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Selected Research on Experiential Learning Theory: An Annotated Bibliography

By Shannon D. Foster Dr. Jennifer Freed, EdTech 504-4201 October 20, 2013

This annotated bibliography compiles research selections focused on the Experiential Learning Theory. The Experiential Learning Theory gained recognition in the early twentieth century documenting the works of Jean Piaget, John Dewey, Kurt Lewin, and others. More recently, Alice Y. Kolb and David A. Kolb documented their research and gave examples of experiential learning currently in use today. In the past, Experiential Learning, also called learning by doing, found its use primarily in adult education; academia as well as in the workplace. However, with the abundance and ease of technological advances, primary and secondary educational facilities incorporate experiential learning more often today. The following articles give the history, a time line, definitions, discussions, and principles, and examples of how to incorporate current technology into all levels of education based on the Theory of Experiential Learning. Clark, R. W., Threeton, M. D., & Ewing, J. C. (2010). The Potential of Experiential Learning Models and Practices in Career and Technical Education & Career and Technical Teacher Education. Journal of Career and Technical Education, 25(2).

2 In the article The Potential of Experiential Learning Models and Practices in Career and Technical Education & Career and Technical Teacher Education, Clark, Threeton, and Ewing (2010) discuss the Experiential Learning Theory based on the works of D.A. Kolb (1984) and related to philosophies by Dewey, Knapp, Stimson, and Lancelot (p. 57). Clark, Threeton, and Ewing focus on elements that educational programs must adhere to for consideration as genuine experiential learning. Clark, Threeton, and Ewing continue their discourse by applying Kolbs six propositions of experiential learning to a career and technical education setting and the potential to enhance the teacher education process (p.48). Although Kolbs four modes of experiential learning are presented with an order, concrete experience (feeling), reflective observation (watching), abstract conceptualization (thinking), and active experimentation (doing), Kolb believes experiential learning can start with any mode, but most often begins with doing. Most important to experiential learning is the transfer of learning from formal to informal settings. Besides Kolbs six propositions of experiential learning, they present hi s four learning styles as well: converging, diverging, assimilating, and accommodating, and his Learning Style Inventory as an assessment instrument (p. 51). Clark, Threeton, and Ewing go on to say that problem based learning is also related to experiential learning (p.54). They present two programs, the current 4-H curriculum and the National FFA Organization, who use experiential learning in its authentic context. Clark, Threeton, and Ewing conclude by stating that for true experiential learning to occur, experience, reflection, and application must be part of the learning process (p.58). Without at least these three, the experience is incomplete.

3 Jarmon, L., Traphagan, T., Mayrath, M., & Trivedi, A. (2009). Virtual world teaching, experiential learning, and assessment: An interdisciplinary communication course in Second Life. Computers & Education, 53(1), 169182. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2009.01.010 In this journal article, Jarmon, Traphagan, Mayrath, and Trivedi briefly discuss the contributions of Dewey, Lewin, and Piaget to the Experiential Learning Theory. They explore how the theory affects second life activities in 3D virtual worlds created for interdisciplinary communications in learning environments. They quote Kolbs four steps of the experiential leaning cycle (1984) as the means by which learners achieve a deeper understanding of knowledge. 3D virtual worlds can help learners build bridges between education and experience (p. 17) in these interactive environment. Jarmon, Traphagan, Mayrath, and Trivedi describe the course and its objectives, their research methods and design process, and their research results and analysis. Throughout the project students participated in several activities. They kept a worldview journal documenting their experiences in second life, they responded to survey questions, held focus group discussions, and created public in 3D second life. After completing the course, the participants maintained close relationships and collaborated in writing a grant proposal for funding to create a non -profit with a second life focus (p. 172) thus creating the New Mornings organization, which helps non-profits successfully make use of second life (p. 172). This project attempted to understand how bringing together the use of 3D virtual worlds could foster learning in an educational environment. The article also revealed some of the discrepancies learners experienced between real world and virtual world interactions. The authors conclude with reflections on how to adjust future projects to improve 3D virtual worlds and second life interactions in experiential learning activities.

4 Kolb, A. Y., & Kolb, D. A. (2005). Learning Styles and Learning Spaces: Enhancing Experiential Learning in Higher Education. Academy of Management Learning & Education, 4(2), 193 212. The article by Kolb and Kolb (2005) gives an in depth discussion of how learning styles and learning spaces influence learners within the experiential learning context. They begin with a brief definition review of the experiential learning theory and a discussion on how hereditary equipment, our particular life experiences, and the demands of our present environment (p.195) help shape learning. They then describe how research by Lewin and Hickcox adds credibility to the experiential learning theory. The article also connects the experiential learning theory with Vygotskys social-constructivist learning theory. The article then presents two areas related to experiential learning; learning style assessment and learning space. Kolb and Kolb identify four learning styles associated with learning: diverging, assimilating, converging, and accommodating. David Hunt and his associates expand the original four styles into eight distinct styles: the Northerner emphasizes feelings, the Easterner emphasizes reflection, the Southerner emphasizes thinking, and the Westerner emphasizes acting (p. 197). Along with Kolb and Kolb, and Hunt and associates styles, Mainemelis, Boyatzis, and Kolb (2002) also identify a Balancing learning style. Balancing is the center block in a three-by-three grid. Learners displaying a Balancing learning style have a more adaptive flexibility to learning (p. 197-198). Additionally, Kolb and Kolb elaborate on how learning spaces influence learners. Here, experiential learning reveals the similarities between Zimmerman and Bells everyday expertise framework (2012). The idea of leaning space builds on Lewins field theory (p. 199); a learners personal beliefs and their environment are interdependent and influence their creation of

5 knowledge. Three other theoretical frameworks also add to Lewins concept of learning space: Bronfrenbrenners work on the ecology of human development (p. 199), Lave and Wengers situated learning theory (p. 199), and Nonaka and Konnos Japanese concept of ba, a context that harbors meaning(p. 200). In order for learning spaces to enhance experiential learning, Kolb and Kolb identify nine guidelines to promote growth-producing experiences for learners (p. 205): Respect for learners and their experiences, begin learning with the learners experiences of the subject matter, create and hold a hospitable space for learning, make space for conversational learning, make space for development of expertise, make spaces for acting and reflecting, make spaces for feeling and thinking, make space for inside-out learning, and make space for learners to take charge of their own learning (p. 207-209). The development of curriculum, faculty, student, administration, staff, and resources is the primary impetus for supporting experiential learning and learning spaces based on learning styles presented in this article. Kolb, D. A. (1984). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development. In kolb84 (Vol. 1, pp. 2038). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Retrieved from http://academic.regis.edu/ed205/Kolb.pdf In Kolbs article The Process of Experiential Learning, he reviews the three common historical models of Experiential Learning: Deweys Model of Learning, Lewins Model of Action Research and Laboratory Training, and Piagets Model of Learning and Cognitive Development.

6 Although slightly different, these three models share similar characteristics when discussing learning and development. Kolb gives seven characteristics of learning: Learning is best conceived as a process, not in terms of outcomes Learning is a continuous process grounded in experience The process of learning requires the resolution of conflicts between dialectically opposed modes of adaptation to the world Learning is an holistic process of adaptation to the world Learning involves transactions between the person and the environment [and] Learning is the process of creating knowledge. (p. 26-37) Kolb expounds upon each learning characteristics throughout the remainder of the article. Based on his writing, Kolb sees learning as an all-inclusive process that continues to change as a learner interacts with his environment thus creating the individuals unique knowledge. He finishes the article with a working definition of learning based on these characteristics, Learning is the process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience (p. 38).

Lai, C.-H., Yang, J.-C., Chen, F.-C., Ho, C.-W., & Chan, T.-W. (2007). Affordances of mobile technologies for experiential learning: the interplay of technology and pedagogical practices. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 23(4), 326337. doi:10.1111/j.13652729.2007.00237.x According to Lai, Yang, Chen, Ho, and Chant experiential learning is the process of creating knowledge through the transformation of experience (p. 326). After a brief

7 presentation of the Experiential Learning Theory, the authors delve into their hypothesis that mobile technologies enhance experiential learning and that those who use mobile technologies improve knowledge creation during their experiences (p. 326). In a study intended to justify this hypothesis, two groups of fifth grade students receive the same instruction during a garden field trip learning experience. One group uses PDAs and the other group uses traditional pencil and paper methods to interact with their environment. The study uses six components to gather data: photo taking, sensory experience, further observation, comparison, question proposing, and a final report (p. 329) focusing primarily on question proposing and the final report to judge the level of knowledge created during the field trip. The article describes the support system for teachers and students using PDAs as they participate in the experiential learning process: authoring and learning status modules for teachers and problem-proposing and multimedia management modules for students. After viewing the study, Lai, Yang, Chen, Ho, and Chant compare the results and make observations that confirm or refute their hypothesis. They find that students motivation is high when using mobile technologies in many areas and those students who used PDAs outperformed those who did not. However, they consider that motivation may be due to the newness of technology use and that the need for further studies can determine if students maintain this motivation in knowledge creation (p. 335). The hypothesis that mobile technologies use enhances experiential learning and knowledge creation continues to be studied as new technologies emerge. Lewis, L. H., & Williams, C. J. (1994). Experiential learning: Past and present. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, 1994(62), 516. doi:10.1002/ace.36719946203

8 In the article Experiential Learning: Past and Present, Lewis and Williams follow the history of the Experiential Learning (EL) theory from the early twentieth century up until their publication. They review the historical background of the EL theory as education evolved from a more formal, abstract education (p. 6) into a transformative idea of education. They cite the cycle of Kolbs four-part process (Kolb, 1984) of learning: concrete experiences, reflective observations, abstract conceptualization, and active experimentation, as the foundations for learners developing new knowledge. Lewis and Williams continue with how EL was, and continues to be, applied in higher education from the field-based experiences of the 1930s to receiving credit for informal learning in the 1970s, and classroom-based experiential learning in the 1980s. Action learning, future search, and outdoor education (p.10) are three forms of EL found in the workplace. They conclude with some of the pros and cons of EL. They surmise that even though EL encourages investigation and open-mindedness (p. 14) the cost is often prohibitive in many situations, academically as well as corporately. As long as EL programs have clear objectives, skilled facilitation, and credible evaluation [they] will be effective and respected as an authentic type of learning theory (p.14). Zimmerman, H., & Bell, P. (2012). Everyday Expertise: Learning Within and Across Formal and Informal Settings. In Theoretical Foundations of Learning Environments (2nd ed., pp. 224 241). New York, NY: Routledge. Although Zimmerman and Bell do not strictly address the Experiential Learning Theory in the chapter, there are similarities between it and their Everyday Expertise Framework. Zimmerman and Bell developed the everyday expertise framework in order to analyze the

9 holistic, multidimensional influences on various learning process to understand learning in a cross-setting ethnography (p. 224). They propose that in the everyday expertise framework learners connect what they learn informally with other informal or formal learning environments. Similar to experiential learning, learners learn by doing, but here they recognize that individual, cultural, and social aspects influence a learners knowledge creation as well. The article continues with two examples of the Everyday Expertise Framework in practice (p. 228). They observe interactions between family members in a science center (p. 229) and how narratives affect youth in environmental education programs (p. 231). These examples demonstrate how learners interact and learn when participating in activities that are experiential in nature. Zimmerman and Bell also describe how the everyday expertise framework can assist designers when they develop learning environments that connect youth, backgrounds, and values to the goals of formal and informal education (p. 232). By using the everyday expertise framework, situated learning (learning that takes place in the same context in which it is applied, Situated learning, 2013), appears to support the same principles as the Experiential Learning Theory. References Situated learning. (2013, May 18). In Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Situated_learning&oldid=546409595