1.

INTRODUCTION
A bridge project from its conception to completion involves various stages of planning, design, approval/sanction, tendering and execution. Also inspections, maintenance and repairs are continuing activities for enhancing the service life of the structure. 1.1. ACTIVITIES INVOVED: A bridge project is required to carry out survey for the bridge location and collect requisite preliminary survey data that is required for bridge planning and design. Generally 2-3 cross sections at prospective sites are taken and the bridge length is decided for the purpose of preparing stage-I estimate needed for obtaining Approval. Depending on site conditions, particularly the foundation conditions (which could be a guess/ interpolation at this stage) the type of bridge viz. P.S.C., R.C.C., high level, submersible etc. is decided. For bridges having span more than 60m, detailed estimate is required to be submitted to Government for obtaining administrative approval. It is, therefore, necessary that site is to be finalized by the Engineer. So that detailed soil explorations as may be necessary could be done. The detailed proposal is then prepared by Engineer. The detailed proposal would generally mean giving sufficient details for preparation of estimate after working out the stability of structures i.e. piers and abutments and deciding the tentative dimensions for superstructure and other components along with specifications.

1.2 DEFINITION OF A BRIDGE: A bridge is a structure built to span physical

obstacles such as a body of water, valley, or road, for the purpose of providing passage over the obstacle. Designs of bridges vary depending on the function of the bridge, the nature of the terrain where the bridge is constructed, the material used to make it and the funds available to build it. 1.3 HISTORY OF A BRIDGE: The greatest bridge builders of antiquity were the ancient Romans. The Romans built arch bridges and aqueducts that could stand in conditions that would damage or destroy earlier designs. Some stand today. Rope bridges, a simple type of suspension bridge, were used by the Inca civilization in the Andes mountains of South America, just prior to European colonization in the 16th century. During the 18th century there were many innovations in the design of timber bridges by Hans Ulrich, Johannes Grubenmann, and others. With the Industrial Revolution in the 19th century, truss systems of wrought iron were developed for larger bridges, but iron did not have the tensile strength to support large loads. With the advent of steel, which has a high tensile strength, much larger bridges were built, many using the ideas of Gustave Eiffel. In 1927 welding pioneer Stefan Brya designed the first welded road bridge in the world, which was later built across the river Sudwia Maurzyce near owicz, Poland in 1929. 1.4 IMPORTANCE OF BRIDGE: Bridges have always figured prominently in human history. Cities have sprung up at a bridgehead or where at first a river could be forded at any time of the year. Examples: London, Oxford, Cambridge and Innsbruck. Bridges add beauty to the cities. Examples: the bridges across the river seine in Paris and the bridges across the river Thames in London. They enhance the vitality if the cities and aid the social, cultural and economic improvements of the areas around them. Great battles have been fought for cities and their bridges. The mobility of an army at war is often affected by the availability or otherwise of the bridges to across rivers. That is why military training puts special emphasis on learning how to destroy bridges during combat and while retreating and how to build new ones quickly while advancing.
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2. BRIDGES-TYPES
2.1 CLASSIFICATION OF BRIDGES: Function Material of construction Form Inter-span relations Position of the bridge to the superstructure Method of connections Method of clearance Length of bridge Degree of redundancy Type of service Bridges may classify in many ways as below: 2.1.1. FUNCTION: According to function as aqueduct (canal over a river), viaduct (road or railway over a valley), pedestrian, highway, railway, road-cum-rail or a pipeline. 2.1.2. MATERIAL OF CONSTRUCTION: According to the material of construction of the superstructure as timber, masonry, iron, steel, reinforced concrete, pre-stressed concrete, composite or Aluminium Bridge. 2.1.3. FORM: According to the form or type of the superstructure as slab, beam, truss, arch, cable stayed or suspension bridge. 2.1.4. INTER -SPAN RELATIONS: According to the inter-span relations as simple continuous or cantilever bridge. 2.1.5. POSITION OF THE BRIDGE TO THE SUPERSTRUCTURE: According to the position of the bridge to the superstructure as deck, though, half-through or suspended bridge. 2.1.6. METHOD OF CONNECTIONS: According to the method of connections of the different parts of the superstructure, particularly for the steel construction as pin connected, riveted or welded bridge. 2.1.7. METHOD OF CLEARANCE: According to the method of clearance for the navigation as high-level, movable-bascule, movable-swing and transporter bridge. 2.1.8. LENGTH OF BRIDGE: According to the length of bridge as culvert (<6m), minor bridge (6to60m), major bridge (>60m) or a long span bridge when the main span of the major bridge is above 120m. 2.1.9. DEGREE OF REDUNDANCY: According to the degree of redundancy as determinate or indeterminate bridge. 2.1.10. TYPE OF SERVICE: According to the anticipated type of service and duration of use as permanent, temporary, military bridge.
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2.2. TYPES OF BRIDGES: There are six main types of bridges: Beam bridges, Cantilever bridges, Arch bridges, Suspension bridges, Cable-stayed bridges and Truss bridges 2.2.1 Beam bridges are horizontal beams supported at each end by abutments, hence their structural name of simply supported. When there is more than one span the intermediate supports are known as piers. 2.2.2 Cantilever bridges are built using cantilevers horizontal beams supported on only one end. Most cantilever bridges use a pair of continuous spans that extend from opposite sides of the supporting piers to meet at the center of the obstacle the bridge crosses. Cantilever bridges are constructed using much the same materials & techniques as beam bridges. The difference comes in the action of the forces through the bridge. 2.2.3 Arch bridges have abutments at each end. The earliest known arch bridges were built by the Greeks, and include the Arkadiko Bridge. The weight of the bridge is thrust into the abutments at either side. 2.2.4 Suspension bridges are suspended from cables. The earliest suspension bridges were made of ropes or vines covered with pieces of bamboo. In modern bridges, the cables hang from towers that are attached to caissons or cofferdams. The caissons or cofferdams are implanted deep into the floor of a lake or river. 2.2.5 Cable-stayed bridges like suspension bridges are held up by cables. However, in a cablestayed bridge, less cable is required and the towers holding the cables are proportionately shorter. 2.2.6 Movable bridges are designed to move out of the way of boats or other kinds of traffic, which would otherwise be too tall to fit. These are generally electrically powered. 2.2.7 A truss bridge is a bridge composed of connected elements (typically straight) which may be stressed from tension, compression, or sometimes both in response to dynamic loads. Truss bridges are one of the oldest types of modern bridges.

2.2.1.1 Beam bridges: Beam bridges are the most simple of structural forms being supported by an abutment at each end of the deck. No moments are transferred through the support hence their structural type is known as simply supported. The simplest beam bridge could be a slab of stone, or a plank of wood laid across a stream. Bridges designed for modern infrastructure will usually be constructed of steel or reinforced concrete, or a combination of both. The concrete used can either be reinforced, prestressed or post-tensioned. Types of construction could include having many beams side by side with a deck across the top of them, to a main beam either side supporting a deck between them. The main beams could be Ibeams, trusses, or box girders. They could be half-through, or braced across the top to create a through bridge. 2.3 NEED FOR INVESTIGATION: Before a bridge can be built at a particular site, it is essential to consider many factors, such as the need for a bridge, the present and the future traffic stream characteristics subsoil conditions, alternative sites, aesthetics and cost. The aim of the investigation is to select a suitable site at which a bridge can be built economically, at the sometime satisfying the demands of traffic, the stream, safety and the aesthetics. The investigation for a major bridge project should cover studies on technical feasibility and economic considerations and should result in an investigation report. The success of the final design will depend on the thoroughness of the information furnished by the officer in charge of the investigation. 2.4 SELECTION OF BRIDGE SITE: This is particularly so in case of bridges in urban areas and flyovers. For river bridges in rural areas, usually a wider choice may be available. The characteristics of an ideal site for a bridge across a river are: i. A straight reach of the river. ii. Steady river flow without serious whirls and cross currents iii. A narrow channel with firm banks iv. Suitable high banks above high flood level on each side v. Rock or other hard in erodible strata close to the river bed level vi. Economical approaches which should not be very high or liable to flank attacks of the river during floods; the approaches should be free from obstacles such as hills, frequent drainage crossings, sacred places, graveyards or built up areas or troublesome land acquisition vii. Proximity to a direct alignment of the road to be connected viii. Absence of sharp curves in the approaches
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ix. Absence of expensive river training works and x. Avoidance of excessive underwater construction 2.5ECONOMIC RANGE OF SPAN LENGTHS FOR DIFFERENT TYPES OF STRUCTURES Apart from the estimated cost based on schedule of rates, costs as quoted during tendering may be used for constantly updating the cost analysis data. The ranges of span length within which a particular type of superstructure can be economical along with other considerations Rice type of foundation etc. are given be low:R.C.C. single or multiple boxes 1.5 to 15 m Simply supported RCC slabs Simply supported RCC T beam Simply supported PSC girder bridges Simply supported RCC voided slabs Simply supported/continuous PSC voided slabs Continuous RCC voided slabs RCC box sections simply supported / Balanced cantilever continuous 35 to 75 m PSC box sections; simply supported / Balanced cantilever 75 to 150 m PSC cantilever construction / continuous Cable stayed bridges Suspension bridges 100 to 800 m 300 to 1500 m 3 to 10 m 10 to 24 m 25 to 45 m 10 lo 15 m 15 to 30 m 10 to 20 m 25 to 50 m

3. STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS
3.1 STANDARD SPECIFICATION FOR ROAD BRIDGES: Standard specifications and code of practice have been evolved by the concerned government agencies and professional institutions, based on years of observation, research and development. The purpose of the codes is to ensure adequate safety and afford protection against legal liability arising out of failures due to no fault of the designer. Since the public roads and railways in India are owned and controlled by the government the bridges built on them should follow the instructions follow specifications laid down by the respective authorities. All highways bridges have to be built in accordance with the Indian Road Congress (IRC) CODES, besides specifications prescribed by the Ministry of Surface Transport (Roads Wing), Government of India (MOST).Similarly Indian Railway Standard (IRS) Bridge rules should be followed for the design of railway bridges. 3.2 LOADS TO BE CONSIDERED IN A DESIGN: 3.2.1 DEAD LOAD: The dead load consists of the weight of superstructure in any fixed support by the member. 3.2.2 LIVE LOAD: Class AA and a loading are adopted in the design. The standards are adopted as per IRC recommendations. As the pedestrian traffic is very less, design load of kerb is sufficient. 3.2.3 IMPACT: To take in to account the higher stresses is caused by the dynamic forces of the moving load, an impact allowance should be made. The standards are adopted as per IRC recommendations. 3.2.4 WIND LOAD: These forces are considered to act horizontally and in such a direction as to cause the maximum stresses in the member under consideration. The area to be considered on which the wind force is assumed to act is, the area of the structure as seen in the elevation including the floor system less the area of perforations. The wind loads are adopted as per IRC recommendations. 3.2.5 LONGITUDINAL FORCES: Tractive effort caused due to the acceleration of the driving wheels. Braking effect caused due to the application of brakes to the wheels. Resistance to the movement of bearings is due to temperature changes.
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3.2.6 DYNAMIC LOAD: The force exerted on a bridge as a result of unusual environmental factors, such as earthquakes or strong gusts of wind. 3.3 INDIAN ROAD CONGRESS BRIDGE CODE: The Indian Road Congress (IRC) Bridge code as available now consists of eight sections as below: a) Section I General features of design b) Section II- Loads and Stresses c) Section III-Cement concrete ( plain &reinforced) d) Section IV- Brick, stone and block masonry e) Section V- Steel road bridges f) Section VI- Composite construction g) Section VII- Foundations and substructure h) Section IX- Bearings 3.4 Bridge Loading Standards: Bridge loading standards in many countries were first formulated to regulate heavy military vehicles and were generally specified by local authorities. The loadings often considered of steam rollers and some form of traction engines. The earliest specifications of highway bridge loadings originated from the need to transport heavy military vehicles in U.K and Europe. The first loading standards in India was published by the Indian roads congress in 1958 and subsequently reprinted in 1962 and 1963.The I.R.C 6 code has revised to include the combination of loads forces and permissible stresses in fourth revision published in 2000. I.R.C. evolved different standard live loads. In terms of train tracked vehicle and wheeled vehicle with standard axle loads and spacing. I.R.C class AA loading: Only adopted for bridges which are within certain municipal limits, in certain industrial areas and on certain specified highways. Bridges designed for class AA loading are to be checked for class A loading because under certain conditions class A loading causes heavier stresses than class AA loading. I.R.C. class A loading (IRC standard loading): Adopted for permanent bridges other than those specified under class AA loading.
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I.R.C. class B loading (IRC light loading): Used for temporary bridges. I.R.C. class 70R loading (IRC heavy loading): This has been evolved to confirm to required standard loading of defence authorities. This is to be used in place of class AA loading. This government prescribed class 70R loading for bridges on national highways. According to present practice, it is necessary to compute the maximum live load bending moment for three different conditions of loading, and then adopt for design the greatest of three values. The computation of live load bending moment only one loading condition need be considered namely Class AA wheeled vehicle span up to 4m. Class AA tracked vehicle span exceed 4m. If shear is desired to be computed, class AA wheeled vehicle considered span up to 6m and tracked vehicle beyond 6m for single lane bridge. However, for 2 Lane Bridge the shear due to class AA wheeled vehicle controls the design for all spans from 1m to 8m. The design moment for distribution is taken as 0.3 of Live load +0.2 Dead load moment. The ministry of surface transport government of India, referred here in as most, has published a set of plans for 3.0m to 10.0m span reinforced deck slab. 3.4.1. IRC Class AA Loading Two different types of vehicles were specified under this category grouped as tracked and wheeled vehicles with loadings of 700 kN and 400 kN respectively. All the bridges located on National Highways and State Highways have to be designed for this heavy loading. These loadings are also adopted for bridges located within certain specified municipal localities and along specified Highways. Alternatively, another type of loading designated as Class70R is specified instead of Class AA loading. 3.4.2. IRC Class70 R Loading IRC 70 R Loading consists of following three types of vehicles. (a) Tracked vehicle of total load700 KN with two tracks each weighing 350Kn (b) Wheeled vehicle comprising 4 wheels, each with a load of 100 kN totalling 400kN
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(c) Wheeled vehicle with a train of vehicles on seven axles with a total load of 1000kN. The various categories of loads are to be separately considered and worst effect has to be considered in design. Only one lane of Class70R or Class AA load is considered whereas both the lanes are assumed to be occupied by Class A loading if that gives the worst effect. 3.4.3 IRC Class A loading IRC Class A type loading consists of a wheel load train comprising a truck with trailers of specified axle spacing and loads as shown in fig. The heavy duty trucks with two trailers transmits load from 8axle varying from a minimum of 27kN to a maximum of 114kN.The Class a loading is a 554 KN train of wheeled vehicles on eight axles. Impact has to be allowed as per the formulae recommended in the IRC:6-2000.This type of loading is recommended for all roads on which permanent bridges and culverts are constructed. 3.4.4 IRC Class B loading Class B type of loading is similar to Class A loading except that the axle loads are comparatively of lesser magnitude. The axle loads of Class B are a 332kN train of wheeled vehicle on eight axles as shown in fig. 3.5 WIDTH OF CARRIAGEWAY: The width of carriage way required will depend on the intensity and volume of traffic anticipated to use the bridge. The width of carriage way is expresses in terms of traffic lanes, each lane meaning the width required to accommodate one train of class A vehicles. The minimum width of carriageway for a one-lane bridge is: 4.25m The minimum width of carriageway for a two-lane bridge is: 7.5m For every additional lane, a minimum of 3.5m must be allowed. Three- lane bridges should not constructed, as these will be conducive to the occurrence of accidents. In case of a wide bridge, it is desirable to provide a central verge of at least 1.2m width in order to separate the two opposing lines of traffic. From consideration of safety and effective utilization of carriage way it is desirable to provide footpath of at least 1.5m width on either side of the carriageway for all bridges.

3.6 CLEARANCES: The horizontal and vertical clearances required for highway traffic are given in fig., below wherein the maximum width and depth of a moving vehicle are assumed as 3300mm and 4500mm respectively.

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4. COMPONENTS OF A BRIDGE:
The main of a bridge structure are: i. ii. iii. iv. v. Decking, consisting of deck slab, girders, trusses etc.; Bearings for the decking; Abutments and piers; Foundations for the abutments and piers; River training works, like revetment for slopes for embankment at abutments, and aprons at river bed level; vi. Approaches to the bridge to connect bridge proper to the roads on either side and vii. Handrails, parapets and guard stones Some of the components of a typical bridge are shown below: a) The components above the level of bearings are grouped as superstructure. b) While the parts below the bearings level are classed as the substructure. c) The portion below the bed level of a river bridge is called the foundation.

d) The components below the bearing and above the foundation are often referred Sub-structure. 4.1 Type of foundations: The subsoil characteristics obtained at a particular site and consequently "file" type of foundations feasible, is one of the major "considerations- in selector of type of structure and span arrangement as already mentioned: 4.1.1 Shallow foundations: Isolated open foundations are feasible where an SBC of about 15t/m2 or more is available at shallow depths with in-redouble substratum. Here again, open excavation is feasible only up to a depth of 3 to 4 m where the subsoil is porous and water table is high. In cases, where the SBC is still less and where ~ smaller spans arc economical from other considerations, raft foundations or box structures with floor' protection arid curtain walls are the other options. 4.1.2 Deep foundations : Where suitable founding strata is available at a depth of 6 m or more with substantial depth of standing water, highly pervious substratum and large' scour depth'/it may be "advisable to go for deep foundation like (a) well, or (b) piles. 4.1.2.1 Well foundations: This is one of the most popular 'types of deep foundations in our Country, due various reasons like its simplicity, requirement of very little of equipment's for'
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its execution, adaptability to different subsoil conditions and difficult site conditions like deep standing water and large depths to good founding strata. Caissons are an adaptation of well foundations to sites with deep standing water" 4.1.2.2 Pile foundations: Pile foundations are another type of deep foundations which are suited for adoption in the following situations:-Availability' of good founding strata below large deep soft soil Need to have very deep foundations beyond the limit of pneumatic operations usually depth beyond 35 meters or so. In some cases of, strata underlying deep standing water and the strata being very hard not permitting easy sinking of wells or based on economic factors deciding the use of piles as compared to wells. However, pile foundations are not preferred within the flood zone of the river with deep scour. Classification of piles (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) Precast driven piles Driven cast-in-situ piles Bored cast-in-situ piles Bored recast piles and Driven steel piles

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fig 4.1: components of bridge structure

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4.2PIERS: 4.2 PIERS: Piers are structures located at the ends of bridge spans at intermediate points between the abutments. The function of the piers is two-fold to transfer the vertical loads to the foundation, and to resist all horizontal forces and transverse forces acting on the bridge. Being one of the most visible components of a bridge, the piers contribute to the aesthetic appearance of the structure. The general shape and features of the pier depend to a large extent on the type, size and dimensions of the super structure and also the environment in which the pier is located.

Fig 4.2: Pier 4.3 ABUTMENTS: An abutment is the substructure which supports one terminals of the superstructure of a bridge and laterally supports the embankment which serves as an approach to die bridge. It consists of generally three structural elements. a) The Brest wall, which directly supports the dead and live loads of the superstructure, and retains the filling of the embankment in its rear. b) The wing wall. Which act as extensions of the breast wall in retaining the fill, not taking loads from the superstructure c) The back wall, which is small retaining wall just behind the bridge seat.

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Fig 4.3-Abutment

4.4 BEARINGS: 4.4.1 Bearings are vital components of a bridge which while allowing of longitudinal and/or transverse rotations and/ or movements of the superstructure with respect to the substructure (thus relieving stresses due to expansion and contraction), effectively transfer loads and forces from superstructure to substructure. Adequate care shall be exercised in selecting the right type of bearings based on the guidelines given below: (a) For solid/voided- slab superstructure resting on unyielding supports, no bearings arc generally provided if the span length is less than 10m. The top of piers/abutments caps are however rubbed smooth with carborandum stone. (b)For girder and slab spans more than 10m length and resting on unyielding supports, neoprene bearings may be considered. For spans larger than 25m roller and rocker bearings or PTFE bearings could be considered. (d)For very large spans and where multidirectional freedom of movement and rotation are to be allowed provision of pot bearings may be considered. 4.4.2 The design of metallic bearings conformity with IRC: 8: Parts I & II respectively. and neoprene bearingsshall be in

4.4.3 In case of roller-cum-rocker bearings only full circular rollers are to be provided. 4.4.4 In order to cater for any possible relative undue movement of bearings over the abutment resulting in girder ends jamming against the dirt wall preferably
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a larger gap may be provided between the girder end and the dirt wall. 4.4.5 All bearings assemblies shall be installed in accordance with. the instructions contained in the codes and specifications and on the approved drawings. In particular the following important points shall not be lost sight of: (a)All bearings shall be set truly level so as to have full and even seating. Thin mortar pads (not exceeding 12mm) may be used to meet this requirement. (b)The bottoms of girders resting on the bearing shall be plane and truly horizontal. (c)In case of rockers and roller bearings, necessary adjustment for temperature at the time of placement, shrinkage, creep and elastic shortening shall be made, such that the line of bearing is as central as possible on the bearing plates at the normal temperature taken in design. (d) For elastomeric bearing pads, the concrete surface shall be level such that the variation is not more than 1.5mm from a straight edge placed in any direction across the area. (e) For spans in grade, the bearings shall be placed horizontal by using sole plates or suitably designed R.C.C. pedestals. (f)Bearings of different sizes must not be placed next to each other to support a span. (g)Installation of multiple bearings one behind the other on a single line of Support is not permitted. (h)The bearings shall be so protected while concreting the deck in situ that there is no flow of mortar or any other extraneous matter into the bearing assembly and particularly on to the bearing surfaces. The protection shall be such that it can be dismantled after the construction is over without disturbing the bearing assembly. 4.5. Superstructure: (i) It is the superstructure of a bridge that directly supports the traffic and facilitates its smooth uninterrupted passage over natural/manmade barriers like rivers, creeks, railways, roads etc. by transmitting the loads and forces coming over it to the foundation through the bearings and substructure. (ii) The minimum functional requirement of superstructure are specified in IRC: 5 and IRC: 21. In case of box girder superstructure, the minimum clear height inside the box girders shall be 1.5 m to facilitate inspection. (iii)Aesthetics will be one of the major considerations while deciding oil the type of superstructure of a bridge keeping in view the criteria mentioned therein. (iv)Consistent with economy and local availability of the materials, labour and technology for a particular type of superstructure selection may have to be made out of the following material options:
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(a) Masonry (b)Reinforcedcementconcrete (c)Pre-stressedconcrete (d) Steel (e)Composite construction

(v) Reinforced cement concrete superstructure: These are the most popular type of superstructure in the present day which may take the form of solid slab, voided slab. T-beam and slab, box girder, rigid frame, arch, balanced cantilever or bow-string girder.

Fig 4.4-Superstructure ( girder and slab type) 4.5.1 GENERAL ARRANGEMENT OF GIRDERS IN SUPER STRUCTURE: Typical arrangements of RCC as well as PSC girder and slab type .It will be found that the main reinforcement becomes heavy and for long spans becomes inconvenient for placement. The alternative arrangement is to provide for box girders in which case a single box for both lanes or twin boxes for two lanes can be provided. Recent long-span girders have been designed with a single box per pair of lanes also. The typical arrangements for box for a two- lane bridge are indicated. There are three different ways of providing the beams and slabs. These arrangements are equally applicable if the RCC Tbeam is replaced by prestressed concrete girders. As will be seen in the arrangement the three different arrangements for T-beam girders will have differing effects on distribution of loads on slab as well as between girders.

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4.5.1.1. Girder and slab type: In this, the deck slab is supported on and cast monolithically with the longitudinal girders and no cross beam is provided. This has the disadvantage of providing no torsional rigidity and there will be always the danger of the girders tending to separate at the bottom level. They tend to tilt, particularly at bearings, and cause uneven loading across the bottom bearing area. The slab is designed as a one-way continuous slab spanning between the longitudinal girders. 4.5.1.2. Girder slab and diaphragm type: In this arrangement also, the slab is supported on and cast monolithically with longitudinal girders. However, diaphragms are provided to connect the girders at the supports and on one or more location within the length of span. Since these diaphragms do not extend up to the slab, the slab design is similar to the one mentioned in (a). The girders, however, are rendered more rigid by the diaphragms, and the distribution of load between the girders , becomes more uniform. 4.5.1.3. Girder, slab and cross beam type: In this, the diaphragms are replaced by cross beams provided at the ends and one or more intermediate locations making any least three. They are cast monolithically with the deck slab. In this case, the deck slab is thus supported on all four sides and hence it can be designed as a twoway slab. The cross beams provide still better stiffness than diaphragms, and this hence results in a still better distribution of the loads among the longitudinal girders in multiple-lane bridges. This also provides the advantage of reducing the number of longitudinal beams as spacing can be increased without the fear of the need to have a deeper slab since the slab will be designed as supported on all four sides. Some experiments conducted by Prof. Victor at IIT Madras on one-sixth micro concrete model of a bridge 20, three- span girder bridge for these types gave the following conclusions: (1) The deflection of superstructure of type (b) and (c) were only 74 per cent and 63 per cent , respectively, of the deflection for type (a) (2) The transverse load distribution between the girders was better with type (b) and best with type (c); and (3) The ultimate load-carrying capacity for the combined superstructure of types (b) and (c) were 132 per cent and 162 per cent, respectively, of the capacity for type (a).The only disadvantage in type (c) is the complication involved in fixing form work and tying reinforcements. The current Indian practice is to use the type (b) or (c) with one cross beam on each support and at least three cross beams in between for long spans. The spacing of cross beams or diaphragms is generally kept not more than 1.5 times the spacing of the longitudinal girders. A few more typical arrangements of beams and boxes below the slabs for RCC/PSC bridges are indicated.

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4.5.2 TYPES OF PRESTRESSING AND ITS PROPER USE Basically two types of prestressing i.e. pre tensioned and post tensioned are applied in bridge engineering. Generally pretensioning is very rarely used in the state because of its limitations like proximity and availability of plant, size of member, number of units etc. Post tensioning system is mainly used in the state. Various systems of prestressing are (a) Freyssinet, (b) Magnel-Blaton, (c) Gifford- Udall system

Fig 4.5(a)-Freyssinet system

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Fig 4.5(b) - Freyssinet system

Fig 4.6 Gifford - Udall system Many of the post tensioning devices are covered by patents. In case of Freyssinet system, cable with a fixed number of wires e.g. 12-5f or 12-7f or 19-7f are used. The sheathing as specified in IRC: 18-2000 is generally (CRCA) Mild Steel of bright metal finish or corrugated High Density Polyethylene (HDPE)

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5. DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR BRIDGES

5.1 CONCRETE BRIDGES: Reinforced concrete and pre stressed concrete have been found most suited for the construction of highway bridges, the former for small and medium spans and the latter for long spans .Reinforced concrete has been used on railways up to 10m span and pre-stressed concrete up to 24m in India but up to 35m in many countries. Reinforced concrete even in form of open web type of girders is being tried in longer railway spans in Japan. They have used continuous deck type spans up to 105m.There is however, reluctance on the part of Indian railway engineers to adopt reinforced and pre-stressed concrete for longer spans on railways, due to the heavy dead load to be dealt with the comparatively longer construction time and difficulty in maintaining adequate quality control at the site of construction. They are also difficult to be replaced under traffic when the loading conditions alter or major damages are caused due to derailments and the super-structure requires to be changed The various codes referred to for design of the concrete bridges and bridges elements are: 1. IRS Code for concrete and pre stressed composite bridges on railways; 2. IRC 21-2000, standard specification and code of practice for road bridges, section 3, cement concrete (plain and reinforced); 3. IS: 456-1964 Indian standard specification and code of practice for plain and reinforced concrete; 4. IS: 432-1966, Indian standard specification for mild and medium tensile bars and hard drawn wire for concrete mix for cement; 5. IS: 1139-1959, Indian standard specification for hot rolled mild steel and medium tensile deformed bars for concrete reinforcement; 6. IRC: 18-2000, design criteria for pre stressed concrete road bridges (post-tensioned);and

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7. IS: 1786-1966, Indian standard specification for cold twisted steel bars for concrete reinforcement-tensile steel deformed bars for concrete reinforcement. 5.2 DESIGN CRITERIA FOR RAILWAY BRIDGES Ordinary Concrete with nominal mix by volume is used in bed blocks, column footing, foundation and mass concrete works where the standard of specification and workmanship are likely to be lower. The maximum permissible stresses in concrete for various mixes Controlled concrete is used in all girder parts, particularly in super-structure slabs and girders, precast piles and for all prestressed concrete work. The minimum quantity of cement to be used for controlled concrete on the railways according to the IRS concrete code is 325 kg/m3of concrete. IRC stipulates 360 kg/m3 for major bridges. When the mix design and testing is done, the relationships used for arriving at various strengths are: Fc= 28 days works test strength on cubes of size 150 mm in kg/cm2 fc= 28 days works test strength on cubes of size 150 mm in N/mm2 Cylinder strength=Cube strength*0.8 Works test strength: Preliminary test strength=1.25 to 1.33 The various proportions for permissible stresses used are: Direct compression = 0.26Fc or 0.26fc Compression due to bending = 0.34FC or 0.34fc Shear (as inclined tension) = 0.034FC or 0.034fc
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Where shear reinforcement is used, four times the shear above is permissible. Bond average for anchorage = 0.04Fc or 0.04fc Bond-local = 1.75 times average, i.e., 0.07FC or 0.07fc Bearing pressure on plain concrete-average on full area= 0.20Fc OR 0.20fc Bearing pressure on plain concrete-average on an area less than one-third of full area= 0.30Fc or fc Tensile stress in bending for plain concrete is same as permissible for shear stress 5.2.1. STEEL USED IN CONCRETE: The modulus of elasticity for steel to be used in prestressed concrete work is as follows. Plain drawn wires Heat treated alloy bars Concrete 1.96105 N/mm2 (2106 kg/cm2) 1.71105 N/mm2 (1.75106 kg/cm2) 5630fc N/mm2 18000Fc kg/m2 Permissible stress in other steel bars used in all RCC and PSC worksIn prestressed concrete, the concrete used should have fc not less than 41.1 N/mm2 for pretensioning and not less than 34.3 N/mm2 for post-tensioning. The quantity of cement used for prestressed concrete should preferably be equal to 530 kg/m3 the minimum being 380 kg/m3 for post-tensioning. The compaction and vibration should be such that the density of the concrete is not less than 2400 kg/m3. The ultimate strength of concrete at transfer should not be less than (2/3) Fc used for design. Modular ratio is taken as 276/3 fc N/mm2 (or 2812/3 FC kg/cm2). or

23

Minimum cover and spacing for reinforcement: The higher of the two alternatives mentioned will apply ( stands for diameter of bar). Each end 25mm or 2 Longitudinal bars in column 38mm or For columns of size 20 cm and 25mm or Under Longitudinal bars in beams 25mm or Bars in slabs 13mm or Any others 13mm or Foundation footings 50mm For structures submerged in water 75mm from surface or ends Minimum distance between bars: 1. Horizontal if diameters are equal or a. of largest bars or b. Nominal maximum size of aggregate +6 mm 2. Vertical spacing between two horizontal layers < 13mm.

3. Pitch of main slabs >300mm or > twice effective depth. 4. Pitch of distribution bars in slabs > 600mm or > 4 times effective depth. 5.3 Design Criteria for road bridges: IRC 21-2000 applies to design of road bridges in concrete. Nominal mix concrete is not included for use in road bridges. Material specifications and permissible stresses to be used for the concrete and steel generally follow the provisions in relevant IS codes IS: 456, IS: 432, IS: 1139, IS: 1566, IS: 1786 subject to some minor changes. Minimum cement content for major bridges is 360 kg/cum and maximum 540 kg/cum. It specifies different minimum grades for culverts and major bridges. For bridges in severe exposure conditions one grade higher concrete is to be used. For calculating stresses in section a modular ratio of 10 may be adopted. Permissible shear stress without stirrups varies with the percentage of steel provided from 0.18Mpa to 2.5Mpa for M20 concrete and 0.15% reinforcement for M40 and 3.0% for above grades of concrete.

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Minimum cover to be provided for the reinforcement depends on the exposure conditions also. In moderate conditions of exposure, minimum cover from any exposed surface shall be 40 mm and in conditions obsevere exposure, it shall be 50 mm. In conditions of alternate wetting and drying the code requires provision of 75 mm cover. Minimum size of bar to be used is 8 mm and in columns, minimum size of longitudinal bar is 12 mm. The code also prohibits maximum diameter as 40 mm or a section of equivalent area, except in special circumstances.

Fig 4.7-Cross section across diaphragm wall

Cross girders monolithic with the deck slab should be provided at bearings and may be provided in intermediate locations according to design requirements. Minimum thickness shall not be less than that of deck slab and it should extend at least three- fourths depth of main beams. They are designed with reinforcement equal to approximately 0.50% of gross area at the bottom and 0.25% of gross area of steel in top. Nominal two legged stirrups of 12mm diameter at 150mm centers are provided.

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5.3.1 DESIGN PROCEDURES FOR BRIDGE SUPERSTRUCTURE: 5.3.1.1 Introduction: The design procedures for railway and road bridges primarily differ in consideration of loading. In general, EUDL tables are available for design of not only main beams but also floor systems for railway bridges. On the other hand, the highway bridge design takes into consideration individual disposition of the wheel loads of the vehicles. The procedure is briefly dealt with individually for these two in this section. 5. 3.2 DESIGN PROCEDURE FOR RAILWAY BRIDGES: 5.3.2.1 Steel Girders (a)Deck-type bridges: Generally, deck-type bridges are designed with two girders carrying a track. Some principles of spacing of girders have already been indicated in subsection. The track is carried over the girders generally using timber or steel sleepers which are connected to the top flanges of the girders by means of the girders by means of hook bolts or other bolts. The sleepers can be designed to carry the loads coming through the two rails as concentrated loads and for all standard spans up to 91.44 m and issued drawings to show general arrangements as well as details of members and joints.

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6. WELL FOUNDATIONS
6.1 Introduction: Well foundations had their origin in India and have been used for hundreds of years for providing and deep foundations The below technique the of spring sinking water level for wells

important

buildings

structures.

masonry

for drinking water is very ancient and even today small drinking water wells are constructed all over the Well on were of country using the same methods as were

prevalent centuries important at irrigation (India), the

ago.

foundations the

were used canal in the

for the first including solani the of and

time for aqueduct nineteenth a it large was were

structures which advent across that

Ganga

Roorkee

constructed Railways in

middle

of

century. number recognized

With of

India, became

construction necessary well

bridges very soon

major much

rivers bigger

and

deeper

foundations

required for their piers and abutments.

Fig 6.1-well foundations

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6.2 Comparison with Pile Foundation i) Well foundations provide a solid and massive foundation for heavy loads as against a cluster of piles which are slender and weak individually and are liable to get damaged when hit by floating trees or boulders rolling on the river bed in case of bridge piers. ii) Wells have a large cross sectional area and the bearing capacity of soil for this area is much greater than that of the same soil at the same depth for bearing piles of small crosssection. iii) Well foundations can be provided up to any depth if only open sinking is involved and upto a depth of 33.5m if pneumatic sinking is required to be done. Pile foundations are generally economical up to a depth of 18m and in some cases for depths up to 27m. iv) Piles cannot be driven through soil having boulders. Logs of wood which are very often found buried even at great depths also obstruct a pile. It is possible to sink a well after overcoming these obstructions. v) The size of well foundations cannot be reduced indefinitely as the dredge hole must be enough to enable a grab to work and the steining must have the thickness necessary to provide the required sinking effort. It is, therefore, not economical to use well foundations for very small loads and pile foundations are more suitable for them. vi) Wells are hollow at the center and most of the material is at the periphery. This Provides a large section modulus with the minimum cross-sectional area. They can resist large horizontal forces and can also take vertical loads even when the unsupported length is large. The section modulus of individual piles in a cluster is small and cannot carry large horizontal force or vertical loads when the unsupported length is considerable as in case of bridge piers and abutments in scourable riverbeds. vii) The bearing capacity of a pile is generally uncertain. In most cases, it is not possible to determine the exact strata through which each individual pile has passed. It cannot be said with confidence in the case of bearing piles if they have gone and rested on the strata taken into account while designing them or if they are resting only on an isolated boulder. In case of wells sunk by dewatering or pneumatic sinking, it is possible to visually
28

examine the strata through which sinking is done in its natural state and the material on which they are finally founded. Even when sinking is done by dredging, the dredged material gives a fairly good idea of the strata through which the well is sunk. Drilled piles and caisson piles also have this advantage over the driven piles. viii) Masonry in the steining wells is done under dry conditions and the quality of masonry Or concrete is much better than in case of cast in situ piles for which concreting is done below the ground level and in many cases below the water level, where it cannot be inspected. Even in case of precast piles, the concrete is subjected to a lot of hammering and damage to it cannot be ruled out. ix) In case of wells rising of the well steining and sinking are done in stages and a decision about the foundation level can be taken as the work progresses piles and the strata conditions become known. In case of precast piles, a decision about the depth has to be taken in advance. If the bearing capacity of the piles at the design depth is found to be less than the calculated value after testing, it may become necessary to redesign the foundation and the piles of short length already cast may have to be rejected or additional number of piles may have to be provided in each cluster. On the other hand if the stratum is too hard, it may not be possible to sink them to the design depth and the piles may have to be cut which is costly and wasteful. This does not apply to cast in situ piles. 6.3 Well Types and Their Suitability: The followings are the different types of well in common use in Indian Railways as well as roadways. The advantages and disadvantages of each type have also been discussed as below: 6.3.1Circular well This type of well is used most commonly and the main points in its favour are its strength. Simplicity in construction and ease in sinking. It requires

only one dredger for sinking and its weight per sq. metre of surface is the highest due to which the sinking effort for this well is also high. The

distance of the cutting edge from the dredge hole is uniform all over and the chances of tilting are the minimum for this type of well. generally adopted for piers of single track railway bridges
29

The well is and those of

bridges on narrow roads. wells becomes unduly

When the piers are very long the size of circular which makes them costly and disadvantageous

large,

hydraulically also as they cause excessive obstruction to the flow of water. Nine wells. metres is generally considered as the maximum diameter of circular

Allowing cantilever of one metre on either side the maximum length

of the pier resting on this type of well is about 11 metres. 6.3.6 Wells with Multiple Dredge Holes For piers and abutments of very large sizes, wells with multiple dredge holes are used. Wells of this type are not common in India. Wells of this type The size of these

were, however, used for the towers of Howrah Bridge.

wells is 24.8m x 55m and there are 21 dredge holes in each of them, In the United States wells of this type are more common. The overall dimension of

the largest well are 60.5m x 29.6m and they support the piers of San Francisco Okland Bridge. Each well has 55 square dredge holes of 5.2m x 5.2m size.

30

31 Fig 6.2-shapes of well foundations

7. PRESTRESSED CONCRETE
7.1 DEFINITION: Prestressed concrete is a method for overcoming concrete's natural weakness in tension. It can be used to produce beams, floors or bridges with a longer span than is practical with ordinary reinforced concrete. Prestressing tendons (generally of high tensile steel cable or rods) are used to provide a clamping load which produces a compressive stress that balances the tensile stress that the concrete compression member would otherwise experience due to a bending load.

7.2 PRETENSIONED CONCRETE: Pre-tensioned concrete is cast around already tensioned tendons. This method produces a good bond between the tendon and the concrete, which both protects the tendon from corrosion and allows for direct transfer of tension. The cured concrete adheres and bonds to the bars and when the tension is released it is transferred to the concrete as compression by static friction .However, it requires stout anchoring points between which the tendon is to be stretched and the tendons are usually in a straight line. Thus, most pre-tensioned concrete elements are prefabricated in a factory and must be transported to the construction site, which limits their size. Pre-tensioned elements may be balcony elements, or a method of lintels, floor slab, beams or foundation piles. An innovative bridge construction method using pre-stressing is described in Stressed Ribbon Bridge.

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7.3 POST TENSIONED CONCRETE: 7.3.1 BONDED POST TENSIONED CONCRETE:

Fig 7.1-pre stressing cables along with reinforcement for I -girder Bonded post tensioned concrete is descriptive term for a method of applying compression after pouring concrete and the curing process. The concrete is cast around plastic, steel or aluminum curved duct, to follow the area where otherwise tension would occur in the concrete element. A set of tendons are fished through the duct and the concrete is poured. Once the concrete has hardened, the tendons are tensioned by hydraulic jack tzhat reacts against the concrete member itself. When the tendons have stretched sufficiently, according to the design specifications (see Hookes law), they are wedged in position and maintain tension after the jacks are removed, transferring pressure to the concrete. The duct is then grouted to protect the tendons from corrosion.

33

Fig 7.2-showing base plates fixed in concrete girder This method is commonly used to create monolithic slabs for house contraction of the underlying soil is taken (such as adobe clay) create problems for the typical perimeter foundation. All stresses from seasonal expansion and contraction of the underlying soil are taken into the entire tensioned slab, which supports the building without significant flexure. Post-tensioning is also used in the construction of various bridges; both after concrete is cured after support by false work and by the assembly of prefabricated sections, as in the segmental bridge. The advantages of this system over unbounded post-tensioning are: 1) Large reduction in traditional reinforcement requirements as tendons cannot distress in accidents. 2) Tendons can be easily weaved allowing a more efficient design approach. 3) Higher ultimate strength due to bond generated between strand and concrete. 4) No long term issues with maintaining the integrity of the anchor/dead end. 7.3.2 UNBOUNDED POST TENSIONED CONCRETE: Unbounded post tensioned concrete differs from post-tensioning by providing each individual cable permanent freedom of movement relative to the concrete. To achieve this, each individual tendon is coated with grease (generally lithium based) and covered by a plastic sheathing formed in an extrusion process. The transfer of the tension to the concrete is achieved by the steel cable acting against steel anchors embedded in the perimeter of slab. The main disadvantage over bonded post tensioning is the fact that a cable can distress itself and burst out
34

of the slab if damaged (such as during repair on the slab).The advantages of this system over bonded post-tensioning are: 1) The ability to individually adjust cables based on poor field conditions. 2) The procedure of post-stress grouting is eliminated. 3) The ability to de-stress the tendons before attempting repair work. 7.3.3 Procedure for Tensioning and Transfer: Stressing: The tensioning of prestressing tendons shall be carried out in a manner that will induce a smooth and even rate of increase of stress in the tendons. The total tension imparted to each tendon shall conform to the requirements of the design. No alteration in the prestressing force in any tendon shall be allowed unless specifically approved by the designer. Any slack in the prestressing tendon shall first be taken up by applying a small initial tension. The initial tension required to remove slackness shall be taken as the starting point for measuring the elongation and a correction shall be applied to the total required elongation to compensate for the initial tensioning of the wire. The extent of correction shall be arrived at by plotting on a graph the gauge reading as abscissa and extensions as ordinates: the intersection of the curve with the Y axis when extended shall be taken to give the effective elongation during initial tensioning, and this effective elongation shall be added to the measured elongation to arrive at the actual total elongation. When two or more prestressing tendons are to be tensioned simultaneously, care shall be taken to ensure that all such tendons are of the same length from grip to grip. The provision shall be more carefully observed for tendons of a length smaller than 7.5 m. The placement of cables or ducts and the order of stressing and grouting shall be so arranged that the prestressing steel, when tensioned and grouted, does not adversely affect the adjoining ducts.

35

7.5 TERMINOLOGY:

i. Tendon: A stretched element is used in a concrete member of structure to impart pre-stressed to concrete. High tensile steel wires, bars, cables are used as tendons. ii. Anchorage: A device generally used to enable the tendon to impart and maintained pre-stressed in the concrete, the commonly used anchorages are the Fressiynet, Magnel blaton & other systems.

iii. Pre-tensioning: A method of pre-stressing concrete in which the tendons are tensioned before the concrete is placed. iv. Post tensioning: A method of pre-stressing concrete by tensioning tendons against hardened concrete.

v. Bonded pre-stressed concrete: Concrete in which pre-stressed is imparted to concrete through bond between the tendons & surrounding concrete pre-tensioned members are belong to this group. vi. Non bonded pre-stressed concrete A method of construction in which the tendons are not bonded to the surrounding concrete. The tendons may be placed in the ducts formed in the concrete members or they may be placed outside the concrete section. vii. Full pre-stressing: Pre-stressed concrete in which tensile stress in the concrete are entirely obviated at working loads by having sufficiently high pre-stress in the members. viii. Limited or partial pre-stressing: The degree of pre-stress applied to concrete in which tensile stress to a limited degree are permitted in concrete under working loads.

36

ix. Moderate pre-stressing: In this type no limit is imposed upon the magnitude of tensile stress at working loads this form of construction is not really pre-stressed concrete but is to be regarded as reinforced concrete with reduced cracking and the section should be analyzed according to the rules of reinforced concrete as a case of bending combined with axial force. x. Axial pre-stressing: A member in which entire cross section of concrete has a uniform compressive prestress in this type of pre-stressing the centroid of the tendons coincides with that of concrete section. xi. Cracking load: The load on structural element corresponding to the first visible crack.

xii. Creep in concrete: Progressive increase in the inelastic deformation of concrete under sustained stress components.

37

8. MISCLANEOUS ITEMS OF WORK

8.1. Material to be used: 8.1.1. Concrete: In specifying a particular grade of concrete, the following information should be included: a) Type of mix, that is, design mix concrete as nominal mix concrete. b) Grade designation. c) Type of cement d) Maximum aggregate. nominal size of

e) Minimum cement content (for design mix concrete) f) Maximum water cement ratio. g) Workability h) Mix proportion (for nominal mix concrete). i) Exposure conditions - As guided by table No. 4 & 5 of IS-456:2000. j) Maximum temperature of concrete at the time of placing. k) Method of placing and l) Degree of supervision. The protection of the steel in concrete against corrosion depends upon an adequate thickness of good quality of concrete. The free water cement ratio Fig8.1-Batching plant for weigh batching and mixing of concrete

is an important factor in governing the durability of concrete and should always be the lowest value. Cement content not including fly ash and ground granulated blast furnace slag in excess of 450 kg/m 3 should not be used unless special consideration has been given in design to the increased risk of cracking due to drying shrinkage in thin sections as to early thermal cracking and to the increased risk of damage due to alkali silica reactions.

38

Fig 8.2-fresh flowing concrete (Clause N0. 5.2.1 of IRS CBC) When the designer wishes to have an estimate of the tensile strength from compressive strength, the following expression may be used. fcr = 0.7 ,

fcr is the flexural strength in N/mm2; and fck is the characteristic compressive strength of concrete in N/mm2. Under water concrete should have a very high degree of workability and confirm to IS: 9103.The water cement ratio shall not exceed 0.6 and may need to be smaller, depending on the grade of concrete or the type of chemical attack. For aggregates of 40 mm maximum particle size, the cement content shall be at least 350 kg/m3 of concrete. In case of plain concrete wells, the concrete mix for the steining shall not normally be leaner than M-15. In case of marine or other similar conditions of adverse exposure, the concrete in the steining shall not be less than leaner than M-20 with cement not less than 310 kg/m3 of concrete and the water cement ratio not more than 0.45. The well curb shall invariably be in reinforced concrete of mix not leaner than M-25. The mix used in bottom plug shall have a minimum cement content of 330 kg/m3 and a slump of about 150mm to permit easy flow of concrete through tremie to fill up all cavities. Concrete shall be laid in one continuous operation till dredge hole is filled to required height. For under water concreting the concrete
39

shall

be

placed

gently

by

tremie boxes under still water condition and the cement contents of mix be increased by 10 percent. In case grouted concrete, e.g. concrete is used, the grout mix shall not be leaner than 1:2 and it shall be ensured by suitable means, such as, controlling the rate of pumping that the grout fills up all interstices up to the top of the plug. If any dewatering is required it shall be carried out after 7 days have elapsed after bottom plugging. (Clause No. 708.10.1 IRC 78:2000) A 300mm thick plug of M-15 cement concrete shall be provided over the filling. ERECTION SCHEME OF GIRDERS: 1. The piers and bed blocks must be completed in all respects from one and of the bridge, for commencement of erection / launching of the pre-cast PSC girders. 2 .A two spans continuous launching truss may be used to span across the first two spans of the bridge, for commencing launching of girders. 3. The two outer girders, of the first span of bridge can be lead by moving the girders on a temporary rail track up to the launching truss (behind abutment) and then through the help of launching truss, they can be moved further into the first span location , since the launching truss is already in position over the first and second span. 4. The first span girders (2 Nos) are lead into the span with the help of launching truss lowered on to the bed block and temporarily placed and secured properly. The launching truss can now move towards to occupy span numbers 2 and 3.

40

5. The girders already placed in span 1 can now be moved laterally to a desired location for providing a temporary track over these girders, for leading girders to further spans which are moved by trolleys running on temporary track over these girders.

Fig8.8(a)-Erection of girders using launching trusses

Fig 8.8(b)-Erection of girders using launching trusses

41

6. The two outer girders of the second span can now be brought over the temporary track laid over the girders of the first span already erected. The girders are carried further into the second span with the help of launching truss for leading and lowering of the girders in the second span. 7. Now the launching truss can be moved further into 3rd and 4th spans, this sequence can continue until two girders in all spans are erected. 8. The central girder of each of the spans is now brought with the help of trolley running over the temporary track, and lowered into the span. 9. After all three girders of each span are brought into the span, they are side shifted to their final positions and then the in-situ portion of the diaphragms shall be concreted in the first stage. The deck slab shall be concreted in the second stage to complete the structural work of superstructure. 10. The PSC girder shall be lifted only at the end diaphragm locations and from no other intermediate locations.

42

CONCLUSION:

The project created awareness about the construction process of precasting of concrete elements, prestressing techniques and launching of the pre cast girders in their respective positions. The design methodologies adopted in actual field and the importance of detailed drawings are understood. The difficulties in the actual construction of well foundations are studied.

43

References
1. IRC: 78-2000, Standard specifications and Code of practice for road bridges. Section-VII, Foundation and Substructure (Second Revision),The India Road Congress, Jamnagar House, Shahjahan Road, New Delhi- 110 011. 2.IS-456:2000- Plain and Reinforces Concrete Code of Practice (Fourth Revision) Bureau of Indian Standards, Manak Bhawan, 9 Bahadur Shah Zafar Marg, New Delhi- 110 002. 3.Concrete Bridge Code- IRS Code of Practice Plain, Reinforced and Prestressed Concrete for General Bridge Construction, RDSO, Lucknow-226 011. 4. IRS Code of Practice for the design of Sub-structures and Foundations of Bridges, RDSO, Lucknow- 226011. 5. Design of bridges by N.Krishna Raju. 6. Bridge Engineering by Ponnuswamy.

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