bluegill

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Bullhead Catfish

Largemouth Bass

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Citations
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knowledge and the search for a cure. Journal of the North American Benthological Society: September 2005, Vol. 24, No. 3, pp. 706-723. USEPA. 1997. Volunteer Stream Monitoring: A Methods Manual, EPA 841-B-97-003, September. Office of Wetlands, Oceans, and Watersheds, 4503F, Washington, DC 20460. Kelly, Fred. (2001). Restoration of Urban Streams: Practical Evaluation of Options for 319(h) Funded Projects by: Fred Kelly, Resource Conservationist, USDA-NRCS. http://www.nj.gov/dep/watershedrestoration/docs/restoration-of-urban-streams.pdf Dubrovsky, N.M., and Hamilton, P.A., 2010, Nutrients in the Nations streams and groundwater: National Findings and Implications: U.S. Geological Survey Fact Sheet. 20103078, 6 p. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2010/3078/ Helfman, Gene S. Fish Conservation: A Guide to Understanding and Restoring Global Aquatic Biodiversity and Fishery Resources. (2007). Washington, D.C.: Island Press. eBook. <books.google.com/books?isbn=1597267600>. Stranko, S. A., Hilderbrand, R. H., & Palmer, M. A. (2011). Comparing the fish and benthic macroinvertebrate diversity of restored urban streams to reference streams. Restoration Ecology, doi: 10.1111/j.1526-100X.2011.00824.x Domenech, D. W., Paylor, D. K., & Owens, A. T. Department of Environmental Quality, State Water Control Board. (2013). Enforcement action-order by consent issued to george's foods, llc (NPDES-var05). Retrieved from website: http://www.deq.state.va.us/Portals/0/DEQ/Enforcement/FinalOrders/georges food executed cso.pdf Sipos, C. (2013, January 18). George's faces fine for runoff. Daily News Record Online. Retrieved from http://www.dnronline.com/articles/print_preview/george_s_faces_fine_for_runoff Roni, P., Beechie, T. J., Bilby, R. E., Leonetti, F. E., Pollock, M. M., & Pess, G. R. (2002). A review of stream restoration techniques and a hierarchical strategy for prioritizing restoration in pacic northwest watersheds. North American Journal of Fisheries Management, 22:120, Retrieved from http://www.crab.wa.gov/LibraryData/RESEARCH_and_REFERENCE_MATERIAL/ Environmental/020923StreamRestoreTechPNW.pdf Reale, J. (2012). Urban streams. Retrieved from http://riverrestoration.wikispaces.com/Urban streams

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Clar, M. (2001). Stormwater strategies: Low impact development. Retrieved from http://www.nrdc.org/water/pollution/storm/chap12.asp Blacks run greenway master plan. (2002). Retrieved from http://www.harrisonburgva.gov/blacks-run-greenway-plan Friends of the Shenandoah River. (2012). Water quality analysis parameters. Retrieved from http://www.fosr.org/data/WaterParameters.cfm Bartenhagen, K., Turner, M., & Osmond, D. (n.d.).Phosphorus. Retrieved from http://www.water.ncsu.edu/watershedss/info/phos.html U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (2012). Secondary drinking water regulations: guidance for nuisance chemicals. Retrieved from http://water.epa.gov/drink/contaminants/secondarystandards.cfm

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