keeping the small slands distant or separated (by non-host crops, for-
, from one another will help to minimize outbreaks and to increase the pests'
rates within each individual stand. All insect populations are prone to
243
Popl ar Culture in North Ameri ca
fluctuate, bUi small populati ons are more prone to fluctuate to extinction or n e a : r ~
extinction, caused by random mortality factors such as unfavorable weather,'
When and if thi s happens, the stand is al least temporaril y free from the impact ot
the pest species unti l an immigrant female from a surrounding similar stand hap;:
pens to discover the empty island. This is why it is important that each island be;
difficult to find, owing either to ils long di stance from the pest inoculum, or its
concealing surroundings of non-host trees. As yet, this is not an exact science.;
and hard knowledge will onl y come from trial and error.
Managing natural enemies to encourage presence,
persistence, and efficacy
Allhough it is desirable to make the pest popuJations prone to extinction and un-
likel y to di scover the crop stands, the opposite is tIue for their natural enemies.
To prom'ote natural enemy abundance and their efficacy in finding the pests, one
needs special , detailed information about which natural enemies are important for
each and every significant pest (for exampl e. the nine listed above) and what fac-
tors limit natural enemy abundance and searching capacity. Thi s detail is beyond
the scope of thi s arti cle, but nevertheless the principl es will be addressed here in
at least a cursory fashion. Planting poplars next to another crop that wi]] not share
its pests but will share its natural enemies is one approach. For example , some
generalist parasitoids coming from defoliators in a spruce-fir forest might very
likely search for pest defoliators in a nei ghboring poplar stand. The same might
be true for natural enemi es derived from an adjacent pine stand, maple stand, or
even a marsh. Mattson et al. (1968) reported. for example, that blackbirds that
nested in marshes adjacent to a several hundred hectare jack pine forest flocked in
hundreds to prey for several weeks on jack pine bud worms, Choristoneura pinus
Freeman, which were abundant in the jack pines. In the same vein, fostering birds
by conserving patches of their habitat or certain li miting resources that they need
for nesting may provide a measure of resistance to stands at risk to attack by defo-
liators such as FTC and LAT.
The nutrition of adult paras itoids is often limiting, and hence their capacity for
searching for and parasiti zing pests is likewise limited (Cappuccino et aJ. 1999).
Because many parasitic fli es and wasps require plant nectar and (or) honeydew
from aphids and scales to bol ster their energy demands while egg-laying,
enhancing the abundance of nectar and honeydew sources could pay dividends in
pest managemenl. For example, fresh honeydew and dried honeydew on the leaves
of a nominal number of aphid-susceptible trees. purposely planted within poplar
stands, mi ght significantl y aid parasites. Likewi se. border trees, and plants that are
honeydew and (or) nectar producers might substantially enhance parasitism rates.
244
Mattson et al.: Chapter 7. Insects pests of Populus: coping with the inevitable
Concluding remarks
Insect and disease problems arc inevitable and can be severe when growing
Populus. Therefore, growers must be prepared for their appearance. Fi rst and
foremost, selecting several clones that have some evidence of resistance to the
main insect and disease problems must be the first line of preparation. Next, at the
stand level, growing polycullures (mix.tures) of many clones rather than mono-
cultures or near monocultures of few clones is strongly advised. Hopefully, both
disease and insect resistance will be incorporated into the best clones. Mixtures
of several carefully selected clones may actually have higher yields per hectare
than equivalent slands of monocultures. At the landscape level, whenever feasi-
ble, arranging stands so that there will be minimal movement of pests among
Ihem and minimal immigration of pests inlo them from natural st.ands is recom-
mended. Encouraging populations of natural enemies of insect pests is also
highly advised. This may be accomplished through many means: providing nest-
ing sires for important birds, encouraging wild tlowers, and wecds that offer nu-
trition for parasitic flies and wasps, and establishing poplar plantations close to
plant communities that are natural sources of predators and parasites, but not
pests. There are no simple, guaranteed recipes for success. Instead, employing com-
mon sense and adaptive management are the key principles for achieving success.
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