CHAPTER 1 : INTRODUCTION

Statistics is a mathematical science pertaining to the collection, analysis, interpretation or explanation, and presentation of data. Statisticians improve the quality of data with the design of experiments and survey sampling. Statistics also provides tools for prediction and forecasting using data and statistical models. Statistics is applicable to a wide variety of academic disciplines, including natural and social sciences, government, and business. Statistical methods can be used to summarize or describe a collection of data; this is called descriptive statistics. This is useful in research, when communicating the results of experiments. In addition, patterns in the data may be modeled in a way that accounts for randomness and uncertainty in the observations, and are then used to draw inferences about the process or population being studied; this is called inferential statistics. Inference is a vital element of scientific advance, since it provides a prediction (based in data) for where a theory logically leads. To further prove the guiding theory, these predictions are tested as well, as part of the scientific method. If the inference holds true, then the descriptive statistics of the new data increase the soundness of that hypothesis. Descriptive statistics and inferential statistics (a.k.a., predictive statistics) together comprise applied statistics. There is also a discipline called mathematical statistics, which is concerned with the theoretical basis of the subject.The word statistics can either be singular or plural. In its singular form, statistics refers to the mathematical science discussed in this article. In its plural form, statistics is the plural of the word statistic, which refers to a quantity (such as a mean) calculated from a set of data.

When it is singular statistics refers to the science of statistics. The science of statistics helps us collect, organize, and interpret data, which are numbers or other pieces of information about some topic. When it is plural, the word statistics refer to the data themselves, especially those that describe or summarize something. Data and statistics are all around us. In fact it would be difficult to go through a full week without using statistics. Imagine watching a hockey game where no one kept score. Imagine going to the grocery store and trying to find the best buy on a box of cat treats for your cat. Without statistics this task would come down to simple guess work. Statistics come much closer to home because how else would we evaluate your performance.

CHAPTER 2 :LITERATURE REVIEW

Although statistics studies are conducted in many different ways and for many different purposes, they all share a few characteristics. To get the basic ideas, consider the Nielsen ratings, which are used to estimate the number of people watching various television shows. Suppose the Nielsen ratings tell you that Millionaire was last weeks most popular show, with 22 millions viewers. You probably know that no one actually counted all 22 million people. But you may be surprised to learn that the Nielsen ratings are based on the television-viewing habits of people in only 5000 homes. To understand how Nielsen can draw a conclusion about millions of Americans from only 5000 homes, we need to investigate the principles behind statistical research. Nielsens goal is to draw conclusions about the viewing habits of all the Americans. In the language of statistics, we say that Nielsen is interested in the populations of all Americans. The characteristics of this population that Nielsen seeks to learn- such as the number of people watching each television shows- are called population parameters. Note that, although we usually think of a population as a group of people, in statistics, a population can be any kind of group. For example, in a study of college costs, the population might be all colleges and universities, and the population parameters might include prices for tuition, fees and housing. Nielsen seeks to learn about the population of all Americans by studying a much smaller sample of Americans in depth. More specifically, Nielsen has devices (called peoples meters) attached to televisions in 5000 homes, so the people who lives in these houses make up the sample for Nielsen. The individual measurements that Nielsen collects from the sample, such as who is watching each show at each time, constitute the raw data. Nielsen then consolidates these raw data into a set of
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numbers that characterize the sample, such as the percentage of young male viewers watching Millionaire, these numbers are called sample statistics.

CHAPTER 3 : METHODOLOGY

PIE CHART A pie chart (or a circle graph) is a circular chart divided into sectors, illustrating relative magnitudes or frequencies. In a pie chart, the arc length of each sector (and consequently its central angle and area), is proportional to the quantity it represents. Together, the sectors create a full disk. It is named for its resemblance to a pie which has been sliced. While the pie chart is perhaps the most ubiquitous statistical chart in the business world and the mass media, it is rarely used in scientific or technical publications. It is one of the most widely criticised charts, and many statisticians recommend to avoid its use altogether pointing out in particular that it is difficult to compare different sections of a given pie chart, or to compare data across different pie charts. Pie charts can be an effective way of displaying information in some cases, in particular if the intent is to compare the size of a slice with the whole pie, rather than comparing the slices among them. Pie charts work particularly well when the slices represent 25 or 50% of the data, but in general, other plots such as the bar chart or the dot plot, or non-graphical methods such as tables, may be more adapted for representing information.

HISTORY OF PIE CHART The earliest known pie chart is generally credited to William Playfair's Statistical Breviary of 1801, where two such graphs are used. This invention was not widely used at first. One of William Playfair's pie charts in his Statistical Breviary, depicting the proportions of the Turkish Empire located in Asia, Europe and Africa before 1789. Charles Joseph Minard being one of the first to use it in 1858, in particular in maps where he needs to add information in a third dimension. Minard's map using pie charts to represent the cattle sent from all around France for consumption in Paris (1858).

VARIANTS AND SIMILAR CHARTS Exploded pie chart A chart with one or more sectors separated from the rest of the disk. This effect is used to either highlight a sector, or to highlight smaller segments of the chart with small proportions. Perspective (3D) pie chart This style of pie chart is used to give the chart a 3D look-and-feel. Often used for aesthetic reasons, the third dimension does not improve the reading of the data; on the contrary, these plots are difficult to interpret because of the distorted effect of perspective associated with the third dimension. The use of superfluous dimensions not used to display the data of interest is discouraged for charts in general, not only for pie charts.
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Polar area diagram Florence Nightingale is credited with developing a form of the pie chart now known as the polar area diagram, or occasionally the Nightingale rose diagram and first published in 1858. The name "coxcomb" is sometimes used erroneously. This was the name Nightingale used to refer to a book containing the diagrams rather than the diagrams themselves.The polar area diagram is similar to a usual pie chart, except that the sectors are each of an equal angle and differ rather in how far each sector extends from the centre of the circle, enabling multiple comparisons on one diagram. It has been suggested that most of Nightingale's early reputation was built on her ability to give clear and concise presentations of data.Although Florence Nightingale is usually credited with this graphical invention, there are earlier uses. Lon Lalanne used a polar diagram to show the frequency of wind directions around compass points in 1843. Andr-Michel Guerry is an earlier inventor of the "rose diagram" form, in an 1829 paper showing frequency of events for cyclic phenomena

DISCUSSION ON USE OF PIE CHART Statisticians tend to regard pie charts as a poor method of displaying information. While pie charts are common in business and journalism, they are uncommon in scientific literature. One reason for this is that it is more difficult for comparisons to be made between the size of items in a chart when area is used instead of length. In Stevens' power law, visual area is perceived with a power of 0.7, compared to a power of 1.0 for length. This suggests that length is a better scale to use, since perceived differences would be linearly related to actual differences. In research performed at AT&T Bell Laboratories, it was shown that comparison by angle was less accurate than comparison by length. This can be illustrated with the diagram to the right, showing three pie charts, and, below each of them, the corresponding bar chart representing the same data. Most subjects have difficulty ordering the slices in the pie chart by size; when the bar chart is used the comparison is much easier. Similarly, comparisons between datasets are easier using the barchart. However, if the goal is to compare a given category (a slice of the pie) with the total (the whole

pie) in a single chart and the multiple is close to 25% or 50%, then a pie chart works better than a bar graph.

SCATTER PLOT Scatter plots show the relationship between two variables by displaying data points on a two-dimensional graph. The variable that might be considered an explanatory variable is plotted on the x axis, and the response variable is plotted on the y axis. Scatter plots are especially useful when there is a large number of data points. They provide the following information about the relationship between two variables:

Strength Shape - linear, curved, etc. Direction - positive or negative Presence of outliers

A correlation between the variables results in the clustering of data points along a line. The following is an example of a scatter plot suggestive of a positive linear relationship. Example of scatter plot

Scatterplot Smoothing Scatter plots may be "smoothed" by fitting a line to the data. This line attempts to show the non-random component of the association between the variables. Smoothing may be accomplished using:

A straight line A quadratic or polynomial line Smoothing splines - allow greater flexibility in nonlinear associations.

The curve is fitted in a way that provides the best fit, often defined as the fit that results in the minimum sum of the squared errors (least squares criterion).
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The use of smoothing to separate the non-random from the random variations allows one to make predictions of the response based on the value of the explanatory variable. Cause and Effect When a scatter plot shows an association between two variables, there is not necessarily a cause and effect relationship. Both variables could be related to some third variable that explains their variation or there could be some other cause. Alternatively, an apparent association simply could be the result of chance. Use of the Scatterplot The scatter plot provides a graphical display of the relationship between two variables. It is useful in the early stages of analysis when exploring data before actually calculating a correlation coefficient or fitting a regression curve. For example, a scatter plot can help one to determine whether a linear regression model is appropriate.

2-Pictograph Definition of Pictograph

Pictograph is a way of representing statistical data using symbolic figures to match the frequencies of different kinds of data. Visual presentation of data using icons, pictures, symbols, etc., in place of or in addition to common graph elements (bars, lines, points). Pictographs use relative sizes or repetitions of the same icon, picture, or symbol to show comparison. Also called pictogram, pictorial chart, pictorial graph, or picture graph.

Examples of Pictograph

The pictograph shows the number of varieties of apples stored at a supermarket.

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Related Terms for Pictograph

Data Symbols

Pictograph Example Ice Cream Graph Over Time

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Pictograph A pictograph uses an icon to represent a quantity of data values in order to decrease the size of the graph. A key must be used to explain the icon.

Advantages

Easy to read
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Visually appealing Handles large data sets easily using keyed icons

Disadvantages

Hard to quantify partial icons Icons must be of consistent size Best for only 2-6 categories Very simplistic

Line plot A line plot can be used as an initial record of discrete data values. The range determines a number line which is then plotted with X's for each data value. Advantages * Quick analysis of data * Shows range, minimum & maximum, gaps & clusters, and outliers easily * Exact values retained Disadvantages * Not as visually appealing * Best for under 50 data values * Needs small range of data
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Line Plot Definition of Line Plot

A line plot shows data on a number line with x or other marks to show frequency.

The line plot shows the types of shoes Gary has.

The count of x marks above each cateogry tells you the number of shoes Gary has of the respective category.

Example of Line plots

When presented with numerical data, it is much easier to understand it if it is put into visual terms. You have often heard "Draw me a picture". A line plot is one way of 'drawing a picture' of data.
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BAR CHARTS DEFINITION A bar chart or bar graph is a chart with rectangular bars with lengths proportional to the values that they represent. Bar charts are used for comparing two or more values that were taken over time or on different conditions, usually on small data sets. The bars can be horizontally oriented (also called bar chart) or vertically oriented (also called column chart). Sometimes a stretched graphic is used instead of a solid bar. It is a visual display used to compare the amount or frequency of occurrence of different characteristics of data and it is used to compare groups of data. Besides that, Bar graphs are used to display data in a similar way to line graphs. However, rather than using a point on a plane to define a value, a bar graph uses a horizontal or vertical rectangular bar that levels off at the appropriate level.

Things to look for:

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Bar charts are familiar to most people, and interpreting them depends largely on what information you are looking for. You might look for:

the tallest bar. the shortest bar. growth or shrinking of the bars over time. one bar relative to another. change in bars representing the same category in different classes .

Bar chart statistics: For each bar in the bar chart, the following statistics are useful: Mean Maximum = the average height of all the bars. = the maximum value (tallest bar) in the series. Minimum = the minimum value (shortest bar) in the series. Sample Size Range = the number of values (bars) in the series. = the maximum value minus the minimum value. Standard = Indicates how widely data is spread
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Deviation

around the mean.

Parts of a Bar Graph Now let's look at the components of a bar graph individually. There is a lot of information in this section so you may wish to jot down some short notes to yourself.

Graph Title--The Title--The graph title gives an overview of the information being presented in the graph. The title is given at the top of the graph.

Axes and their labels--Each labels--Each graph has two axes. The axes labels tell us what information is presented on each axis. One axis represents data groups, the other represents the amounts or frequency of data groups.

Grouped Data Axis--The Axis--The grouped data axis is always at the base of the bars.
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This axis displays the type of data

being graphed. Frequency Data Axis--The Axis--The frequency axis has a scale that is a measure of the frequency or amounts of the different data groups.

Axes Scale-Scale-- Scale is the range of values being presented along the frequency axis.

Bars--The Bars--The bars are rectangular blocks that can have their base at either vertical axis or horizontal axis (as in this example). Each bar represents the data for one of the data groups.

How to draw a bar graph For the following example, we will make a bar graph of the data set to the right, giving information about a group of children's favorite color. Favorite Color 1. Red Blue Green Black Pink Number of Students 22 15 11 5 2

Look at your data to determine how big your bar graph should be and whether

horizontal or vertical bars will fit better on your paper. Decide the scale your bar graph will have. This is determined by the biggest and the smallest numbers in your data set. In the data from our example, the biggest number is 22; the smallest is 2. In this case, a scale showing multiples of 5 makes creating and reading the graph easier. Label the scale on your graph.

2. Decide how wide the other axis should be to show all of the type of data (5 colors in this
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case). Label this axis of your graph.

3. Draw the rectangles the right length to represent the data. Pick a good width for the data bars.

4. Give your graph a title.

EXAMPLES OF BAR CHART

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FREQUENCY POLYGON

DEFINITION A frequency polygon is a graphical display of a frequency table. The intervals are shown on the X-axis and the number of scores in each interval is represented by the height of a point located above the middle of the interval. The points are connected so that together with the X-axis they form a polygon. EXAMPLE 1 A frequency table and a relative frequency polygon for response times in a study on weapons and aggression are shown below. The times are in hundredths of a second. Lower Upper Limit Limit Cumulative Count Per Cent Cumulative Per Cent
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Count

25 30 35 40 45 50

30 35 40 45 50 55

1 4 8 15 3 1

3.12

3.12 15.62 40.62 87.50 96.88 100.00

5 12.48 13 24.96 28 46.80 31 32 9.36 3.12

Note: Values in each category are > the lower limit and to the upper limit.

Frequency polygons are useful for comparing distributions. This is achieved by overlaying the frequency polygons drawn for different data sets. The figure below provides an example. The data come from a task in which the goal is to move a computer mouse to a target on the screen as fast as possible. On 20 of the trials,the target was a small rectangle; on the other 20, the target was a large rectangle. Time to reach the target was recorded on each trial. The two distributions (one for each target) are plotted together. The figure shows that although there is some overlap in times, it generally took longer to move the mouse to the small target than to the large one.

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Frequency polygons can be based on the actual frequencies or the relative frequencies. When based on relative frequencies, the percentage of scores instead of the number of scores in each category is plotted. In a cumulative frequency polygon, the number of scores (or the percentage of scores) up to and including the category in question is plotted. A cumulative frequency polygon is shown below.

EXAMPLE 2

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The figure below shows the table we came up with in Example 1 of the topic Frequency Distributions and Histograms. The figure below that shows the histogram we came up with.

Frequency distribution table

Corresponding histogram

The frequency polygon is like the histogram, but instead it is a plot of the midpoints of the classes, connected by straight lines. This is shown below.

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Frequency polygon

Make sure you know how to compute the midpoint values. At first, it might help you to rewrite the frequency distribution table (as in the figure below).

Re-written frequency distribution table (only for helping you plot the freqency polygon)

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EXAMPLE 3 Fifty bags of sweets were opened. The number of sweets in each bag is recorded in the table below: Number of sweets Frequency 18-22 23-27 28-32 33-37 38-42 6 14 16 11 3

Represent this information in the form of a frequency polygon.

Answer

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The frequency polygon is plotted at the midpoints of the classes. FREQUENCY TABLE

Definition of Frequency Table

A frequency table is a table that lists items and uses tally marks to record and show the number of times they occur. It is a kind of display of a given data, in which the frequency of each data item is found. The frequency of a data item is the number of times it occurs in the data set. Tallies are used to display the frequency of an item in the data.

A frequency table is also a way of summarizing a set of data. It is a record of how often each value (or set of values) of the variable in question occurs. It may be enhanced by the addition of percentages that fall into each category.

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 A frequency table is used to summarize categorical, nominal, and ordinal data. It may also be used to summarize continuous data once the data set has been divided up into sensible groups.

When we have more than one categorical variable in our data set, a frequency table is sometimes called a contingency table because the figures found in the rows are contingent upon (dependent upon) those found in the columns.

How to Create Frequency Table

The frequency of a particular data value is the number of times the data value occurs. For example, if four students have a score of 80 in mathematics, and then the score of 80 is said to have a frequency of 4. The frequency of a data value is often represented by f. A frequency table is constructed by arranging collected data values in ascending order of magnitude with their corresponding frequencies. Frequency tables can also be used to summarize quantitative or qualitative variables. There are two or three steps to creating a frequency table:

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Example: The marks awarded for an assignment set for a Year 8 class of 20 students were as follows:

6 4

7 8

7 8

8 9

7 5

6 6

9 4

7 8

10 6

Present this information in a frequency table.

Solution: Step 1: Construct a table with three columns. The first column shows what is being arranged in ascending order (i.e. the marks). The lowest mark is 4. So, start from 4 in the first column as shown below.

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Step 2: Go through the list of marks. The first mark in the list is 6, so put a tally mark against 6 in the second column. The second mark in the list is 7, so put a tally mark against 7 in the second column. The third mark in the list is 5, so put a tally mark against 5 in the third column as shown below.

We continue this process until all marks in the list are tallied. Step 3: Count the number of tally marks for each mark and write it in third column. The finished frequency table is as follows:

In general: We use the following steps to construct a frequency table: Step 1: Construct a table with three columns. Then in the first column, write down all of the
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data values in ascending order of magnitude. Step 2: To complete the second column, go through the list of data values and place one tally mark at the appropriate place in the second column for every data value. When the fifth tally is reached for a mark, draw a horizontal line through the first four tally marks as shown for 7 in the above frequency table. We continue this process until all data values in the list are tallied. Step 3: Count the number of tally marks for each data value and write it in the third column. Class Intervals (or Groups)

When the set of data values are spread out, it is difficult to set up a frequency table for every data value as there will be too many rows in the table. So we group the data into class intervals (or groups) to help us organize, interpret and analyze the data.

Ideally, we should have between five and ten rows in a frequency table. Bear this in mind when deciding the size of the class interval (or group). Each group starts at a data value that is a multiple of that group. For example, if the size of the group is 5, then the groups should start at 5, 10, 15, 20 etc. Likewise, if the size of the group is 10, then the groups should start at 10, 20, 30, 40 etc. The frequency of a group (or class interval) is the number of data values that fall in the range specified by that group (or class interval).

Examples of Frequency Table

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Example 1: Score Below 75 76 80 81 85 86 90 91 95 96 100 Frequency 4 14 2 8 5 1

Example 2:

Example 3:

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Application of Frequency Table

Managing and operating on frequency tabulated data is much simpler than operation on raw data. There are simple algorithms to calculate median, mean, standard deviation etc. from these tables.

Statistical hypothesis testing is founded on the assessment of differences and similarities between frequency distributions. This assessment involves measures of central tendency or averages, averages, such as the mean and median, median, and measures of variability or statistical dispersion, dispersion, such as the standard deviation or variance. variance.

A frequency distribution is said to be skewed when its mean and median are different. The kurtosis of a frequency distribution is the concentration of scores at the mean, or how peaked the distribution appears if depicted graphically for example, in a histogram. histogram. If the distribution is more peaked than the normal
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distribution it is said to be leptokurtic while if it is less peaked it is said to be platykurtic.

Frequency distributions are also used in frequency analysis to crack codes and refer to the relative frequency of letters in different languages.

HISTOGRAMS

Definition of Histograms

The word histogram derived from the Greek histos 'anything set upright' (as the masts of a ship, the bar of a loom, or the vertical bars of a histogram), and gramma which means 'drawing, record, writing'.

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 A histogram is "a representation of a frequency distribution by means of rectangles whose widths represent class intervals and whose areas are proportional to the corresponding frequencies."

In statistics, statistics, a histogram is a graphical display of tabulated frequencies, frequencies, shown as bars. bars. It shows what proportion of cases fall into each of several categories: categories: it is a form of data binning. binning. The categories (bars) must be adjacent. The intervals (or bands, or bins) are generally of the same size.

Histograms are used to plot density of data, and often for density estimation, estimation, for example: estimating the probability density function of the underlying variable. The total area of a histogram always equals 1. If the lengths of the intervals on the x-axis are all 1, then a histogram is identical to a relative frequency plot.

The histogram is one of the seven basic tools of quality control, control, which also include the Pareto chart, chart, check sheet, sheet, control chart, chart, cause-and-effect diagram, diagram, flowchart, flowchart, and scatter diagram. diagram.

How to Create Histograms

We graph groups of numbers according to how often they appear. Thus if we have the set {1,2,2,3,3,3,3,4,4,5,6}, we can graph them like this:
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 This graph is pretty easy to make and gives us some useful data about the set. For example, the graph peaks at 3, which is also the median and the mode of the set. The mean of the set is 3.27also not far from the peak.

The shape of the graph gives us an idea of how the numbers in the set are distributed about the mean: the distribution of this graph is wide compared to size of the peak, indicating that values in the set are only loosely bunched round the mean. The example above is a little too simple. In most real data sets almost all numbers will be unique. Consider the set {3, 11, 12, 19, 22, 23, 24, 25, 27, 29, 35, 36, 37, 45, 49}.

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 A graph which shows how many ones, how many twos, how many threes, etc. would be meaningless. Instead we bin the data into convenient ranges. In this case, with a bin width of 10, we can easily group the data as below.

Data Range 0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50

Frequency 1 3 6 4 2

Note: Changing the size of the bin changes the appearance of the graph and the conclusions you may draw from it.

Note that the median is 25 and that there is no mode; the mean is 26.5.

How to Analyze the Histograms

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One of the functions of histograms is that they allow us to analyze extremely large datasets by reducing them to a single graph that can show primary, secondary and tertiary peaks in data as well as give a visual representation of the statistical significance of those peaks. To get an idea, look at these histograms:

Example 1:

This plot represents data with a well-defined peak that is close in value to the median and the mean. While there are "outliers," they are of relatively low frequency. Thus it can be said that deviations in this data group from the mean are of low frequency. If this were a mass plot in particle physics, we'd say the mass is understood with good precision.

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Example 2:

In this plot the peak is still fairly close to the median and the mean but it is much less defined. It is harder to tell from the plot what the exact location of the peak is. There are almost as many values close to the peak as at the peak it and outliers are frequent. As a particle physics mass plot, this gives an imprecise and uncertain mass of a particle.

Example 3:
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It is hard to tell where the median are and the mean and it also may not be relevant. There are two peaks in this plot: a taller primary peak as well as a shorter secondary peak. This could indicate either very poor definition of one signal in the data or, more likely, two signals. Examples of Histograms

Example 1:

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Pulse rates, in beats per minute, were calculated for 192 students enrolled in a statistics course at the University of Adelaide. The first step in creating a histogram is to create a frequency table. Pulse Rate for a Sample of Students from the University of Adelaide Pulse Rate (34-41] (41-48] (48-55] (55-62] (62-69] (69-76] (76-83] (83-90] (90-97] (97-104] Total Count 2 2 4 19 40 53 30 27 10 5 192

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Example 2 :

Example 3:

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CHAPTER 4 : ANALYZING DATA

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STATE P.Pinang Kedah Perak Johor Kelantan WP.KL Selangor Sabah Pahang Sarawak N.Sembilan Melaka Perlis Terenggan u WP.Labuan TOTAL

2005 6403 2606 3340 3910 2514 4906 2562 2134 1663 669 760 650 318 356 17 32808

2006 5127 2634 2545 2329 2243 2017 1836 846 768 712 624 619 289 202 20 22811

PLOTTING DATA

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COMPARISON OF NUMBERS OF DRUG USERS DETECTED IN 2005 AND 2006 ACCORDING TO STATES
14000 12000 10000 8000 6000 4000 2000 0
2006 2005

COMPARISON OF NUMBERS OF DRUG USERS DETECTED IN 2005 AND 2006 ACCORDING TO STATES

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COMPARISON OF NUMBERS OF DRUG USERS DETECTED IN 2005 AND 2006 ACCORDING TO STATES

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CHAPTER 5 : CONCLUSION

Pie charts are used primarily for relative frequencies, because the total pie must always represent the total relative frequency of 100%. The size of each wedge is proportional to the relative frequency of the category it represents. To make comparisons easier, relative frequencies are often written on pie chart wedges. By comparison between the two ways to show the data, we can see that bar graph is easier to understand than the pie charts. Besides that, in bar graphs, both frequencies that are frequency and cumulative frequency can be display. So, we can understand more about the data by using bar graph.

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REFERENCES

Pictograph. (n.d). from www.highpointsmath.com Statistics. (n.d). from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki Line-plot-graphs. (n.d). from www.tutorvista.com Bar graph. (n.d). from http://www.enchantedlearning.com/math/graphs Frequency Polygon. (n.d). from http://mathworld.wolfram.com Florence Nightingale's Statistical Diagrams. Florence Nightingale Museum. Retrieved on 2006-11-21. From http://www.florencenightingale.co.uk/small.htm. nightingale.co.uk/small.htm.

Scatter plot. (n.d). from http://www.itl.nist.gov/div898/handbook/eda/section3/eda33q.htm

Webster's Third New International Dictionary, Merriam-Webster; Ind Una edition (June 2002).

Frequency table. (n.d). from http://www.mathsteacher.com

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