UNIT 1 REGULATION AND CONTROL I HOMEOSTASIS AND THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

Homeostasis Role of regulatory systems

1. Define and cite examples of Homeostasis. 2. Discuss the need for homeostasis in living

organisms

Homeostasis
Homeostasis refers to the appropriate, balanced internal

environment.
Metabolic processes occur continuously in every organism,

and they must be carefully regulated to maintain homeostasis.

When enough of a cell product has been made, its

manufacture must be decreased or turned off .

When a particular substance is required, cell processes that

produce it must be turned on.

These homeostatic mechanisms are self-regulating control

systems that are remarkably sensitive and efficient.

 Stressors (changes in the internal or external environment) that

affect normal conditions within the body, continuously challenge homeostasis.

An internal condition that moves out of its homeostatic range

(either too high or too low) causes stress.

An organism functions effectively because homeostatic

mechanisms continuously operate to manage stress

Many animals are conformers for certain environmental

conditions.
Some of their internal states vary with changes in their surroundings.

Mammals are superb regulators.

They have complex homeostatic mechanisms that maintain

relatively constant internal conditions despite changes in the outside environment.

How do homeostatic mechanisms work?

Example
Your cells require a constant supply of glucose molecules,

which they break down to obtain energy.

The circulatory system delivers glucose and other nutrients

to all the cells.

When the concentration of glucose in the blood rises above

normal limits, glucose is stored in the liver and in muscle cells.

When you have not eaten for a few hours, the glucose

concentration begins to fall.

Your body converts stored nutrients to glucose, bringing the

glucose concentration in the blood back to normal levels.

When the glucose concentration decreases, you also feel

Feedback Regulation: Negative feedback systems restore homeostasis

3.

Describe and provide examples from mammalian biology of negative and positive feedback reactions.

4. Discuss the role of positive and negative feedback in the function of an organism

In a negative feedback system, a change in some

steady state triggers a response that counteracts, or reverses, the change.

A sensor detects a change,( a deviation from the normal

condition), or set point.

The sensor signals a control centre. Based on the input of the sensor, the control centre

activates homeostatic mechanisms that restore the steady state

The response counteracts the inappropriate change,

thereby restoring the steady state. Note that in a negative feedback system, the response of the

Example
v Most homeostatic mechanisms in the body are

negative feedback systems.

1. When the glucose concentration in the blood

decreases below its homeostatic level, negative feedback systems increase its concentration.
If the glucose concentration in the blood is too low,

alpha cells in the pancreas secrete a hormone that increases glucose concentration.

3. When body temperature decreases below normal

limits, specialized nerve cells (sensors) signal the

Feedback Regulation A few positive feedback systems operate in the body

Positive feedback intensifies the change taking place,

(rather than reverses) moving conditions further away from homeostasis.

Although some positive feedback mechanisms are

beneficial, they do not maintain homeostasis.

For example, a positive feedback cycle operates during

the birth of a baby.

As the babys head pushes against the cervix (lower part of

uterus), a reflex action causes the uterus to contract.

The contraction forces the head against the cervix again,

Comparison of Nervous and Hormonal regulation.

5. Compare nervous and hormonal regulation with respect to structure and function of each system.

Nervous system vs, Endocrine system Nervous system regulates the activities of
muscles and glands via electrical impulses transported through neurons.
Neural control is fast; its effects are short-lived System of neurons transmits electrical signals

& release neurotransmitters to target tissue

The magnitude of nervous system effects are

dependent upon the frequency of action potentials.

Endocrine System regulates the bodys metabolic

activity via hormones that are transported in the blood.

Hormonal control is slow; its effects are

prolonged
System of ductless glands secrete chemical

signals directly into blood, chemical travels to target tissue

slow, long-lasting response the magnitude of endocrine effects are

dependent upon the amount of hormone released .

 Nervous :Neurotransmitters released by neurons Endocrine :Hormones release by endocrine glands These two systems interact and regulate each other
neurotransmitt er Endocrine gland Hormone carried by blood

axon

Receptor proteins Receptor proteins Target cell

Nervous and hormonal regulation rapid and gradual control working together

6. Hormonal and neural control combined in

homeostasis, with respect to anatomy

The endocrine system works closely with the

nervous system to maintain homeostasis, the steady state of the body.

The nervous system helps regulate many

endocrine responses. For example, when the body is threatened, the hypothalamus signals the adrenal glands to secrete the hormone epinephrine.
Hypothalamus = master nerve control

centre
nervous system :receives information from

nerves around body about internal conditions

regulates release of hormones from pituitary

Hypothalamus

Posterior

Pituitary Anterior

Managing Glucose Insulin reduces blood glucose levels Levels glucose levels rise above set point, pancreas secretes
insulin
promotes transport of glucose into cells & storage of

glucose (as glycogen) in liver & muscle cells

drops blood glucose levels

Glucagon increases blood glucose levels

when glucose levels drop below set point, pancreas

secretes glucagon
promotes breakdown of glycogen & release of glucose

Human Endocrine system.

7. Using a generalized diagram of the human

body, identify the main endocrine organs in the human body.

The chemical nature of hormones

8. Identify the secretions of the main

endocrine organs, and the actions of these secretions

Important Hormone Reproduction Functions

Growth and development Immune system response Maintenance of electrolyte, water, and

nutrient balance of the blood

Regulation of cellular metabolism and energy

balance

Major Endocrine Organs

Pineal gland Hypothalamus Pituitary gland Thyroid gland Parathyroid gland Thymus gland Adrenal glands Pancreas Gonads (i.e., ovaries and testes)

Major Endocrine Glands and Their Hormones

Gland Hypothalamus Hormone Releasing and inhibiting hormones Target Tissue Anterior lobe of pituitary Principal Actions Regulate secretion of hormones by the anterior pituitary Stimulates contraction Stimulates ejection of milk into ducts Stimulates re-absorption of water Stimulates growth of skeleton and muscle Stimulates milk production Melanocyte-stimulating hormones (MSH) Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) Adrenal cortex Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) Gonads Gonadotropic hormones Thyroid gland Thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) Calcitonin General Bone Lowers blood calcium level Pigment cells in skin Stimulate melanin production Thyroid gland Stimulates secretion of thyroid hormones; helps regulate bone remodeling Stimulates secretion of adrenal cortical hormones Stimulate gonad function and growth Stimulate metabolic rate; regulate energy metabolism

Posterior pituitary

Oxytocin Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

Uterus Mammary glands Kidneys (collecting ducts) General Mammary glands

Anterior pituitary

Growth hormone (GH) Prolactin

Gland Pancreas

Hormone Insulin Glucagon

Target Tissue General Liver, adipose tissue

Principal Actions Lowers blood glucose concentration Raises blood glucose concentration

Adrenal medulla

Epinephrine and norepinephrine

Muscle; blood vessels; liver; adipose tissue

Help body cope with stress; increase metabolic rate; raise blood glucose level; increase heart rate and blood pressure Maintain sodium and potassium balance Help body cope with long-term stress; raise blood glucose level

Adrenal cortex

Mineralocorticoids Glucocorticoids

Kidney tubules General

Pineal gland Ovary

Melatonin Estrogens Progesterone

Hypothalamus General; uterus Uterus; breast

Important in biological rhythms Develop and maintain sex characteristics in female; stimulate growth of uterine lining Stimulates development of uterine lining

Testis

Testosterone

General; reproductive structures Bone, kidneys, digestive tract

Develops and maintains sex characteristics in males; promotes spermatogenesis Regulates blood calcium level

Parathyroid glands

Parathyroid hormone

9. Describe the chemical nature of hormones

and how each main type elicits change at the cellular level

Hormone A chemical substance secreted by one cell that affects the functions of another cell.
Four Classes of Hormones
1. Fatty Acid Derivatives

Prostaglandins and the juvenile hormone of insects

2. Amino acid-based hormones

Most hormones are this type Tend to stay in the blood

3. Steroid hormones

Synthesized from cholesterol Lipid-soluble; able to pass through the phospholipid membrane Include the gonadal hormones and the adrenal cortical hormones (secreted by the adrenal cortex)

Regulation of hormone secretion. Negative feedback 10. Using examples from human biology, describe themechanisms. regulation of hormone secretion
by negative and positive feedback.
11. Discuss the implications of failure of a

regulatory system

Thyroid hormones increase metabolic rate

In vertebrates, thyroid hormones are essential

for normal growth and development. These hormones increase the rate of metabolism in most body tissues.
Thyroid hormones also help regulate the

synthesis of proteins necessary for cell differentiation.

Thyroid secretion is regulated by negative feedback systems

The regulation of thyroid hormone secretion depends on a negative

feedback loop between the anterior pituitary and the thyroid gland.
When the concentration of thyroid hormones in the blood rises

above normal, the anterior pituitary secretes less thyroidstimulating hormone (TSH)high Thyroid hormone concentration inhibits anterior pituitary
secretes less TSH homeostasis thyroid gland secretes less hormone

When the concentration of thyroid hormones decreases, the

pituitary secretes more TSH.
Thyroid hormone concentration low more TSH thyroid gland secretes more hormone anterior pituitary secretes homeostasis

Malfunction of the thyroid gland leads to specific disorders

Extreme hypothyroidism during infancy and childhood results in low

metabolic rate and can lead to cretinism, a condition characterized by retarded mental and physical development
An adult who feels like sleeping all the time, has little energy, and is

mentally slow or confused may be suffering from hypo-thyroidism.

When there is almost no thyroid function, the basal metabolic rate is

reduced by about 40% the patient develops myxedema, characterized by a slowing down of physical and mental activity.

Hyperthyroidism does not cause abnormal growth but does increase

metabolic rate. This increase results in the rapid use of nutrients, causing the individual to be hungry and to eat more. But this does not meet the demands of the rapidly metabolizing cells, so people often lose weight. The most common form of hyperthyroidism is Graves disease, an autoimmune disease.

Iodine deficiency is a

common cause of goitre, enlargement of the thyroid gland.

Consequences of Endocrine Malfunction

Hormone Growth hormone Hyposecretion Pituitary dwarfism Hypersecretion Gigantism if malfunction occurs in childhood; acromegaly in adult

Thyroid hormones

Cretinism (in children); myxedema, a condition of pronounced adult hypothyroidism; dietary iodine deficiency leads to hyposecretion and goitre

Hyperthyroidism; increased metabolic rate, nervousness, irritability; goiter; Graves disease

Parathyroid hormone

Spontaneous discharge of nerves; spasms; tetany; death

Weak, brittle bones; kidney stones

Insulin Hormones of adrenal cortex

Diabetes mellitus Addisons disease

Hypoglycemia Cushings disease

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