Contents

Introduction 1. Details of organizational setup Transformer 1. Introduction Protection 1. 2. 3. 4. Introduction Relays Various Faults Types of Relays IV IV VII VII XII XII XIII XV XVI XVII

1. Details of Technical and other Observations 2. Transmission Lines 3. Conductors Used Isolators 1. Introduction 2. Operation Circuit Breaker 1. Introduction 2. Types of circuit breaker Lightning Arrester 1. Introduction Power Line Carrier Communication 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Introduction Basics Major System Component Basic Principle of PLCC Line Traps/Wave Traps Coupling Capacitors Drainage Coils Advantages & Disadvantages of PLCC Failure Scenarios

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XXXII XXXIII XXXIII XXXIV XXXV XXXV

 Control Room 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Introduction Announcing Section Control and Relay panel Supervisory Control & Data acquire system Scanning and Indication CRT Display

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

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List of Figures
1. Switchyard 2. Transformer 3. Current transformer 4. Potential transformer 5. Relay on positive power 6. Relays on Panel 7. Buchholzs relay 8. Circuit breaker 9. ABCB Breaker 10. SF6 Breaker 11. Lightening Arrestor 12. Basic Power Line Carrier Terminal 13. Power Line Carrier Communication 14. Coupling Capacitor and Drain Coil Combination 15. Control panels in control room

VI VIII IX X XIII XIV XVI XVIII XIX XIX XXV XXXII XXXII XXXIV XXXVII

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INTRODUCTION
The Rajasthan state as it exist today is the result of integration of 19 former Princely States and was formed in April, 1949.At the formation of Rajasthan in April, 1949 there were 15 state owned Power Houses with a total installed capacity of 13271 KW and an aggregate maximum demand on the stations of approximately 7483 KW. The Rajasthan State Electricity Board was constituted with effect from July 1, 1957 by Government of Rajasthan Notification No. F.11/OSD (PWD)/57 dated the 28th June, 1957 under the electricity (Supply) Act, 1948 Government of Rajasthan on July 19, 2000 issued a gazette notification unbuilding Rajasthan State Electricity Board into Rajasthan Rajya Vidyut Utpadan Nigam Ltd. which will be generation company; Rajasthan Rajya Vidut Prasarn Nigam Ltd. which will be the transmission Company and three regional distribution companies namely Jaipur Vidyut Vitaran Nigam Ltd., Ajmer Vidyut Vitaran Nigam Ltd. and Jodhpur Vidyut Vitaran Nigam Ltd. The Generation Company will own and operate the thermal power stations at Kota and Suratghar, Gas based power station at Ramghar, Hydel power station at Mahi and mini Hydel stations in the State. The Transmission Company will own and operate all the 400kV, 220 kV, 132kV and 66kV electricity lines and system in State and will also be responsible for procuring power. The three Distribution Companies will operate and maintain the electricity system below 66kV in the state and their respective areas.

1.1 DETAILS OF ORGANISATION SETUP: GRID: Grid is a technical word used for the interconnection of power received from more than one place. It is a network of main power line for transmission of electricity. Duties: Following are the duties of R. R. V. P. N. L.:

Supply maximum demands and should be prepare to increase it future is asked for. Provide the service line to customer, which must carry the consumer load safety. The standard value of voltage (400kv) should be maintained. Not discriminate between consumers of the same category, i.e. the categories of consumers may be domestic, commercial, industrial and bulk consumers etc.

SWITCH YARD
So including above the yard consists of following equipment . 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 315MVA, 250MVA power transformer. Bus bars i.e. main. Instrument transformer i.e. P.T. and C.T. Isolators. Circuit breakers. Battery sets and battery charger. Lighting arrester. Insulator.

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9. Carrier current equipment. 10. Control cable and conduct system 11. Synchronous condenser

Fig 1. Switch yard

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TRANSFORMER
INTRODUCTION: It is a mutual link in power system, which makes possible to low voltage to be step up to the extra high voltage for long distance transmission and then transferred to voltage for utilization at proper load centre. In brief, a transformer is a device that: 1. 2. 3. 4. Transfer electric power from one circuit to another It does so without change of frequency It accomplishes this by electromagnetic induction Where the two electric circuits are in mutual inductive influence of each other

A high voltage is desirable for transmitting large powers in order to decrease the I2r losses and reduce the amount of conductor material. A very much lower voltage, on the other hand, is required for distribution, for various reasons connected with safety and convenience. The transformers make this easily and economically. Transformers are of three types 1. Core type transformer 2. Shell type transformer 3. Berry type transformer Power transformers are installed with various fittings and devices, which are necessary for their proper functioning. Some of the fittings, which are normally provided depending upon the size of transformer, are as 1. Dial type oil temperature gauge. 2. Dial type oil winding temperature gauge. 3. Conservator tank. 4. Silica gel Breather. 5. Pressure relief vent. 6. Buchholz relay. 7. Oil filling, drain valves and plugs. 8. Oil filters valves. 9. Terminal kiosk. 10. Earthing terminal, nameplates, radiators, roller etc.

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`
Fig 2. Transformer

SWITCHGEAR:
The electrical energy is almost needed in every field of our life, therefore every effort is made to protect the power system so as to maintain uninterrupted supply. For this purpose, means are provided to switch on or off generators, transmission lines, distributor and other equipment under both normal and abnormal conditions. This is achieved by switchgear, which essentially consist of switching and protecting devices such as switches, fuses circuit breakers, relay isolators etc. The apparatus including its associated auxiliaries employed for switching controlling and protecting the electrical circuit and equipment is known as switchgear A tumbler switch with an ordinary fuse is the simplest form of switch gear and is generally used to control and project the domestic and commercial appliances and equipment for higher rating circuits a high rupturing capacity fuse in conjunction with a switch may serve the purpose. However, such switchgear cannot be applied on power system operating at high voltage because of the following reasons: When fuse blows, its some to replace it and consequently there is interruption of power supply On high voltage system, a fuse cannot successfully interrupt large fault currents When faults occurs fuse takes some time to blow. During this time the costly equipment e.g. Generator, transformer etc, May be damaged.

Therefore in order to protect the lines, generators, transformers and other electrical equipments from damage an automatic protective device or switchgear is required. Automatic protective switchgear mainly consists of the relay and circuit breakers. Circuit breaker switchgear, which can open or close the circuit under both normal abnormal conditions. Moreover circuit breaker is rather preferred even in the instances where a fuse is adequate. An assembly of switchgear applied to protect the power system under normal operating condition the circuit breaker connects remain closed and carries the the full-load current continuously, hi this condition,

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the E.M.F induced in the secondary winding of current transformer (ct) and hence the current flowing through the relay coil is insufficient to close the trip coil of the circuit breaker. When a fault occur, heavy current flows through the primary of ct. which increases the current flowing through the relay coil and closes the trip coil circuit, thus the trip coil is energized which pulls the circuit breaker contact downward and open the circuit. The arc produced in the circuit breaker during opening operation is extinguished by oil or air blast. Hence it is seen that relay detects the faults whereas circuit breaker interrupts the circuit and extinguishes the arc.

Current Transformers:
It can be used to supply information for measuring power flows and the electrical inputs for the operation of protective relays associated with the transmission and distribution circuits or for power transformers. These current transformers have the primary winding connected in series with the conductor carrying the current to be measured or controlled. The secondary winding is thus insulated from the high voltage and can then be connected to low-voltage metering circuits. Current transformers are also used for street lighting circuits. Street lighting requires a constant current to prevent flickering lights and a current transformer is used to provide that constant current. In this case the current transformer utilizes a moving secondary coil to vary the output so that a constant current is obtained. these instrument transformers are connected in ac power circuits to feed the current coils of indicating and metering instruments and protective relays. In high voltage installations CTs in addition to above, also isolate the indicating and metering instruments from high voltage. The current transformer basically consist of an iron core on which are wound a primary and one or two secondary winding. The primary winding is usually single turn winding and the number of turns on secondary winding depends upon the power circuit current to be measured. The ratio of primary current to the secondary current is known as transformation ratio of CT.

Fig 3 Current Transformers

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POTENTIAL TRANSFORMER:
The potential transformers are employed for voltages above 380 volts to feed the potential coils of indicating and metering instruments and relays. These transformers make the ordinary low voltage instruments suitable for measurement of high voltage and isolate them from high voltage. The ratio of the rated primary voltage to the rated secondary voltage is known as turn or transformation ratio. As the name indicates this type of transformers are used to test the voltage or potential in the circuit in which they are connected.

Fig 4 POTENTIAL TRANSFORMER

This is basically are step down transformer which steps down the voltage to be measured to a safe value, which is then displayed by the low voltage operated meters. The potential transformers are of the following types: Hermetically Sealed Transformer: A liquid immersed voltage transformer which is sealed and does not communicate with the atmospheric air. Measuring Voltage Transformer: A voltage transformer intended to supply indicating instrument, integrating meters and similar apparatus. Protective Voltage Transformer: A voltage transformer intended to supply protective relays and similar apparatus. Dual Purpose Voltage Transformer: A voltage transformer intended to serve the dual purposes of the measuring and protection.

PROTECTION
3.1 INTRODUCTION:For 400kv GSS protection for transformer, busbar and transmission line has been duplicated for fast and reliable protection. For this two sets of protection systems are used which will isolate the equipment as quickly as possible even in case of defective tripping. Thus, a local back up protection has been introduced in case there occurs a mechanical or electrical failure during isolating equipment. Transmission line protection There are 2 methods which uses Phase comparison carrier current protection. Distance protection.

System A (first main protection)

400kv line is an extra high voltage line so phase comparison carrier current protection is used. It has advantage that it operate instantaneously and it does not need potential transformer and not sensitive phase power swings. Thus, fuse failure not occurs.

System B (second main protection)

A twelve element scheme is used with the carrier equipment with distance protection as a unit scheme and fault occurring in the end zone of protected line that wound normally cleared in a relatively low zone 2 not greatly in excess of zone 1.

3.2 RELAYS: INTRODUCTION: In order to generate the electric power and transmit it to consumer millions of rupees must be spent on power system equipment. These equipment are to work under specified normal conditions. However, a short circuit may occur due to failure of insulation called by: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Over voltage due to switching. Over voltage due to direct and indirect lightning strokes. Briding of conductors by birds. Break damage of insulation due to decrease of its di-electric strength. Mechanical damage of the equipment. The fault takes place in following properties.

3.3 VARIOUS FAULTS: Phase to phase 20-25% Single phase short circuit 50-60% double phase S.S. 3-5% 20-25% Three phase short circuit 3-5% Phase to Phase and Phase to guard 10-15%

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Fault may be defined as the rise of current in the several times to normal current, resulting the high temperature rise which can damage the equipment. It reduces the voltage immediately and considerably. Basic equipment or Requirement of Protective Relays. Basic Requirement of protective relays are as follows:

Speed :
Protective relaying should dos connect a faulty element as quickly as possible.

Selectivity :
The ability of the protective relay to determine the point of which have the fault occurs and select the nearest circuit breaker tripping of which will lead the clearing of fault with min-or so damage to the system.

Sensitivity:
It is the capacity of the relaying to operate relay under the actual condition that produces the last operating condition tendency. Depending upon the method of element connected primary relay (series element connect directly on the circuit of protective element) and secondary relay 9sensing element connected through a current and voltage transformer.

Fig 5 relay on positive power

3.4 Types of Relays

These are called normally opened, normally closed in GSS control room there is panel in which the relays are set and there are many types of relays.

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Over voltage relays Over current relays I.D.M.T. fault relay Earth fault relay Buchelozs relay Differential relay

Over voltage relay

This protection is required to avoid damage of system in case line becomes open circuited at one end. These fault would trip the local circuit breaker thus block the local and remote ends. This relay is operated i.e., energized by CVT connected to lines.

Fig 6. Relays on panel

Over Current relay

This relay has the upper electromagnet of non-directional relay connected in series with lower nondirectional electromagnet. When the fault current flow through relay current coil which produces flux in lower magnet of directional element. Thus the directional relay has the winding over the electromagnets of non-directional element and produces a flux in lower magnet and thus over current operates.

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Earth fault relay: when a conductor breaks due to some reason and it is earthen then earth fault occurs. The fault current is very high thus, there is need to of over current relay. This relay has minimum operating time.

Directional relay: It allows to flow the current only in one direction then only this relay operates. It has a winding connected through the voltage coil of relay to lower magnet winding called current coil. Which is energized by C.T. if fault occurs. This relay operates when v/I is less than theoretical value. The v/I is normally constant.

Differential relay:This relay operates when phase difference of two electrical quantities exceeds the predetermined value. It has always two electrical quantities; hence in 400kv GSS for transformer differential relay is used.

Inverse time characteristics relay:The relay using here having the inverse time characteristics having the time delays dependent upon current value. This characteristic is being available in relay of special design. There are:1. Electromagnetic Induction type 2. Permanent magnetic moving coil type 3. Static type

Buchholzs relay: It is the protective device of the transformer. When any fault occurs in the transformer then it indicates about fault and we disconnect the transformer from the circuit. It is used in the power transformer. It is connected between the tank and conservator. It has two floats on which two mercury switch are attached. One float is used for the bell indication and other float is used for the tripping. In the normal position the relay is filled with the oil and contacts of the mercury switch are opened

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Fig 7. Buchholzs relay

When the earth fault occurs in the transformer then it increases the temperature of oil and oil flows into the conservator through relay. On the way it makes the contacts of the tripping circuit short. So in the we can say that this relay works as circuit breaker.

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DETAILS OF TECHNICAL AND OTHER OBSERVATIONS

TRANSMISSION LINES
In this category the extra high voltage lines of 400kV, 220kV, 132kV and 66kV are considered/are used voltage from one grid sub-station to other through six various types conductors.

THE CONDUCTORS USED FOR (i) For 400kV line : Taran Tulla and Marculla conductor.
(ii) For 220kV line (iii) For 132kV line : Zebra conductor is used composite of Aluminium strands and Steel wires. : Panther conductor is used composite of Aluminium strands and Steel wires.

The material used in these conductors is generally Aluminium Conductor Steel Reinforced (ACSR). The conductors run over the towers cross arms of sufficient height with the consideration to keep safe clearance of sagged conductors from ground level and from the objects (trees, buildings etc.) either side also.

ISOLATOR
INTRODUCTION: When to carry out inspection or repair in the substation installation a disconnection switch is used called isolator. Its work is to disconnect the unit or section from all other line parts on installation in order to insure the complete safety of staff working. The isolator works at no load condition. They do not have any making or breaking capacity. On fundamental basis the isolating switches can broadly divided into following categories: 1. Bus isolator 2. Line isolator cum earthing switch 3. Transformer isolating switch.

OPERATION: The operation of an isolator may be hand operated without using any supply or may be power operated which uses externally supplied energy switch which is in the form of electrical energy or energy stored in spring or counter weight. In a horizontal break, center rotating double break isolator, 3 strokes are found. Poles are provided on each phase. The two strokes on side are fixed and center one is rotating. The center position can rotate about its vertical axis at an angle of 90. In closed position, the isolating stroke mounts on galvanized steel rolled frame. The three poles corresponding to 3 phases are connected by means of steel shaft. Isolators are of two types 1. Single pole isolator 2. Three pole isolator

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CIRCUIT BREAKER
INTRODUCTION:The circuit breaker is one of the important equipment in power system. It protects the system by isolating the faulty section while the healthy one is keep on working. Every system is susceptible to fault or damages while can be caused due to overloading, short-circuiting, earth fault etc. thus to protect the system and isolate the faulty section C.B. are required. Apart from breaking and making contacts, a C.B. should be capable of doing.

Continuously carry the maximum current at point of installation. Make and break the circuit under abnormal and normal condition. Close or open the faulty section only where fault exists.

PRINCIPLE:During making and breaking an arc is struck between the separating contacts which play an important role in interruption process as it provides for the gradual transition from current carrying to voltage withstanding states of contacts, but it is dangerous on account of energy generated in the form of heat which may results in explosive forces. This should be extinguished shortly. Method of interruption are current: High resistance interruption Current Zero interruption

Fig 8 circuit breaker

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In high resistance interruption arc is controlled by subsequently increasing resistance is brought into circuit and are cooled simultaneously so that current is quickly reduced to a value insufficient to maintain the arc. In current, zero interruption the arc resistance is kept low until the current becomes zero, where the arc extinguishes itself and is prevented from restricting in spite of high restricting voltage.

Fig 9. ABCB breaker

Fig 10 .SF6 Circuit breaker Classification of circuit breaker On the basis of the medium used for arc extinction, the circuit breaker is classified as: 1. Oil circuit breaker in which transformer oil is used for arc extinction. 2. Air blast circuit breaker in which blast of air is utilized for extinguishing the arc. 3. Water circuit breakers in which water is used for arc extinction.

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Oil Circuit Breaker:

In this circuit breaker, the current carrying arc is immersed in transformer oil. When contacts are separated, arc is struck between them. The heat of the arc dissociates the oil and gases viz. hydrogen etc is evolved. The hydrogen gas bubbles surround the arc and cool it down which help in deionization of the medium between the contacts and extinguishing the arc. Moreover, gases set up turbulence in the oil and force it into the arc space when the current is zero which further helps in extinguishing the arc. The major advantages of coil as an arc quenching medium are given below

Advantages
1. It absorbs the arc energy in decomposing the oil into gases. 2. The gases evolved provide good cooling effect. 3. It has ability to flow into the arc space after the current zero. It acts as an insulator between the live contact and earthed tank Disadvantages 1. It is easily inflammable. 2. It may from an explosive mixture with air. 3. It requires more maintenance. Types of oil circuit breakers: 1) Bulk Oil Circuit Breaker: In this circuit breaker oil serves two purposes: a) It extinguishes the arc when contact is separated. b) It acts as an insulator between the live contact and earthed tank. For this reason, depending upon the dielectric strength of oil, a particular clearance is required between the live contact and earthed tank. Therefore, bulk of oil is required. In the bulk oil circuit breakers the oil moves into the arc space after the current zero may be affected 1. By the pressure due to the natural head of the oil above the contacts. 2. By the pressure generated by the action of a.c current itself. 3. By the pressure exerted by the external means. Accordingly the oil circuit breaker is called; 1. Plain break oil circuit breakers 2. Self generated pressure oil circuit breaker. 3. Externally generated pressure oil circuit breaker. 2) Minimum Oil Circuit Breakers: In these circuit breakers, a small quantity of oil used which only serves to extinguish the arc. The live parts are insulated by porcelain or organic insulating materials.

Air Blast Circuit Breaker:

In this circuit breaker compressed air (18 to 20 kg/cm*cm) is employed for arc extinction. When contacts are separated, the arc is struck; simultaneously the blast valve is opened. The air blast cools the arc and sweep away the ionized medium between the contacts and prevent the restriking of the arc. Thus the extinguished and current is interrupted.

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These circuit breakers are finding their best application in system. Operating at 132 kv and above (up to 400 kv) with breaking capacity of 7000 MVA and above. However, this type of circuit breakers has also designed to cover the voltage range 11kv to 132 kv. The following are the advantages and disadvantages of air blast circuit breaker over the oil breaker

Advantages:
1. 2. 3. 4. There is no risk of fire and explosion. Due to short arc duration, burning of contacts is lees. They require less maintenance. The arc extinguished very quickly, since the ionized medium between the contact is removed rapidly by air blast. 5. The arc is extinguishes quickly through long distance, therefore, They are smaller in size 6. They provide facility of high speed reclosure.

Disadvantages
1. Compressor plant requires for compressed air. 2. Air leak at the pipe line fittings. 3. They are very sensitive to restriking voltage. 4. Since air is poor dielectric medium as compared to oil, therefore, it has relatively inferior arc extinguishing properties.

Type of air blast circuit breakers

Accordingly to the direction of air blast with respect to the direction of arc struct between the contacts, air blast circuit breaker are classified into: 1. Cross-Blast Circuit Breakers: In which air-blast cuts across the Arc. 2. Axial-Blast Air Circuit Breakers: In which air-blast acts along the Arc.

1) Cross-Blast Circuit Breakers: In cross blast air circuit breakers the fixed contact is located, at the base of chute between two insulating blocks. The fixed contacts has a number of spring loaded fingers, the arcing portion of one of the fingers is being coated with silver tungsten alloy. The moving contact consist of flat copper silver faced blade, the arcing tip also being of silver tungsten alloy. When a fault occurs an arc is struck between the fixed and moving contacts. Simultaneously a high pressure cross-blast forces the arc on the splitter plates of the chute. The splitter plates cause lengthening and cooling of arc. Thus the arc is extinguished quickly since the blast pressure is independent of the fault current; therefore, the efficiency at low fant currents is eliminated. 2) AxialBlast Air Circuit Breakers: Axial-blast air circuit breakers the arcing portion of the fixed and moving contacts is coated with silver tungsten alloy. The moving contact is connected to a piston and shaft of the contact is guided by guide springs. Opening the lower air valve closes the circuit.

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RELAYS:
The protecte relay is an electrical device interposed between the main circuit and the circuit breaker in such a manner that any abnormality in the circuit acts on the relay, which in turn, if the abnormality is of a dangerous character, causes the breaker to open and so to isolate the faulty elements. The protective relay ensures the safety of the circuit equipment from any damage which might otherwise caused by the fault. All the relays have three essential fundamental elements: Sensing element, sometimes also called the measuring element, responds to the change in the actuating quantity comparing element serves to compare the action of the actuating quantity on the relay with a preselected relay setting.Control element on a pickup of the relay, accomplishes a sudden change in the control quantity such as closing of the operative current circuit.

The connection is divided into 3 main circuits consisting of: 1) Primary winding of the CT (current transformer) connected in Series with the main circuit to be protected. 2) Secondary winding of the CT and the relay operating winding. 3) The tripping circuit. Under normal operating condition, the voltage induced in the secondary winding of the CT is small and, therefore, current flowing in the relay operating coil is insufficient in magnitude to close the relay contacts. This keeps the trip oil of the circuit breaker inactive. Consequently, the circuit breaker contacts remain closed and it carries the normal load current. When some fault occurs, large current flows through the primary of CT. this increases the voltage induced in the secondary and hence the current flows through the relay operating coil. The relay contacts are closed and the trip coil of the breaker gets energized to open the breaker contacts FUNDAMENTAL REQUIREMENTS OF RELAY The main protective relay is to disconnect the faults sections of power system through circuit breaker, before damaging the costly equipment , in order to perform this function satisfactorily. It should have the following important features: 1. 2. 3. 4. Selectivity Sensitivity Reliability Quickness.

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ELECTRO-MAGNETIC ATTRACTION RELAYS

These are the simplest type of relays and include plunger (or solenoid), hinged armature, rotating armature (or balanced beam) and moving iron polarized relays. All these relays operate on the same principle i.e. in such relays the operation is obtained by virtue of an armature being attracted to the poles of an electromagnet or a plunger being drawn into a solenoid. The electromagnet force being exerted on the moving element is proportional to the square of the current flowing through the coil. In an electromagnetic attraction relays, the flux developing the electromagnetic force is splitted into two fluxes acting simultaneously but differing in time phase, so that the resulting deflecting force is always positive and constant. This can be easily achieved either by providing two winding on the electromagnet having a phase shifting network or by putting shading rings on the poles of the electromagnet .the sensitivity of the hinged armature relays can be increased for dc operation by the addition of a permanent magnet. This is known as a polarized moving iron relay. Attraction armature relays can be designed to respond over and under current , over-under voltage for both dc and ac operations. They are employed as measuring or auxiliary relays.

Insulators:
These are used to connect to conductors without any leakage of current. These are basically employed to completely insulate any object in the substation from the supply or any leakage current. Various types of insulators: 1. 2. 3. 4. Pin type Suspension type Strain type Spool type or shackle type

Pin Type Insulators:

These insulator are moulded with a central threaded hole so that the insulator is supported from thread insulators are grooved on the side or top to support the wires. Medium voltage pin insulator have grooves on both top sides. High voltage pin insulators are stronger in construction and they consist of two or three pieces of porcelain cemented together. These pieces from what we call petti-coats that are designed to shed rain and sleet easily. The conductor is placed in the groove at the top of the insulator and is then attached to insulator by typing it down with the binding wire which is usually of the same material as the conductor

Advantages:
1) It is cheaper than the suspension insulator. 2) Pin type insulator is placed on top of the pole to achieve more Conductor clearance above the ground.Pin insulator raises the Conductor above the cross arms while the suspension insulator suspends insulator suspends it below the cross arm.

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Lighting Arrestor
INTRODUCTION:Every instrument must be protected from the damage of lighting stroke. The three protection sin a substation is essential:

Protection for transmission line from direct strokes. Protections of power station or substation from direct strokes. Protection of electrical apparatus against traveling waves.

Effective protection of equipment against direct strokes requires a shield to prevent lighting from striking the electrical conductor together with adequate drainage facilities over insulated structure.

Lighting Arrestors: Lighting arrestor is a device, which protects the overhead lines and other electrical apparatus viz., transformer from overhead voltages and lighting. When the positively charged cloud produce negative charge on the overhead line by electrostatic induction then the negative charge is however presented right under the cloud and portion of the line away from the cloud becomes positively charged. This charge on the line does not flow. The positive charge on the far and flows to the earth through insulators, thus leaving the negative charge on the line directly under the cloud. Now assume due to the direct discharge occurring between this clouds and passing by negative charge cloud the charge in the cloud becomes neutralized, then the charge on the line is no more bound charge and is free to travel on the both directions in the form of waves. These traveling waves will be of light magnitude and have steep wave front, which can damage the unprotected equipment connected to the line. These waves are passed to the earth through the lighting arrestors. It consist of a isolator in series and connected in such a way that long isolator is in upward and short isolator is in downward so that initially large potential up to earth is decreased to zero. An ideal arrestor must therefore have the following properties: 1. It should be able to drain the surge energy from the line in a minimum time. 2. Should offer high resistance to the flow of power current. 3. Performance of the arresters should be such that no system disturbances are introduced by its operation. 4. Should be always in perfect from to perform the function assigned to it. 5. After allowing the surge to pass, it should close up so as not to permit power current to flow to ground.

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Fig 11. Lightening Arrestor

An external cause due to which over-voltages occur on the power system in lightning. In the high voltage system, much damage is caused by the lightning in spite of taking all types of protective measures. Lightning causes an increase in voltages which may be nearly double of that of the normal operating voltage of the system. Therefore, the common practice is to design the insulation of the system to withstand such high voltages for a reasonable length of time and provide protective devices for the voltages having value more than this high voltage. These devices are known as over-voltage protection devices. The common devices used for the protection of power system against over-voltage are: Ground wires Earthing screens Lightning arrestors. The ground wire or earthing screens used for the protection of overhead lines and power station and substation not only provides an adequate protection against lightning but also reduces the overvoltages induced electrostatically, but such shielding is inadequate in providing protection against traveling waves which may reach the terminals of the equipment and cause damage to it. The damages that may be caused by traveling waves are: The high peak or crest voltage of the surge may cause flashover in the internal winding Thereby spoil the winding insulation. The steep wave front of the surge may cause internal flashover between interterm of the Transformer. The high peak voltage of the surge may cause external flashover, between the terminals of the electrical equipment which may result in damage to insulators The step wave front resulting into resonance and high voltage may cause internal or external flashover of the oscillation in the electrical apparatus.

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Thus it is absolutely necessary to provide some protective device at the power stations or substation to prevent transformers and other equipment from being subjected to traveling surges reaching there. The most common devices used for protection of equipment at the substation against traveling surges are lightning arrestors or surge diverters. A surge diverter is a device that is connected between line and earth i.e. in parallel with the equipment to be protected at the substation. The line lead of the lightning arrestor should be firmly connected with the phase wire. The earth connection should be light and the earth resistance of earth wire should be less than 10Q. Damage if located should be rectified.

1. Line in rural areas:

During conducting survey of distribution lines In voltage, the map of village is taken and following are marked on the and following are marked on the map The nearest HT lines from which the tapping will be taken. Load Layout of line

1. Line in urban area:

The power lines should be plotted on map of the city after consultation with the municipal authorities. 1. Agricultural area: The transformer should be installed in the center of load so as to reduce the length of lines and voltage drop. Survey of H.T. lines(11kv to 33kv) Point to be considered 1) The H.T. lines should be run along if possible. This will help in Construction and maintenance Of lines. 2) The number of angle pole should be minimum. 3) An intersection of highway and railway tracks and telephone lines Should be avoided. Repairing and jointing of conductor: Whenever an ACSR conductor is damaged i.e. its strands break but whole conductor is not broken, it should be repaired by pulling sleeve over the damaged part of conductor.

Jumper:
It is short length of conductor used to connect the line pole to the conductor on the line conductor on the other side of the terminal pole is known as jumper is made of same material and Current carrying capacity as that of line conductor.

Guarding:
A guarding is provided for safety of life. The guarding for 11kv lines providing at road crossing. Canal crossing, railway crossing telephone lines generally cardie guard is provided and directly connected to the earth wire. If a line conductor breaks it will fall on the guard thus blowing the fuse. Guard is made of same material as used for earth wire 8.5 WG guards should be uniformly spaced.

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Faults:
Most of the faults on the power system lead to a short-circuit condition. When such a condition occurs a heavy current called short-circuit current flows through the lines causing considerable damage to the equipments and interruption of service to consumers. There are various type of faults which may occur in the system during transmission and distribution of electric power. Types of fault in overhead lines: The most common fault that occur in the overhead lines is the short circuit fault. The main reason of this is insulation failure due to over voltage caused by lightning and due to broken conductors The following are the various faults which can occurs in the 3-phase overhead transmission lines. o Single phase to ground: This may occur when one of the Conductors of transmission line Breaks and falls on the ground. o Phase to phase: If one of the conductor of the 3-phase line breaks and fall on the other Conductor, it forms a phase to phase fault. o Two phases to ground: If two conductor of 3-phase transmission line break and fall on the ground fault. o Phase to phase and third phase to ground: This is combination of Fault shown at number 1 and 2 i.e. if one conductor breaks and Fall on the second and if third break and fall on the ground. o AH the three phases shorted: This may occur if two conductor of Transmission line fail on the third conductor. o All the three phases to ground: In this type of fault all the three Conductor break and fall on the ground or fall on any other which Is further grounded. Location of faults in overhead transmission lines: Overhead lines are generally subjected to various troubles, lightning snow and ice being perhaps the most prevalent. Lightning will induced a high voltage in a line irrespective of the working voltage of the circuit. It causes less trouble on extremely high tension lines than on those work at lower pressures. This is because of the heavier insulation of the former. For location of faults, overhead lines are patrolled regularly by skilled linemen whose job is to notice even the smallest visible defect. This work is added by binoculars. In addition, the linemen keeps an eye for anything which might lead to trouble such as growth of trees building work going on in the neighboring place of the line the erection of radio and television aerials. The comparatively few interruption of current shows the general reliability of equipment and do credit to those whose duty is to maintain supply. Types of faults in underground cables: 1) Breakdown of cable insulation: When the insulation of the cables gets damaged the current starts rowing from the core to earth or to the cable or to the cable sheath and such faults arc known as ground or earth faults. 2) Short circuit fault: When the insulation between two cables or between two core to another core of a multi-core cable directly without passing through the load. Such faults are known as short Circuit faults in case of short circuit faults the protection system will switch off the line. 3) Open circuit fault: When the conductor of the cable is broken or a Joint is pulled out and there is no current in the cable, such faults are known as open circuit faults. If a faults occur on my section of A power system network is likely that the immediate effect will be to interrupt the supply to a section of the consumers. It may be

XXVI

possible to restore the supply by using the alternative routes in the network but by doing so the circuits involved become overloaded, resulting in these too become faulty which do arise be located and repaired as quickly as possible and various techniques have been adopted for this purpose. Different methods are in use for underground cables.

Lightning arresters:
The line lead of the lightning arrester should be firmly connected with the phase wire. The earth connection should be light and the earth resistance of earth wire should be less than 10Q. Damages if located should be rectified. POWER FACTOR (a) It shall be obligatory for the consumer to maintain the desired average power factor of 0.9 for his load or any other value that the Commission may specify in its Tariff order during any billing period. (b) The Licensee may disconnect the supply temporarily if power factor is below 0.75 unless otherwise specified in the tariff order, during any billing period as per details given in clause 4.36. (c) Licensee may charge a penalty and / or give an incentive for high/low power factor as per the tariff order of the Commission The electric energy is almost generated, transmitted and distributed in the form of alternating current. Therefore the question of power factor immediately comes into picture. Most of the load i.e. 3-phase induction motors are inductive in nature and hence have low lagging power factor. The low power is highly objectionable as it causes an increase in current resulting in more losses. In order to ensure more favorable conditions for a supply it is most important to have power factor as close to unity as possible. Concept of power factor: 1. Power factor may be defined as cosine of angle between voltage and current. 2. The ratio of resistance to impedance 3. P.F. = R/z = resistance/impedance The ratio of real power to apparent power Real power/apparent power=V1cos/V1= cos. The term cos is called power factor.

Advantages:
The term cos is called power factor. Its value can never be more than one. To obtain maximum power, the power factor in a circuit is made high as possible i.e. current is brought in phase with the applied voltage so that cos is nearly equal to unity. The leading and lagging power factor depends upon the phase of current vector with respect to voltage vector in case current lags the voltage, the power factor is lagging if it leads the voltage the power factor is leading thus current I lags the voltage v. let current I be resolved in two components so that I cos@ the horizontal component is in phase with voltage and I sin@ lagging the voltage by 90 degree let all the three sides of triangle shown in fig be multiplied by voltage v the triangle so obtained is shown in fig. All the three angle of the triangle still remain unchanged VI cos@ in the phase component of voltage is called real power and is denoted by p. VIsin@ lagging voltage V by 90 degree is called the reactive power and is represented by VAR. VI is called apparent power and is represented by VA

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Thus power factor cosc@= VI cos@/ VI Real power/apparent power/ Thus if the power factor is made to unity @ should be made zero. This can be achieved if reactive power is made zero by supplying equal amount of leading reactive power so that resultant of leading and lagging components of reactive power becomes zero.

Disadvantages of low power factor

For fixed power and voltage P and V are fixed load current and is inversely proportional to the power factor. Lower the p.f. higher the current and results in following disadvantages. a) Large KVA rating of equipment: the electrical machinery e.g. Alternator transformer is always rated in KVA. KVA rating of equipment is inversely Proportional to power factor for given amount of power KVA rating will be more for p.f. and Vice versa. b) Greater conductor size: To transmit fixed amount of power at fixed voltage the conductor will Have to carry more current at low p.f therefore large size of conductor is required. c) Large copper losses: At low power factor conductor have to carry large current therefore IxIxR loses are increased. This result in power efficiency. Causes of low power factor: 1) A transformer draws a magnetizing current which remain constant at loads. This magnetizing current makes the total current lag with Respect to EMF at normal loads this magnetizing current is quite Small as compared to load current and therefore does not effect. The power factor much but at light loads. ECONOMICS OF POWER FACTOR IMPROVEMENT: When the power factor is to be improved power factor improvement plant is required to be installed which involves some expenditure. Improvement of power factor results in reduction of maximum demand which in turn reduce the maximum demand charges annually but extra expenditure is to be increased every year in the form of interest and depreciation on account of investment made over the power factor improvement equipment. If the yearly interest and depreciation on power factor improvement plant is more than the annual saving on account of maximum demand charge it is uneconomical to install power factor improvement plant but on the contrary if the annual saving in account of maximum demand charge as a result of power factor improvement is more that the yearly interest and depreciation on power factor improvement plant it is advisable to install the power factor improvement plant as it is economical. The most economical power factor shall be when this net annual saving is maximum. EARTHING The process of connecting metallic bodies of all the electrical apparatus and equipments to the huge mass of earth by wire having negligible resistance is called earthing. When a body is earthed, it is basically connected to the huge mass spindle of the disk carries the moving contact which close the trip, circuit under fault condition. Under normal condition, the currents at the two ends of the feeder are equal so that the secondary current in both sets of CTs are equal. Consequently, the emfs induced in the secondary winding c and c are equal and opposite and no current flows through the closed circuited secondary. However when fault occurs on the feeder say at point f the voltage induced in C and CI will no longer remain equal therefore current flows through this winding and torque is developed in the disc hence the disc of both the relays rotate and close the trip circuit.

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Earthing :
Connecting of an electrical equipment or apparatus to the earth with the help of connecting wire of negligible resistance is known as earthing or grounding. There are four main purpose of earthing: To avoid electric shock to human body. To avoid risk or fire due to earth leakage current through unwanted path. To maintain the potential of any part of a system at a definite value with respect to earth. To make sure that in the event of fault the apparatus should normally be dead and cannot reach a dangerous potential with respect to earth.

Significance of Earthing:
In an installation if a metallic part of an electrical apparatus comes In direct contact with a bare or live wire the metal being good conductor of electricity, is charged. If any person comes in contact with this charged metallic part, he will get a sever shock. But if the metallic parts of the equipment are earthed the charged will be transferred to earth immediately when the metal part comes in direct contact with a live wire. The charge is earthed through the earth wire because that is the path of least resistance for the current. Therefore from safety point of view against electric shock the electricity will flow directly to earth and circuits fuse blow off. But in case of improper earthing or if fuse wire of improper rating is used, then the user will experience a severe electric shock.

XXIX

POWER LINE CARRIER COMMUNICATION (PLCC)

Introduction
Power line communication or power line carrier (PLC), also known as Power line Digital Subscriber Line (PDSL), mains communication, power line telecom (PLT), or power line networking (PLN), is a system for carrying data on a conductor also used for electric power transmission. Broadband over Power Lines (BPL) uses PLC by sending and receiving information bearing signals over power lines. Electrical power is transmitted over high voltage transmission lines, distributed over medium voltage, and used inside buildings at lower voltages. Powerline communications can be applied at each stage. Most PLC technologies limit themselves to one set of wires (for example, premises wiring), but some can cross between two levels (for example, both the distribution network and premises wiring). Typically the transformer prevents propagating the signal so multiple PLC technologies are bridged to form very large networks.

Basics
All power line communications systems operate by impressing a modulated carrier signal on the wiring system. Different types of powerline communications use different frequency bands, depending on the signal transmission characteristics of the power wiring used. Since the power wiring system was originally intended for transmission of AC power, in conventional use, the power wire circuits have only a limited ability to carry higher frequencies. The propagation problem is a limiting factor for each type of power line communications. A new discovery called E-Line that allows a single power conductor on an overhead power line to operate as a waveguide to provide low attenuation propagation of RF through microwave energy lines while providing information rate of multiple Gbps is an exception to this limitation. Data rates over a power line communication system vary widely. Low-frequency (about 100-200 kHz) carriers impressed on high-voltage transmission lines may carry one or two analog voice circuits, or telemetry and control circuits with an equivalent data rate of a few hundred bits per second; however, these circuits may be many miles long. Higher data rates generally imply shorter ranges; a local area network operating at millions of bits per second may only cover one floor of an office building, but eliminates installation of dedicated network cabling.

MAJOR SYSTEM COMPONENTS EQUIPMENT

The major components of a PLC channel are shown in Figure. The problem associated with the PLC channel is the requirement to put the carrier signal onto the high voltage line without damaging the carrier equipment. Once the signal is on the power line it must be directed in the proper direction in order for it to be received at the remote line terminal.

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Fig 12. Basic Power Line Carrier Terminal

BASIC PRINCIPLE OF PLCC

In PLCC the higher mechanical strength and insulation level of high voltage power lines result in increased reliability of communication and lower attenuation over long distances. Since telephone communication system cannot be directly connected to the high voltage lines, suitably designed coupling devices have therefore to be employed. These usually consist of high voltage capacitors or capacitor with potential devices used in conjunction with suitable line matching units (LMUs) for matching the impedance of line to that of the coaxial cable connecting the unit to the PLC transmit-receive equipment. Also the carrier currents used for communication have to be prevented from entering the power equipment used in G.S.S as this would result in high attenuation or even complete loss of communication signals when earthed at isolator.. Wave traps usually have one or more suitably designed capacitors connected in parallel with the choke coils so as to resonate at carrier frequencies and thus offers even high impedance to the flow of RF currents.

Fig 13. Power Line Carrier Communication

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1. 2. 3. 4.

WAVE TRAP COUPLINGCAPACITOR DRAINAGE COIL VOLTAGE ARRESTER

5. GROUND SWITCH 6.MATCHINGTRANSFORMER 7. TUNING CAPACITOR 8. VACUUM ARRESTER

LINE TRAPS or WAVE TRAPS:The carrier energy on the transmission line must be directed toward the remote line terminal and not toward the station bus, and it must be isolated from bus impedance variations. This task is performed by the line trap. The line trap is usually a form of a parallel resonant circuit which is tuned to the carrier energy frequency. A parallel resonant circuit has high impedance at its tuned frequency, and it then causes most of the carrier energy to flow toward the remote line terminal. The coil of the line trap provides a low impedance path for the flow of the power frequency energy. Since the power flow is rather large at times, the coil used in a line trap must be large in terms of physical size. Once the carrier energy is on the power line, any control of the signal has been given over to nature until it reaches the other end. During the process of traveling to the other end the signal is attenuated, and also noise from the environment is added to the signal. At the receiving terminal the signal is decoupled from the power line in much the same way that it was coupled at the transmitting terminal. The signal is then sent to the receivers in the control house via the coaxial cable.

COUPLING CAPACITORS:The coupling capacitor is used as part of the tuning circuit. The coupling capacitor is the device which provides a low impedance path for the carrier energy to the high voltage line and at the same time, it blocks the power frequency current by being a high impedance path at those frequencies. It can perform its function of dropping line voltage across its capacitance if the low voltage end is at ground potential. Since it is desirable to connect the line tuner output to this low voltage point a device must be used to provide a high impedance path to ground for the carrier signal and a low impedance path for the power frequency current. This device is an inductor and is called a drain coil. The coupling capacitor and drain coil circuit are shown in Figure.

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Fig 14.

Coupling Capacitor and Drain Coil Combination

It is desirable to have the coupling capacitor value as large as possible in order to lower the loss of carrier energy and keep the bandwidth of the coupling system as wide as possible. However, due to the high voltage that must be handled and financial budget limitations, the coupling capacitor values are not as high as one might desire. Technology has enabled suppliers to continually increase the capacitance of the coupling capacitor for the same price thus improving performance.

DRAINAGE COILS:The drainage coil has a pondered iron core that serves to ground the power frequency charging to appear in the output of the unit. The coarse voltage arrester consists of an air gap, which sparks over at about 2 KV and protects the matching unit against line surges. The grounding switch is kept open during normal operation and is closed if anything is to be done on the communication equipment without interruption to power flow on the line. The matching transformer is isolated for 7 to 10 KV between the two winding and former two functions. Firstly it isolates the communication equipment for the power line. Secondly it serves to match the characteristic impedance of the power line 400-600 ohms to that of the co-axial vacuum arrester (which sparks) is over at about 250 V is provided for giving additional protection to the communication equipment. The LMU which consists of the matching transformer and tuning capacitors indicated above is tailormade to suit the individual requirements of the coupling equipment and is generally tuned to a wide band of carrier frequencies-(100-450 KHz typical).

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ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES OF PLCC ADVANTAGES

No separate wires are needed for communication purposes as the power lines themselves carry power as well as the communication signals. Hence the cost of constructing separate telephone lines is saved. When compared with ordinary lines the power lines have appreciably higher mechanical strength. They would normally remain unaffected under the condition which might seriously damage telephone lines. Power lines usually provide the shortest route between the power stations. Power lines have large cross-sectional area resulting in very low resisntanc3 per unit length. Consequently the carrier signal suffers lesser attenuation than when travel on usual telephone lines of equal lengths. Power lines are well insulated to provide negligible leakage between conductors and ground even in adverse weather conditions. Largest spacing between conductors reduces capacitance which results in smaller attenuation at high frequencies. The large spacing also reduces the cross talk to a considerable extent.

DISADVANTAGES
Proper care has to be taken to guard carrier equipment and persons using them against high voltage and currents on the line. Reflections are produced on spur lines connected to high voltage lines. This increases attenuation and create other problems. High voltage lines have transformer connections, which attenuate carrier currents. Sub-station equipments adversely affect the carrier currents. Noise introduced by power lines is much more than in case of telephone lines. This due to the noise generated by discharge across insulators, corona and switching processes.

Failure Scenarios
There are many ways in which the communication signal may have error introduced into it. Interference, cross chatter, some active devices, and some passive devices all introduce noise or attenuation into the signal. When error becomes significant the devices controlled by the unreliable signal may fail, become inoperative, or operate in an undesirable fashion. Interference: Interference from nearby systems can cause signal degradation as the modem may not be able to determine a specific frequency among many signals in the same bandwidth. Signal Attenuation by Active Devices: Devices such as relays, transistors, and rectifiers create noise in their respective systems, increasing the likelihood of signal degradation. Signal Attenuation by Passive Devices: Transformers and DC-DC converters attenuate the input frequency signal almost completely. "Bypass" devices become necessary for the signal to be passed on to the receiving node. A bypass device may consist of three stages, a filter in series with a protection stage and coupler, placed in parallel with the passive device.

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CONTROL ROOM
Introduction
At NPH not only remote control carry the appropriate means by which circuit breaker may be open or close but also necessary indicating devices, indicating lamps, isolating switching, protective relays, secondary circuit and wires are located here and most important No load tap changer for transformer is available. There is a panel for synchronizing. Different panels are located at different stages and on each panel control switch is provided on the board. The control switches for each circuit breaker and isolators are provided on control panel. Colors of signals are synchronized as follows: -

Red

- For circuit breaker or isolator is in closed position.

Green - For circuit breaker is in open position. Amber - Indicates abnormal condition requiring action. There are different relays located. Announcing section: -This section is always checked by the shift incharge. If any fault or any relay
moves from L.T., alarm swings and type of fault is indicated on the announcing box. The most important section is transformer control section, winding temperature indicator. Tap position selector is situated on control panel. A control engineer controls the loading of various lines, outgoing feeders, synchronizing the incoming lines with bus bars.

Control and relay panel: -The arrangement of control and relay power is such that the indicating
apparatus is clearly visible from control place. These respective panels are provided

Control and indicating equipment. Relay and recording equipment.

The synchronization switch is put to auto position when condition of synchronizing is satisfied. The white lamp on the top indicating synchronizing relay operated glow and Circuit Breaker is automatically closed. When bus bar is dead there is no need of synchronizing in that case line is connected directly to bus bar by pulling a switch bar dead bus to on position. Event Logger- to work in control room contain work are automated with computer based control system. By facilitate the operator locating identification and reporting fault, information is received.

Supervisory Control and Data Acquire System- for power system operation and control
includes

Data collection system Data transmission telemetric equipment Data monitoring equipment Man/machine interface

Data collection equipment as data logger collects the primary data from source converts it into suitable form of information and then transmitting and processing data. Logger records the rating from different location in the plant. Data logger is designed for plant performance computation for logical analysis of alarm condition.

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The input scanner is automatic sequence switches, which select each, signal in turn transducers are used to convert original signal in the suitable electrical form for the input of scanner.. Data logger supplies the digitalized data of microprocessor. The signal is fed to the input scanner. The input scanner selects each signal in turn.

Scanning And IndicationThe automatic control necessities a series and checks at regular interval, which provide indication whether and when appropriate action is to be indicated. The scanning gives necessary data regarding the value of various input variables. The decision regarding follow up section is taken according to the program. The logic operation and calculation are performed readily by microprocessor.

Fig 15. Control panels in control room

CRT Display- The operation in the control room needs information regarding parameters and
configuration according to feeders. It is divided in many parts

Indicating system Control switches Relay section Meter section Announcing section D.C supply system Transformer control unit.

Indicating system is used to indicate total load, bus bar voltage indication of circuit breaker, isolator position. Lever type arrangement for opening and closing of circuit breaker close or open. Relay section indicates the position of different relay at different feeder. Fault in any feeder is denoted by corresponding relay that gives alarm signal. Master relay gives the signal to the trip coil of circuit breaker and thus faulty feeder is disconnected from supply. Meter section includes different types of meter.

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One network CRT display provides operator with following information whenever he worksTwo types of display includes

Tabulated values of parameter Measured values and computed characteristics.

Symbolic representation of equipment states usually in the form of diagram of substation.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY
The reference of the books and author I have referred to complete my training report are as follows:

A Course in Power System By J.B.GUPTA Electrical Technology By B.L.THERAJA Electrical Machinery By P.S. BHIMBRA Basic Electrical Engineering By S.K.SAHDEV

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