724

IEEE Transactions on Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation

Vol. 6 No. 5. October 1999

Formation and Characterization of Dry Bands in Clean Fog on Polluted Insulators

D. L. Williams, A. Haddad, A. R. Rowlands, H. M. Young and R. T. Waters
Electrical Division, Schwi of Engineering, University ol Wales Cardill, Cardill, UK

ABSTRACT
The formation and development of dry bands can best be studied by modifying the standard test procedures. When such controlled behavior is allied with synchronized optical and electrical recordings, then characterization of the pre-formative leakage current, the transient phenomena associated with partial arcs across dry bands, the location of partial arcs and the voltage drop across dry bands can be determined. Interpretation of test data is greatly aided by finite element computation of insulating structures with a conducting surface layer. When this layer is continuous, this allows straightforward prediction of dry band formation under wetting conditions. Following formation, dry bands can be represented by discontinuities in this i t h the test data, enables layer. Simulation of dry bands with various lengths, when combined w partial arc voltage gradients to be quantified. These results will be discussed in the context of previous work on the pollution flashover mechanism of ceramic insulators.

1 INTRODUCTION
to environmental pollution on electricity networks have increased with network sizes and industrial emissions. Increasingly,generation is being created in coastal sites for easy access to cooling water and transport olfuel (gas). This has led to severe saline pollution and sea fog threats. When first installed, an insulator is essentially non-conductive, but with deposited air-borne particles a pollution layer will be formed on its surface. Such a layer is composed of largely inert and often conductivecompounds such as carbon, metal oxides and salts. The layer may form a conductive path, usually in the presence of moisture. The resulting current flow under system voltages will cause dry banding, partial arcing and may lead to complete flashover. Thereis anextensive and well-established literature [l-311 on the performance of ceramic insulators under polluted conditions. Investigations have been conducted under direct, alternating and impulse voltage conditions [Z-6,251. However, repeatability of the earlier tests was difficult. For this reason, a Joint Task force of IEEE and CIGRE working groups was formed to define more rigidly a clean fog test procedure which would be adequate for widespread use and adoption as standard. A final report was published by the task force in 1987 (71, summarizing test results obtained at nine different laboratories on polluted ceramicinsulators using the clean fog method. This document was used in the revision of IEC 507 - 1991 [E]. This standard is used as a basis for the work presented in this paper. Many researchers have formulated models to evaluate the process of electrical discharge leading to a complete flashover of the insulator. These models can be categorized according to the type of voltage considered. One of the first dc models was described by Obenaus [9] in which

AILURES due

a uartial arc is simulated in series with a resistor reoresentine the ~ 0 1 1 ~ tion. The model was then improved by Neumarker [IO]who assumed a uniform pollution layer. Sundararajan and Gorur [ll]further developed this approach to consider non-uniform pollution layers and to include Hamptons criterion [I21 for arc propagation. Recent work (131on this concept of gradient criterion claims that Hamptons criterion (that the field in the pollution layer is higher than that in the arc Ep2 Ea) is not a sufficient condition for complete flashover to take place. Rizk [14] gives an excellent review of the mathematical approaches used to model insulators under polluted conditions. Under alternating voltages, the arcing of polluted insulators is different from that under direct voltages since arc re-ignition is required after current zeros. Rizk 1141 summarized ac models under energy re-ignition models and dielectric re-ignition models and indicated good agreement with experiments. The dc approach yielded much lower values for minimum flashover voltages. It is clear that existing models provide a means of rationalizing experiments but cannot substitute for testing; many parameters (temperature, nature of pollutant, particle size, wetting, etc.) are inevitably neglected for simplification of models.
Y L

Other analytical models have been published also. In [4], the charge simulation method was used to study the electrical field around a polluted insulator under ac and impulse stresses. Similar high stresses are shown at the edges of dry bands irrespective of their location on the insulator surface. Power frequency voltages caused higher stress than switching and lightning impulses. Cline et al. [15] used a neural network technique to predict imminence of flashover on substation insulators. The system uses input from an ultrasound monitor and a leakage current transducer. These authors [I51showed that 89%correct pre-

1070-98781991 $3.00 0 1999 IEEE

IEEE Transactions on Dielectrics and Electncal Insulation

Vol. 6 No. 5, October 1999

725

dictions were given by their system under safe operation of the system taneously with the applied voltage is possible. It is shown that simple but only 75% correct predictions were made under hazardous operation partial arc models can account for the measured dependence of dry band when the voltage level is closer to flashover voltage. Naito et al. [16] length on the applied voltage. In addition, electrodynamic finite eleused a static probabilistic approach to evaluate the contamination per. ment modeling (FEM) software [17] was used to simulate the tested informance of insulators based upon the equivalent salt deposit density sulator with its pollution layer and to predict dry band formation and development. The critical conditions of voltage and dry band length for (ESDD) and the relative humidity insulator flashover provide data for comparison with dc and ac arc models.

2 TEST FACILITY
Since artificial pollution tests were first devised in the 1960s, utilities and insulator companies throughout the world have constructed fog chambers ranging in size from 10 to 1000m3. The fog chamber used for the tests described here is shown in Figure 1. The chamber is manufactured from polypropylene and has a volume of 12 m3. The electrode arrangement within the chamber was designed to provide an axi-symmetric system to aid computational modeling. The test and measurement circuit is shown in Figure 2. The test voltage is supplied by a 220/100 kV, 7.5 kVA single phase test transformer. For flashover tests, limitations in the power source ratings can be overcome by additional shunt capacitance [30]. Voltage and leakage current waveforms were obtained via a capacitive divider (83001) and measuring resistance. Both were recorded on a digital storage oscilloscope. In addition to electrical measurements, a visual analysis is also conducted using a high-resolution camera and video recording system. The camera can operate in low illumination levels and has a 15 to 150 mm motorized zoom lens. Images seen by the camera are recorded on an S-VHS time-lapse video recorder. Periods of up to 483 h can be monitored to record any discharge activity The visual measurement system continuously monitors the test object. A system has been developed [18] to synchronize the electrical and visual signals recorded throughout each test (see Figure 3).

I Figure 1 , Schematic layout of fog chamber. (1) HV conductor, (2) Fog chamber shell, (3) Pressure outlet, (4) Spray nozzles; (5) Viewing door, (6) Test insulator, (7) Isolating insulator; (8) Leakage current: to shunt resistor; (9) grounding mesh; (10) Sump, (11)Water purge nozzles.

3 CLEAN FOG POLLUTION TESTS

Figure 2. Circuit diagram of the test setup. (1)Voltage regulator, (2) Isolating transformer, (3)Low-pass filter, (4) Test kansformer, (5)HV arm of resistive divider, (6) Capacitive divider, (7) Current limiting resistor, (8) Test insulator; (9) Variable measuring resistance, (10)Protection circuit: gas discharge tube, metal oxide varistor, fast transient suppressor; (11)to digital storage oscilloscope; (12) to rms voltmeter. Several artificial methodologies exist, two of which have become standardized [8]. One uses a salt fog and the other a clean fog on a preapplied pollution layer. This work was conducted using clean fog procedures for maximum controllability (see Flow Chart, Figure 13).

3.1 PREPARATION
A solid laver uollutant of Kaolin composition is audied to the test samples by ;dipping method. Table 1g i k details ofpollutant quantities used in these tests. The wetting rate was set prior to the layer conductivity assessment. A moderate wetting rate was employed for these tests (water-flow rate of 3.5 l/h and nozzle air pressure of 0.14 MPa). Table 2 summarizes the setting for the fog chamber. Figure 4 shows the measured wetting rates.

The oresent exoerimentation is desimed to vield not onlv flashover voltages but to foilow the formation anYd the development &dry bands during clean fog tests on polluted ceramic insulators. The solid layer method was adopted in the test program. In addition to monitoring the voltage and current signals, a synchronizedvisualmonitoringsystem is used, which allows the study of dry bands and their arcing in a unique way Consequently the measurement of the arc (dry band) length simul-

726

Williams et al.: Formation and Characterization of Dry Bands

Table 1, Characteristicsof inert materials used in solid layer suspension. Composition in %wt,size in pm.
Composition Grand omet cy material type A1203 I Si02 IFez03 Other oxides particle size

0.5% >IO 0.01% >55

Kaolin
38
48

0.G

13.4

98%>44

Table 2. Input rates for wetting action tests.

2C

40

60

80

iM

IZO

T h e ( t I mimites

4 4 2

Figure 4. Wetting ratecurves, and DB2. A linear relationship exists between the test voltage and dry band length. The dry band length was approximated from the surface creepage length over which partial arcs extended. The points at which partial arc discharges terminated were noted from the video sequences, and the partial-arc length was deduced geometrically The total creepage length of this insulator was 32 cm.

high v0Itase

+ l + l
4
3A

+ 1

?cl tI

, o
0 0

. . .
" "

..

...

..

' ' ' ' 1 ' , , ' l ' , , , J , , ' , I , , / ,

4 8 6 Drybandlength ( x ) em

10

I2

Figure 3. Synchronization system (1)Fog chamber; (2) Test insulator; (3) Fiber optic line; (4) Light emitting diode (5) Signal (6)Measuring unit (7)Camera, (8)Video recorder (9) monitor (10)Digital storage oscilloscope (11)Computer for electrical data acquisition;(12)Computer for visual data acquisition.

Figure 5. The variation of partial arc voltage with dry band length,

3.2 HVTESTS
To investigate dry band formation and development, a modified method of test voltage application was adopted. The test voltage is applied in 2% steps from zero to the point at which insulator flashover is imminent. Each step is maintained for a period of 1min. Ifno dry band discharge (partial arc) is observed within this time, then the voltage is increased. If partial arcs are observed, then the test voltage is maintained until the partial arcs cease for a further minute or the partial arc length appears constant. This procedure was used specifically to investigate the relationship between dry band length and the test voltage.

5 COMPARISON WITH PARTIAL-ARC MODELING AND FLASHOVER CRITERIA

The experimental data of Figure 5 were acquired along with recording of the partial-arc peak current (typically 50 mA) with low-voltage leakage-current measurements. At the pollution levels used in the tests, leakage currents were -1 mA at 0.5 kV. These studies provide a direct opportunity to quantify the dc and ac partial arc theories referred to in Section 1. Thus, the dc theory of Obenaus [9] and Nenmarker [lo]correlates the applied voltage U , the partial-arc length 2,the arc current i and the leakage path resistance. The resistance per unit length rP is assumed to be constant over the whole insulator leakage path L. Then a static-arccharacteristic, reduced here for present purposes to a simple inverse form

4
U

U,,, = (1) i Fieure 5 shows the results of drv band measurements conducted on with A constant. willvield theNeumarker relationshivbetween aDolied . , two identical standard-profile cap-and-pin insulators referred to as DB1 voltage and the maximum sustainable partial-arc length (simplified for
I I

DRY BAND LENGTH MEASUREMENTS

Ax

IEEE Transactions on Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation

the given U,,, function)

Vol. 6 No. 5, October 1999

727

1201 that their usage in fog/wet environment is affected by surface wet-

ting of the optical crystal. Computation of field and voltage changes can be accurately achieved A critical flashover voltage criterion U = U, can be obtained by by commerciallyavailable software provided that correct input data are setting dU/dx = 0. This provides several verifiable relationships for provided. Billings and Storey [21] were among the first investigators to use numerical techniques to compute the voltage distribution on polU,, the critical partial-arc length z , and the critical current i,. luted insulators. They showed that following the formation of a dry 5.1 PARTIAL-ARC LENGTH band, local stresses rose tenfold from 0.4 kV/cm to 4 kV/cm which was suggested as an explanation of some punctures observed on insulators. The straightforward criterion Two recent studies [22,23] use the finite element technique to calculate L zc= (3) voltage and field on porcelain bushings. They both provide valuable in2 formation on local changes and their correlation to observed phenomena compares with the measured values zc = 11cm and L = 32 cm. and measured quantities. However, it should be emphasized that since pollution of insulators is not uniform [31],only idealized conditions can 5.2 PARTIAL-ARC CURRENT be simulated accurately Here, we model the growth of the dry band using a commercially available finite element software [17]and compare the results with the measurements shown in earlier Sections.
(4)

The average peak arc current for the polluted insulator was -50 mA. Since thevalue~fr~fromthelow-voltageleakagetestswas-15 kWcm, A cap-and-pin insulator as shown in Figure 6 is used in the test protherelationship fori, willbesatisfiedbyachoiceof A-37. Thisisrea- gram and modeled to study the dry band development. For consistency sonable but not directly justifiable. It can, however, be used to calculate with the artificial pollution tests conducted in the fog chamber, the cap a flashover voltage value as follows. electrode was modeled as the HV terminal and the pin as the low voltage terminal. 5.3 FLASHOVER VOLTAGE On the recommendation of the insulator manufacturer [24], the sandcement sections, which secure the electrodes to the insulating body, U, = L& (5) were not considered as separate regions. Instead, they were modeled Using A = 37, a voltage of U, = 24 kV is obtained, which underes- as an extension of the adjacent electrode regions. The pollution layer is considered to be uniform and of 0.5 m m thickness. timates the value of -40 kV generally found here. Rizk [14] has already noted the underestimate of flashover voltage usually yielded by dc arc models. He pointed out that maintenance of the low-current partial arc under alternating voltages requires sufficient voltage to re-ignite the arc after current zeros. Such maintenance by reignition has been found in present tests. Rizk analyzed the minimum requirement for dielectricbreakdown of the arc path for a uniformly polluted insulator, and obtained a relationship U, = 23Lrj.4 (6) This gives U, = 35 kV for the present data, which is closer to the measured values than the dc model.

6.1

INSULATOR PROFILE

$1

52

SI

(7)0.32m (CAP)
(6) 0.27 m (11 n m (PIN)-

6 FINITE ELEMENT MODELING OF DRY BAND DEVELOPMENT

It is now well known that the flashover mechanism of an insulator can be described in four basic stages: conduction, dry band formation, dry band arcing and insulator flashover. During these four stages, both electric field and voltage distributions along the insulator surface change significantly Measurement of electric field distribution along insulator lengths has been the subject of many investigations [19]. Metallic probes are known to distort the field causing urobes. " anerror in the measurement. ODtical . I on the other hand, have an advantage in that they do not interfere with the field distribution when introduced in a circuit. However, it is found

(21 0.05m '

010.10m'~ (410.17m

Figure 6. Insulator profile and dimensions

6.2

MATERIAL PROPERTIES

The electrical urouerties of the materials used in this comuutation are summarized in Table 3 below These values are similar to those used in [23]. When conducting artificial pollution tests, the HV stress

728

Williams et al.: Formation and Characterization of Dry Bands

Table 3.Material properties used for modeling the cap and pin insulator.

1.0

"T
0

"

'

. . ." ..,,' "

' .~
~

"

. '. , ." . ." , . . ,' . ' . .

~

El-" runare VDnVMSYrioir

' 1 'A'^
,

7
..
0.35

.. ...

is applied to the insulator during the period of maximum conductivity, which is determined from the wetting rate tests. At this instant, the leakage current on the insulator surface is mainly resistive. The maximum conductivity is obtained when the dry pollution layer saturates withwaterhencetheuseofrelativepermittivityof 80. Aconductanceof 6 ~ 1 0 S/m - ~ was measured during the tests with a salt deposit density (SDD) of 0.07 mgicm'.

..

..

0.05

0.10

0,lS

0.20

Crespagepach ( X I in

.
0.21

0.30

Figure 8. Computed voltage distributions for clean and polluted insu-

over 10%of the creepage path. When the insulator is polluted, the resistive leakage current redistributes the voltage and smoothes,as expected, The field and voltage distributions were first computed for a clean the undulations seen on the clean insulator voltage profile. However, and uniformly polluted insulator surface without dry bands. A unit the stress at both the cap and pin terminals is reduced only marginally voltage is applied to the cap while the pin is held at zero potential. Fig- As can be seen in Figure 8, this very non-uniform voltage distribution ures 7(a) and 7(b) show the computed equipotentials for the two cases. will result in extremely high electric field magnitudes around the cap The resulting voltage and modulus of the electric field profiles along the and pin regions. These magnitudes can be sufficient for the formation of dry bands. surface are shown in Figure 8.

6.3

VOLTAGE AND ELECTRIC FIELD PROFILES

lators

For the clean insulators, individual equipotential lines cross the insulator profile, hence causing the undulations seen on the voltage profile. These undulations are accompanied by electric field reversal along the surface at the insulator skirts, i.e. lines can be directed either from air into porcelain or from porcelain out to air (see Figure 9).
The cause of the peaks on the field curve of the polluted surface is not immediatelyapparent from the equipotential plot but they arise because the field lines at these locations (5,lO and 17 cm) lie along the surface.

7 PREDICTION OF DRY BAND LOCATIONS

7.1 POWER CONSIDERATIONS
It is now widely accepted that, as shown on simplified flat plate systems [25-271, non-uniform moisture loss and pollution layers of IOW resistance promote dry band formation. The energy necessary for dry band formation is determined by surface Conductivity and the applied test voltage [28].
Dry band formation is essentially governed by the power dissipated in the pollution layer due to ohmic heating as against the rate of moisture deposition on the polluted surface. The ohmic heating is the source of the rate of energy dissipation needed for evaporation. Since the evaporation rate must not be less than the wetting rate, we have [29] Figure 7. Computed equipotential lines (a) clean insulator surface,(b) P, = uE2t, (7) polluted insulator surface. P, = l w (8) From the above Figures, it can be seen that more than 75% of the volt- where P, is the power dissipated per square meter along the pollution age fallisconcentrated between thepinelectrodeand the first inner skirt layer (Wim'). Pe is the power per square meter necessary to evaporate (S1 onFigure 6), viz. over 40% of the total creepage path. Almost 10% a unit mass of water (W/m2). E is the electric field strength along the of the voltage fall is concentrated around the cap electrode extending pollutionlayer (V/m). U is theconductivity of the pollutionlayer (S/m).

IEEE Transactions on Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation

Vol. 6 No. 5, October 1999

270

729

tpis the thickness of the pollution layer (m). 2 is the latent heat of vaporization of water, 2270 Jig. w is the wetting rate. A typical value for win the present tests is 0.01 g/m2s.
7.2

DRY BAND INITIATION CRITERION

120

Pa = 22.7 Wim'
0

60

0 . a

0.10

0.15 0.m Creopvgspnth ( X I m

0.25

0.30

0.35

a = 6x10-'
1.2
I I

Figure 10. Thevariationof theohmicheatlngalong theinsulatorprofile; Slm, V = 14 kV, t, = 0.5 mm.

I I , / , / , , , I , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,

0 " 0

"

'

'

"

"

"

'

"

'

'

"

'

'

'

'

0.05

0.10

0.15

0.20

0.25

0.30

0.15

Creepage path ( x ) m

Figure 11, Computed voltage profiles with and without dry band.

Figure 9. Computed electric field direction around the insulator skirts (a) clean insulator surface, (b) polluted insulator surface.

along the profile. The larger dry band appears at the pin and has a length of 24 mm, the second dry band occurs at 0.045 m and has a length of 2 mm, and third starts at the 0.3 m location on the surface and ends at the insulator cap (0.32 m ) . Experimental evidence has shown that partial arcs associated with dry band formationwerefirst observedin the regionoftheinsulator pin, with the length of this dry band being 25 mm (Figure5). No further dry bands were observed anywhere else along the insulator profile. This result is almost certainly caused by the shape of the cap-and-pin insulator which contributes to an imbalance in the wetting rate between the upper and lower surfaces. Downward flow of excess condensation from the insulator cap leads to the upper surface receiving a higher wetting rate.

7.3

COMPUTED LOCATIONS OF DRY BANDS

DRY BAND ELONGATION MODELING

8.1 DRY BAND VOLTAGE DROP

On formation of the initial dry band, the majority of the applied voltage is distributed across it. This produces a large non-uniform field and partial arcs traversing the dry band. The partial arcs cause further drying of the surrounding pollution layer due to the high field intensity associated with the arc root of each discharge.

The P, value of 22.7 W/mZwas determined from the wetting rate, which in turn was derived from the test chamber characteristic fog output during standard tests [29]. The horizontal linerepresenting this value intersectsthe ohmic power curve at three points, &plying that three dry bands may be firmed

730

Williams et al.: Formation and Characterizationof Dry Bands

This work compares dry band growth as shown experimentally in Figure 5 with that generated from the computer model. Two different stages of the dry band formation were modeled, each with eight dry band lengths of 25,45,54,65,74,82,93 and 110 mm. For each one of these dry bands, the voltage is redistributed along the insulator surface causing a large voltage drop across the dry band. Figure 1 1 shows the change introduced by a dry band 25 mm long. The drying process on the insulator surface can be represented by a region (equivalent to the dry band length) whose electrical properties are changing from the very conductive state when the pollution layer is wet to the non-conducting phase following dry band formation. For this model, we consider two stages of the dry band formation; the final non-conducting phase is simulated using air parameters (E? = 1,U = 2 ~ l O - S/m) l ~ while an intermediate phase is represented with relative permittivity E~ = 10 and conductivity D = 6 ~ 1 0 - S/m ' ~ [23]. These models are referred to as Model 1 and Model 2 respectively

Clean Test Object

Pollutant

Suspension to Test Object

Uniformity Test

8.2 VOLTAGE DEPENDENCE OF DRY BAND LENGTH

The voltage drop across each dry band was determined from the perunit voltage along the insulator profile of each computation. To convert these values to absolute voltages a straight-line approximation of the experimental data was used (Figure 5). The voltage by which each perunit value was multiplied was determined by interpolation from Figure 5, using the creepage pathlength that was equivalent to the dry band length being modeled.

Wetting Rate o f Fog Chamber

Degree of Pollution Tests

I+
Figure 12. Dry band voltage drop (model values) applied test voltage is also shown as broken curve.

High Voltage

Figure 13. Flow chart overview of solid layer method (IEC 507 181.

examine published dc and ac models of the partial arc, and suggest that ac arc re-ignition is important [14].

A computational model of a standard porcelain cap-and-pin insulaFigure 12shows thecomputed dry bandvoltage drops. Model 1, reptor has been developed using commercial FEM software. The model has resenting dry bands as clean zones, shows that 95%of the applied voltbeen used to predict the power dissipation within the pollution layer. age falls across the dry band. Model 2, which represents the dry bands Thus, it has been possible to replicate initial dry band formation as obas separate regions with defined intermediate material characteristics, served during artificial pollution tests. shows 85% of the voltage to fall across the dry band. The voltage-dry band relationships obtained experimentally have 9 CONCLUSIONS been reproduced using a computer based technique. Two different confog chamber and a pollution test setup have been constructed duction states of the pollution layer were simulated. The insulating which have the capacity to conduct artificial pollution tests for phase, for which a clean zone is used to represent the dry band, shows a studying the process leading to the flashover of polluted insulators. A closer correlation with the experimental data than the semi-conducting/ non-standard procedure has been described for carrying out such stud- intermediate phase, for which the dry band region is assigned differies. Direct measurements have been obtained for standard cap-and-pin ent conductivity and permittivity values. This transition process from insulators which enable partial- arc length, voltage and current to be re- a conducting to an insulating region is very rapid and is dependent on lated for a known pollution-layer resistance. These have been used to the local field/current density magnitudes.

IEEE Transactions on Dielectrics and Electrical Insulation

Vol. 6 No. 5, October 1999

731

REFERENCES
[1] J. S. T. Looms, lnsulnlnrs for HV, IEE Power Engineering Series 7, Edited by A. T. Johns, G. Ratcliff and 1. R. Platts, Peter Pergrinus Ltd, London, 1990, ISBN 0 86341 116 9. [2] K. Naito, H. M.Schneider,"Round-robin Artificial Contamination Test on H V dc In. sulators", IEEE Trans. On Power Delivery, Vol. IO,No. 3, pp, 143842,1995. 131 L. Xiaonan, C. Zhondge, L. Xinping, C. Kuangyu, K. Marita, R. Matsuoka, S. lto, "Natural Insulator Contamination Test Results onVarious ShedShapesin Heavyhdustrial Contamination Area in Shangai under ac Energized and De-energized Conditions", hoc. of the 3rd International Conference on Properties and Applications of Dielectric Materials, pp, 961-64, Tokyo (Japan), 1991 [4] S. Chakravorti, P K. Mukherjee, "Power Frequency and Impulse Field Calculation around aHV Insulator withUnifomor NonuniformSuriace Pollution", IEEE Trans. On Electrical Insulation, Vol. 28, No. 1,pp, 43-53.1993. [5] C. H. A. Ely, W. 1, Roberts, "Switching-impulse Flashover of Air Gaps and Insulators in an Artificially Polluted Atmosphere", Proc. IEE, Vol. 115, No.11,pp. 1667-71, 1968. [6] C. Menemnenlis, G. Carrara, l? 1, Lambeth in collaboration wiih IEEE WG and CIGRE WG33.07, "Aoolication of Insulators to Withstand Switching Suraes insubstations. Part 1 : Swit&ing Impulse Insulation Strength, IEEE Trans. O n h w e r Delivery,Vol. 4, No. 1,pp. 56560,1989, [7j Joint TaskForceofiEEE andClGRE WorkingGroups,"FinalReporton the CleanFog Test for HVAC Insulators", IEEE Trans. On Power Delivery, Vol. 2, No. 4, pp. 13171326,1987. [8] IEC-507 Standard, Arlijicial Poilulion Tesls on HV lnsulnlnrs Io be Used on oc Syslenis, Second edition, 1991. [9] F. Obenaus, "Fremdschichtuberschlag und Kriechwcglinge", Deutsche Elektrotechnik, Vol. 4, pp. 135-136,1958. [I01 G. Neumarker, "Verschmutzungsiustand und Kriechweg", Monatsber. d. Deut. Akad, Vol. 1,pp, 352-359,1959. [11] R. Sundararajan, R. S. Garur, "Dynamic AKC Modeling of Pollution Flashover Of Insulators under dc Voltage", IEEE Trans. On Electrical Insulation, Vol. 28, No. 2, PP. 209-218,1993. 1121 B. EHampton, "Flashover Mechanismof Polluted Insulation", PmC. IEE,Vol. 1LNQ. 5, pp. 985-990,1964, [131 A. Boudjella,H. Hadi,"Flashover Mechanism of HV Insulators Gradient Criterion'', hoc. of the 33rd Universities Power Engineering Conference (UPEC'98), PP. 198201, Edinburgh (UK), 1998. [14] F, A. M. Rizk, "Mathematical Models for Pollution Flashover", Electra, CERE, Vol. 78, pp. 71-103,1981,

1161 K. Naito, V, Mizuna, W. Naaanawa, "A Studv on Probabilistic Assessment of ContaminationFlashoverof HV?nsulators", IEEETrans. Onpower Delivery, Vol. 10,No. 3, pp, .. 1378-1383,1995. 1171 SLIM, Alstom, Finile Elenienl So,Qwnre, Eieclroslnlic and Eleclrndynnniic Solufinns, Stafford (UK), 1993. [18] D. L. Williams, A. Melas, I, Cryer, A. R. Rowlands, R. T, Waters, "Synchronisation of Electrical and Visual Measurements in Artificial PollutionTesting", 9th International Symposium on HV Engineering, paper 3241, Graz (Austria), 1995. 1191 S. Kojima, M. Oyama, M. Yamashita, "Potential Distributions of Meld Oxide Surge Arresters under Various Environmental Conditions", BEE Trans. On Power Delivery, Vol. 3, No. 3, pp. 984-989,1988. 1201 D. L. Williams, E S. Benzaoua, G. P.Gupwell, H. Griffiths, A. R. Rowlands, R. T.Waters, "Electric Field Measurement in Artificial Pollution Tests using Pockcis Cell", 29th Universities Power Engineering Conference (UPEC'94), pp, 445-8, Galway (Ire. land), 1994. 1211 M. J, Billings, J. T.Storey, "Consideration of the Effect of Pollution on the Potential Distribution of Insulator Systems", Proc. IEE, Vol. 115, No. 11, pp, 1661-6,1968. 1221 S. Shihab, L. Zhou, "Simulation of Contamination Performance of Outdoor HV Insulators", 9th International Symposium on HV Engineering, Paper 3917, Graz (Austria), 1995. (231 L. Tang, M. R. Raghuveer, "E-field Modeling of HVDC Wall Bushing Performance", 9th International Symposium an HV Engineering, paper 8324, Grar (Austria), 1995. [24j K. A. Hunt, (Allied Insulators Group Ltd): private communication. (251 B. Hutzler, "Les propri6Ms di6lectriqucs des isolations autor8gen6ratrkes". in Les propriiiis ditleclriques de l'nir el les 1 3 houles lensions, Edited by C. Gary, Collection de la Direction des Etudes et Rccherches d'Electricit4 de France, Editions Eyrolles,
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