Chapter 7

Plane Electromagnetic Waves

7-1

Introduction

7-1

Introduction
In

a source-free non-conducting simple medium, Maxwells equations are combined to give the source-free wave equation
2 E 1 2 E 2 2 = 0 u p t

The solutions of wave equations represent waves.

Main

concern of this chapter is the behavior of waves that have a 1-D spatial dependence, i.e., plane waves.

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7-1

Uniform Plane Waves

wavefront : virtual surface in space where the fields have the same phase everywhere on this surface
also called equiphase surface

plane wave : a special solution of wave equation (Maxwells equations) with E assuming the same direction and phase on infinite planes perpendicular to the propagation direction
in other words, on an infinite plane wavefront, E also has the same direction

uniform plane wave : E also has the same magnitude on the infinite plane wavefront
4

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7-1

Approximation of Plane Waves

Strictly

speaking, uniform plane waves do not exist in practice because a source of infinite extent would be required to create them. However in real life situations, if we are far away enough from any source, the wavefront becomes almost spherical, and a very small portion of the surface of a huge sphere is very close to a plane.
e. g., the ground of the earth
The

characteristics of uniform plane waves are particularly simple, the study of them is of fundamental and practical importance.
5

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7-2

Plane Waves in Lossless Media

wave equation Doppler effect transverse electromagnetic waves polarization of plane waves

7-2

Plane Waves in Lossless Media (1)

homogeneous vector Helmholtzs equation in free space

2E + k 2E = 0
k = =
in Cartesian coordinates,

up
2

: free-space wavenumber

2 2 + 2 + 2 + k Ey = 0 z x y E
2 2 z

Ex

consider a UPW characterized by a uniform Ex over planes z,

= 0 and x
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=0 y
7

7-2

Plane Waves in Lossless Media (2)

2 2 2 2 2 + 2 + 2 + k Ex = 0 x y z
=0 , =0 x y

d 2 Ex 2 + k Ex = 0 2 dz

Ex ( z ) = Ex+ ( z ) + Ex ( z ) = E0+ e jkz + E0 e jkz

E0+ , E0 : arbitrary constants to be determined by BC

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7-2

Traveling Waves
+ jt + j (t kz ) + Ex+ ( z , t ) = e E ( z ) e E e E e = = 0 cos(t kz ) x 0

using cosine reference

traveling wave propagating in +z direction

Ex+(z)
= 2 / k

E0+

2 4

up
3 4

E0 e jkz :

traveling wave propagating in -z direction

t = 0 t = / 2 t = / + E0+ cos kz E0+ sin kz E0 cos kz

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7-2

Phase Velocity
for a particular phase point

cos(t kz ) = C

t kz = C (a constant phase)

dt kdz = 0

dz = = up = dt k
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: phase velocity

10

7-2

Magnetic Field H of a UPW

E = j H

ax E = 0 Ex+ ( z )

ay 0 0

az + = j (a x H x+ + a y H y + a z H z+ ) z 0

1 Ex+ ( z ) H = , H = , H z+ = 0 j z
+ x + y

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11

7-2

Intrinsic Impedance
+ E 1 + jkz + x ( z) Hy = = ( E0 e ) = jkEx+ ( z ) j z z

+ Hy ( z) =

Ex+ ( z ) =

Ex+ ( z )

in free space,
0 = 0 / 0 120 377 ()

: intrinsic impedance

+ + H( z, t ) = a y H y ( z , t ) = a y e[ H y ( z )e jt ] = a y

E0+

cos(t kz )
12

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7-2

Properties of Uniform Plane Waves

For

a UPW, the ratio of the magnitudes of E and H is the intrinsic impedance of the medium.
|E|/|H|=

H propagation direction

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13

Example 7-1

A uniform plane wave with E = axEx propagates in a lossless simple medium (r = 4, r = 1, = 0) in the +z-direction. Assume that Ex is sinusoidal with a frequency 100 MHz and has a maximum value of +10-4 V/m at t = 0 and z = 1/8 m.
a) Write the instantaneous expression for E for any t and z. b) Write the instantaneous expression for H. c) Determine the location where Ex is a positive maximum when t = 10-8 s.

Solution : find k first,

k = =
a) using cost as reference,

2 108 4 r r = 4 = 3 108 3

E( z , t ) = a x Ex = a x 104 cos ( 2 108 t kz + )

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14

Example 7-1
a) E reaches a maximum when the argument of cosine function is zero: 2 108 t kz + = 0
t = 0 , z = 1/ 8

= kz =

4 1 = 3 8 6
1 z 8

4 4 E( z , t ) = a x 104 cos 2 108 t z + = a x 104 cos 2 108 t 3 6 3 b) instantaneous expression for H is

H = ayH y = ay

Ex

0 , = = = 60 r

104 4 H( z, t ) = a y cos 2 108 t 60 3

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1 z 8
15

Example 7-1
c) E reaches a maximum when the argument of cosine function is 2n

x
1 m 8 3 = m 2

4 2 10 (10 ) 3
8
8

1 zm = 2n 8

zm =

13 3 n , n = 0,1, 2,; zm > 0 8 2 2 3 = =

k

zm =
y z
4

13 n 8

4 1 E( z ,0) = a x 10 cos (z ) 3 8
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H (0, t ) = a y Ex ( z ,0) /

16

7-2.1

Doppler Effect (1)

Doppler effect : When there is relative motion between a time-harmonic source and a receiver, frequency of the received wave tends to be different from that emitted by the source.
The Doppler effect manifests itself in acoustics as well as in electromagnetics. Change in the pitch of the whistle of a fast-moving train is an example.

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17

7-2.1

Doppler Effect (2)

t=0 u wave emitted by T at t = 0 will reach R at

T r0 R

r0 t1 = c

t = t ut T'

u r' r0

wave emitted by T' at t = t will reach R at

T has moved to T' at t = t

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r t2 = t + c 1 2 R = t + [r0 2r0 (ut ) cos + (ut ) 2 ]1/ 2 c

18

7-2.1

Doppler Effect (3)

1/ 2

(1 x)

1 t2 = 1 + ( x) 2 1 1 + ( 1)( x) 2 + 2 2
r02

(u t ) 2

1 = t + [r02 2r0 (ut ) cos + (ut ) 2 ]1/ 2 c r 2 u t 2 1/ 2 = t + 0 [1 (ut ) cos + ( ) ] c r0 r0 r0 u t t + (1 cos ) c r0

time elapsed at R, t', corresponding to t at T

u t = t2 t1 = t (1 cos ) c
if t represents a period of the time-harmonic source, i.e., t = 1 / f

1 f u f= = f (1 + cos ) t 1 u cos c c (u / c)2 1

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7-2.1

Applications of Doppler Effect

Doppler effect is the basis of operation of the radar used by police to check the speed of a moving vehicle.
The frequency shift of the received wave reflected by a moving vehicle is proportional to the speed of the vehicle.

The

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20

7-2.2

Transverse Electromagnetic Waves

uniform plane wave with the E and H vectors transverse (perpendicular) to the propagation direction is called a transverse electromagnetic (TEM) wave.
For a UPW propagating in the z-direction, the phasor field quantities are functions of only the distance z along a single coordinate axis.

UPW does not always propagate along a coordinate axis. It is necessary to consider a more general case where a UPW propagates along an arbitrary direction.

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21

7-2.2

UPW Propagating Along Arbitrary Direction

define a propagation direction vector

k = a x k x + a y k y + a z k z = ka k
position vector of an arbitrary point Q in space x Q (x, y, z) R O ak P z plane of constant phase
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R = ax x + a y y + az z
any point Q on this plane has the property:

a k R = OP = constant e jkR has a plane as an equiphase surface

e jkR represents a plane wave

22

7-2.2

Expression for a UPW

for a UPW propagating in +z direction:

E( z ) = E0 e jkz
for a UPW propagating in an arbitrary direction:

E( x, y, z ) = E(R ) = E0 e jkR = E0 e jkak R = E0 e

k x = k a x = ka k a x k y = k a y = ka k a y k z = k a z = ka k a z
2 k x2 + k y + k z2 = k 2 = 2

jk x x jk y y jk z z

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23

7-2.2

Properties of an Arbitrary UPW (1)

in a charge-free region,

E = 0

(E0 e jkR ) = ( E0 )e jkR + E0 (e jkR ) = 0

0

E0 (e jkR ) = 0

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24

7-2.2

Properties of an Arbitrary UPW (2)

(e
jk R

j ( kx x+k y y+kz z ) ) = ax + a y + az e y z x = j (a x k x + a y k y + a z k z )e = jka k e jkak R

E0 (e jk R ) = 0
j ( kx x+k y y +kz z )

jk (E0 a k )e jkak R = 0
E0 is transverse to propagation direction!

a k E0 = 0

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25

7-2.2

H Field of an Arbitrary UPW

H (R ) =
1

E( R )

E(R ) = j H (R )

H (R ) =

k E( R ) =

a k E( R )

H (R ) =
E H ak

(a k E0 )e jkak R

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26

7-2.3

Polarization of Plane Waves

polarization : time-varying behavior of the E field vector at a given point in space looking along the propagation direction
time-varying behavior means the possible changing of the direction of E, or the magnitude of E, or both separate description of the H field vector is not necessary since it is definitely related to that of E

three

types of polarization of plane waves

elliptical polarization linear polarization circular polarization

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27

7-2.3

Linear Polarization
for a UPW propagating in the +z-direction,

E = a x Ex ( z ) or E = a y E y ( z )

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28

7-2.3

Elliptical Polarization (1)

for a UPW propagating in the +z-direction,

E( z ) = a x E1 ( z ) + a y E2 ( z ) = a x E10 e jkz a y jE20 e jkz

jt E( z , t ) = e a E ( z ) + a E ( z ) e y 2 x 1 = a x E10 cos(t kz ) + a y E20 cos(t kz / 2)

z=0

E(0, t ) = a x E1 (0, t ) + a y E2 (0, t ) = a x E10 cos t + a y E20 sin t

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29

7-2.3

Elliptical Polarization (2)

E(0, t ) = a x E1 (0, t ) + a y E2 (0, t ) = a x E10 cos t + a y E20 sin t
E1 (0, t ) = E10 cos t cos t = E1 (0, t ) / E10 E2 (0, t ) = E20 sin t sin t = E2 (0, t ) / E20

x y + =1 a 2 b2 equation for an ellipse

cos 2 t + sin 2 t = 1

E1 (0, t ) E2 (0, t ) E + E =1 20 10
the sum of two linearly polarized waves in both space and time quadrature is elliptically polarized

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30

7-2.3

Circular Polarization
E(0, t ) = a x E1 (0, t ) + a y E2 (0, t ) = a x E10 cos t + a y E20 sin t
y

x + y =r
2 2

E1 (0, t ) E2 (0, t ) E + E =1 20 10
2

E(0, t)

equation for a circle

if E10 = E20

E10

E1 (0, t ) 2 + E2 (0, t ) 2 = E02

the angle E makes with the x-axis at z = 0 : right-handed circular polarization, RHCP
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E2 (0, t ) = tan = t E1 (0, t )

1

E rotates with an angular velocity in a counterclockwise direction!

31

7-2.3

Left-Handed Circular Polarization

E( z ) = a x E10 e jkz + a y jE20 e jkz E(0, t ) = a x E10 cos t a y E20 sin t
O E(0, t)

E10

= tan 1
left-handed circular polarization, LHCP

E2 (0, t ) = t E1 (0, t )

E rotates with an angular velocity in a clockwise direction!

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32

7-2.3

Linear Polarization
E( z ) = a x E10 e jkz + a y E20 e jkz
no phase difference

E(0, t ) = (a x E10 + a y E20 ) cos t

y E20 O E10 P1
tan 1 E10 E20

E2 (0, t ) E10 = tan = E1 (0, t ) E20

1

linear polarization, LP P2

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33

7-2.3

Conditions for Elliptical Polarization

the E field vector has
two spatially orthogonal components (e. g., Ex and Ey) with unequal amplitudes E10 E20, the phase difference between the two components is not zero or an integral multiple of /2,

If

then E is elliptically polarized with the principal axes not coincide with the coordinate axes.

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34

7-2.3

Wave Polarizations of Some Practical Applications

AM

broadcast : LP with the E field perpendicular to the ground TV signals : LP with E field parallel to the ground FM broadcast : CP
therefore, orientation of an FM receiving antenna is not critical as long as it lies in a plane normal to the direction of the signal

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35

Example 7-2

An LP plane wave can be resolved into RHCP + LHCP Solution : for an LP plane wave propagating in the +z-direction,

E( z ) = a x E0 e jkz

E( z ) = a x

E0 jkz E e + a x 0 e jkz 2 2 E E = 0 (a x ja y )e jkz + 0 (a x + ja y )e jkz 2 2 = E rc ( z ) + Elc ( z ) , Elc ( z ) = E0 (a x + ja y )e jkz 2

Erc ( z ) =

E0 (a x ja y )e jkz 2

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36

7-3

Plane Waves in Lossy Media

complex propagation constant low-loss dielectrics good conductors skin effect plasma

7-3

Fields in Simple Conducting Medium

If

the simple medium is conducting ( 0), a current J = E will flow, Amperes law becomes
H = j E + J = ( j + )E = j + E = j c E j

c = j

: complex permittivity

The other three equations are unchanged.

Therefore,

all the previous equations for nonconducting media will apply to conducting media if is replaced by c.
c , k kc = c
38

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7-3

Fields in Lossy Dielectrics (1)

When

an external time-varying E field is applied to materials, small displacements of bound charges result, giving rise to a volume density of polarization P.
This polarization vector will vary with the same frequency as the applied field.

As

the frequency increases, the inertia of the charged particles tends to prevent the particle displacements from keeping in phase with the field changes, leading to a frictional damping mechanism that causes power losses.
39

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7-3

Fields in Lossy Dielectrics (2)

The

phenomenon of out-of-phase polarization can be characterized by a complex electric susceptibility and hence a complex permittivity. If in addition, the material has an appreciable amount of free charge carriers such as the electrons in a conductor, where will also be ohmic losses.
c ( ) = ( ) j ( )
For low-loss media, damping losses are very small and the real part of c is usually written as .
An
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equivalent conductivity can be defined as

=
40

7-3

Classification of Materials
conductor : >> good insulation : << loss tangent :
good

tan c =

loss angle : c
A

material may be a good conductor at low frequencies but may have the properties of a lossy dielectric at very high frequencies.
e. g., moist ground : r 10 , 10-2

@ 1 kHz tan c 1.8 104 : good conductor @ 10 GHz tan c 1.8 103 : insulator
2006/10/17 41

Example 7-3

A sinusoidal E of amplitude 250 V/m and frequency 1 GHz exists in a lossy dielectric medium that has relative permittivity of 2.5 and a loss tangent 0.001. Find the average power dissipated in the medium per cubic meter. Solution : first find the effective conductivity of the lossy medium,

tan c = 0.001 =

0 r

109 )2.5 = 1.39 104 = 0.001(2 10 )( 36

9

2006/10/17

average power dissipated per unit volume is 1 1 p = JE = E 2 2 2 1 = (1.39 104 ) 2502 = 4.34 (W/m3 ) 2
42

7-3

Plane Waves in Lossy Media (1)

Helmholtzs equation in lossless medium:

2E + k 2E = 0
Helmholtzs equation in lossy medium:

2 E + kc2 E = 0

kc = c

in order to conform to transmission line notation, we define

= jkc = j c
is complex

: complex propagation constant

or

= + j = j 1 + j 1/ 2 = + j = j 1 j
43

1/ 2

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7-3

Plane Waves in Lossy Media (2)

2 E + kc2 E = 0
= jkc = j c

2E 2E = 0
UPW solution propagating in +z-direction with Ex

E = a x Ex = a x E0 e z
Ex =E0 e z e j z

= + j

: attenuation constant : phase constant

general expressions of and in terms of and constitutive parameters , , and are very involved
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7-3.1

Low-Loss Dielectrics (1)

or /
1

a low-loss dielectric has a non-zero equivalent conductivity such that,

= + j = j c = j ( j )
= j (1 j / )
binomial expansion
2 1 + = + j j 1 j 2 8

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1 '' '' , ' 1 + 2 ' 8 '

45

7-3.1

Low-Loss Dielectrics (2)

c = 1 j
1/ 2

intrinsic impedance of a low-loss dielectric

1 + j ' 2

E and H fields are not in time phase phase velocity in a low-loss dielectric

1 1 up = 1 8

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46

7-3.2

Good Conductors (1)

/
1

= + j = j c = j ( j / )
= j (1 j / ) j = j =

1+ j = (1 + j ) f 2

j = (e j / 2 )1/ 2 = e j / 4 = (1 + j ) / 2

= = f
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7-3.2

Good Conductors (2)

c = c
j

intrinsic impedance of a good conductor

f = (1 + j ) = (1 + j )

phase velocity in a low-loss dielectric

2 up =
consider copper as an example,

= 5.8 107 , = 4 107 ,

up f

f = 3 MHz

u p = 720 m/s , =
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= 0.24 mm , = = 2.262 104

48

7-3.2

Skin Effect

Skin effect : A high-frequency EM wave is attenuated very rapidly as it propagates in a good conductor. The fields exist only in a very thin layer (skin) close to the conductor surface. The distance through which the amplitude of a traveling plane wave decreases by a factor of e-1 ( 0.368) is called the skin depth.

=e

1 = = f

= = 2
1

e. g., Cu @ 3 MHz, 0.038 mm

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Skin Depths of Various Materials

Material Silver Copper Gold Aluminum Iron (r103) Seawater

Iron (

(S/m)
6.17107 5.80107 4.10107 3.54107 1.00107 4

f = 60 (Hz) 8.27 (mm) 8.53 10.14 10.92 0.65 32 (m)

1 (MHz) 0.064 (mm) 0.066 0.079 0.084 0.005 0.25 (m)

1 (GHz) 0.0020 (mm) 0.0021 0.0025 0.0027 0.00016

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50

Example 7-4

(1)

A UPW propagating in the +z-direction in seawater is E = ax100cos(107t) at z = 0. For seawater r = 72, r = 1, and = 4. a) Determine , , c, up, and .
b) Find the distance at which the amplitude of E is 1% of its value at z = 0. c) Write the expressions for E(z, t) and H(z, t) at z = 0.8 (m) at functions of t.

Solution :

= 107 = = 0 r
a) attenuation constant,

f =

= 5 106 2
4 = 200

1 107 109 72 36

= f = 5 106 (4 107 )4 = 8.89

phase constant,
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= f = 8.89
51

Example 7-4
a) intrinsic impedance,

(2)

f (5 106 )(4 107 ) = (1 + j ) = e j / 4 c = (1 + j ) 4

phase velocity,

107 up = = = 3.53 106 8.89

2 = = 0.707 = 8.89 2

wave length,

skin depth,

1 = 0.112 8.89

b) distance z1 at which |E(z1)| = 1% |E(z = 0)|

e z1 = 0.01 e z1 = 1/ 0.01 = 100 z1 =

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ln100 =

4.605 = 0.518 (m) 8.89

52

Example 7-4
c) in phasor notation,

(3)
E( z ) = a x 100e z e j z

instantaneous expression for E,

E( z , t ) = e[E( z )e jt ] = e[a x 100e z e j (t z ) ] = a x 100e z cos(t z )

at z = 0.8 m,

E(0.8, t ) = a x 100e 0.8 cos(107 t 0.8 ) = a x 0.082cos(107 t 7.11)

instantaneous expression for H, E ( z) E ( z) H y ( z , t ) = e x e jt H y ( z) = x c c

100e 0.8 e j 0.8 0.082e j 7.11 j1.61 = = H y (0.8) = e 0.026 e j / 4 e j / 4

H (0.8, t ) = a y 0.026cos(107 t 1.61)
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8-3.3

Ionized Gases
the earths upper atmosphere, roughly from 50 ~ 500 km, there exist layers of ionized gases called the ionosphere.
consists of free electrons and positive ions that are produced when the ultraviolet radiation from the sun is absorbed by the atoms and molecules in the upper atmosphere the charged particles tend to be trapped by the earths magnetic field

In

The

altitude and character of the ionized layers depend both on the nature of the solar radiation and on the composition of the atmosphere.
54

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7-4

Group Velocity
dispersion wave packet distortion group velocity

7-4

Review of Phase Velocity

Phase

velocity is the velocity of propagation of an equiphase wavefront.

up =

For

plane waves in a lossless medium,

=
u p = 1/

is a constant independent of frequency. In some cases, is not a linear function of and waves of different frequencies will propagate with different phase velocities.
e. g., wave propagation in a lossy dielectric, or in a waveguide
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7-4

Dispersion
All

information-bearing signals consist of a band of frequencies, normally centered around a high carrier frequency. Different component frequencies travel with different phase velocities will cause a distortion in the signal wave shape. The phenomenon of signal distortion caused by a dependence of the phase velocity on frequency is called dispersion.
a lossy dielectric medium is a dispersive medium
The

various frequency components form a wave packet. Group velocity is the velocity of propagation of the wave-packet envelop.
57

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7-4

Group Velocity (1)

consider the simplest case of a wave packet consists of two traveling waves with equal amplitude and slightly different angular frequencies,

E ( z , t ) = E0 cos[(0 + )t ( 0 + ) z ] + E0 cos[(0 )t ( 0 ) z ] = 2 E0 cos(t z ) cos(0t 0 z )

E(z, t) for the wave inside the envelop,

0
ug z up

0 t 0 z = C
dz 0 up = = dt 0
58

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7-4

Group Velocity (2)

for the envelop,

t z = C
dz 1 ug = = = dt /
E(z, t)

0
ug

1 ug = d / d z

up

E ( z , t ) = 2 E0 cos(t z ) cos(0t 0 z )
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7-4

Catagorization of Dispersion
d d = d d u p
no

1 du p 2 = u p u p d

ug =

up

dispersion
du p d = 0 , ug = u p

du p 1 u p d

normal

dispersion
du p d < 0 , ug < u p

anomalous

dispersion
du p d > 0 , ug > u p
60

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7-5

Flow of Electromagnetic Power and the Poynting Vector

power flow Poynting vector Poyntings theorem instantaneous and average power densities

7-5

Flow of Electromagnetic Power

vector identity,

(E H ) = H ( E) E ( H )
H = J + D t E = B t

B D (E H ) = H E EJ t t
in a simple medium
D = E , B = H , J = E

B ( H) 1 ( H H) 1 = H = = H 2 t t t t 2 2 D ( E) 1 ( E E) 1 2 E = E = = E t t t t 2 2
E J = E ( E) = E 2
62

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7-5

Poyntings Theorem (1)

B D (E H ) = H E EJ t t

(E H ) =
take volume integral

1 2 1 2 2 + E H E t 2 2
conservation of power

1 2 1 2 2 = + ( ) E H d s E H dv E dv S V V t 2 2
power leaving V through its surface S stored time-rate electric of change energy stored magnetic energy ohmic power dissipation

power decrease inside V

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7-5

Poyntings Theorem (2)

1 2 1 2 2 = + ( ) E H d s E H dv E dv S V V t 2 2 P ds = ( we + wm ) dv + p dv S V t V
P = E H
: Poynting vector

power per unit area

1 2 1 we = E = E E* : electric energy density 2 2 1 1 2 wm = H = H H* : magnetic energy density 2 2 p = E 2 = J 2 / = E E* = J J * /

: ohmic power density
64

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7-5

Poyntings Theorem (3)

P ds = ( we + wm ) dv + p dv S V t V
total power flows into a closed surface equals the sum of the rate of increase of stored electric and magnetic energies and the ohmic power dissipated within the enclosed volume

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65

7-5

About Poynting Vector

The

power relations in Poyntings theorem pertain to the total power flow across a closed surface obtained by the surface integral of EH. The definition of the Poynting vector as the power density vector at every point on the surface is an arbitrary concept, although useful. The Poynting vector P is in a direction normal to both E and H.

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66

Example 7-5

Find the Poynting vector on the surface of a long, straight conducting wire (of radius b and conductivity ) that carries a direct current I. Verify Poyntings theorem. Solution : direct current

current in the wire is uniformly distributed over its cross section

J = az

I b2

E=

= az

I b 2

on the wire surface,

H = a

I 2 b

P = E H = (a z a )

I2 2 b
2 3

= a r

I2 2 2b3

R = / S

b
2006/10/17

I2 2 2 b I I R P ds = P a r ds = = = 2 2 3 2 S S b 2 b
67

7-5.1

Instantaneous Expressions for Fields

E( z ) = a x Ex ( z ) = a x E0 e ( + j ) z E0 z j ( z + ) e e H( z ) = a y H y ( z ) = a y

c = c e j

E( z , t ) = e[E( z )e jt ]

= a x E0 e z e[e j (t z ) ] = a x E0 e z cos(t z )
H ( z , t ) = e[H ( z )e
jt

] = ay

E0

e z cos(t z )

2006/10/17

68

8-5.1

Instantaneous Power Density

P ( z , t ) = E( z , t ) H ( z , t ) = e[E( z )e jt ] e[H ( z )e jt ]

= az

E02

e 2 z cos(t z ) cos(t z )

e ( A ) = ( A + A * ) / 2 e ( B ) = ( B + B * ) / 2

E02 2 z = az e [cos + cos(2t 2 z )] 2 c

note :

e ( A ) e ( B ) 1 1 = ( A + A * ) ( B + B* ) 2 2 1 = [( A B* + A* B) 4 + ( A B + A* B* )] 1 = e ( A B * + A B ) 2
2006/10/17

P (z , t ) = e[E( z )e jt ] e[H ( z )e jt ] 1 = e[E( z ) H* ( z ) + E( z ) H ( z )e j 2t ] 2 e[E( z ) H ( z )e jt ]

69

8-5.1

Average Power Density

E02 2 z e [cos + cos(2t 2 z )] P ( z, t ) = a z 2 c 1 T E02 2 z e cos Pav (z )= P (z , t )dt = a z 0 T 2 c 1 P (z , t ) = e[E( z ) H* ( z ) + E( z ) H ( z )e j 2t ] 2 1 Pav (z ) = e[E( z ) H* ( z )] 2 1 Pav = e[E H* ] 2

2006/10/17

70

Example 7-6

(1)

The far field of a short vertical current element Idl located at the origin of a spherical coordinate system in free space is

60 Id sin e j R E( R, ) = a E ( R, ) = a j R

H ( R, ) = a

E ( R, )

Id sin e j R = a j 2 R

a) Write the expression instantaneous Poynting vector. b) Find the total average power radiated by the current element.

Solution : a) instantaneous Poynting vector

P ( R, ; t ) = e[E( R, )e jt ] e[H ( R, )e jt ] Id 2 2 = (a a )30 sin sin (t R ) R Id 2 = a R 15 sin [1 cos 2(t R)] R

2006/10/17 71
2 2

Example 7-6

(2)
Id 2 Pav ( R, ) = a R 15 sin R
2

b) total average radiated power

Pav =

Pav ( R, ) ds

2 2 Id 2 15 sin R sin d d R 2

d = 40 2 I 2

2006/10/17

72

7-6

Normal Incidence of Plane Waves at Plane Boundaries

reflection coefficient transmission coefficient standing wave standing wave ratio

7-6

Incidence onto Different Medium

EM

waves propagate in an environment full of different media in real situations. An EM wave traveling in one medium impinges on another medium with a different intrinsic impedance will undergo a reflection.
unless the second medium is a PEC, a part of the incident power is transmitted into the second medium
Both

medium 1 and 2 are assumed to be lossless.

2006/10/17

74

7-6

Normal Incidence at Dielectric Boundary (1)

incident wave : reflected Er wave anr Hr x

transmitted wave Et reflected wave : Ht y z ant

Ei ( z ) = a x Ei 0 e j1z Ei 0 j1z Hi ( z) = a y e

unknown amplitude

incident wave E Hi

E r ( z ) = a x Er 0 e j1z 1 E H r ( z ) = (a z ) E r ( z ) = a y r 0 e j1z

ani medium 2 (2 , 2) z=0

transmitted wave :

medium 1 (1 , 1)

Et ( z ) = a x Et 0 e j2 z Ht ( z) = a z

unknown amplitude

Et ( z ) = a y

Et 0

e j2 z
75

2006/10/17

7-6

Normal Incidence at Dielectric Boundary (2)

BC at the interface z = 0 :

E1tan ( z = 0) = E 2 tan ( z = 0)
reflected Er wave anr incident wave E Hi Hr y x transmitted wave Et Ht z ant

H1tan ( z = 0) = H 2 tan ( z = 0)

Ei (0) + E r (0) = Et (0) H i (0) + H r (0) = H t (0)

ani

medium 2 medium 1 ( 2 , 2 ) ( 1 , 1 ) z=0

1
2006/10/17

Ei 0 + Er 0 = Et 0 1 Et 0 ( Ei 0 Er 0 ) =

76

7-6

Reflection & Transmission Coefficients

2 1 2 2 Er 0 = Ei 0 , Et 0 = Ei 0 2 + 1 2 + 1
Et 0

Ei 0 + Er 0 = Et 0

( Ei 0 Er 0 ) =

Er 0 2 1 = = : reflection coefficient Ei 0 2 + 1 Et 0 22 = = Ei 0 2 + 1 : transmission coefficient

1+ =
2006/10/17 77

7-6

Observations

can be either positive or negative, depending on whether 2 is greater or less than 1. The definitions for and apply even when the media are lossy, i.e., even when 1 and 2 are complex. and are therefore complex.
a complex means a phase shift is introduced at the interface upon reflection

2006/10/17

78

7-6

Standing Waves
total field in medium 1,

E1 ( z ) = a x Ei 0 (e j1z + e j1z ) = a x Ei 0 e j1z (1 + e j 2 1z )

| E1 ( z ) |max = Ei 0 (1+ | |) , | E1 ( z ) |min = Ei 0 (1 | |)

standing wave

S=

E max E min

1+ 1

: standing-wave ratio, SWR

: 1 ~ 1 S 1 = S +1
2006/10/17

S : 1~
79

7-6

Field Expressions in Both Media

medium 1 :

E1 ( z ) = a x Ei 0 (e j1z + e j1z ) = a x Ei 0 e j1z (1 + e j 2 1z ) H1 ( z ) = a y

medium 2 :

Ei 0

(e j1z e j1z ) = a y

Ei 0

e j1z (1 e j 2 1z )

Et ( z ) = a x Ei 0 e j2 z

H t ( z ) = a y Ei 0 e j z 2
2

2006/10/17

80

Example 7-7

(1)

a) b)

a)

A UPW in a lossless medium with intrinsic impedance 1 is incident normally onto another lossless medium with intrinsic impedance 2 through a plane boundary. Obtain the expressions for the time-average power densities in both media. Find the standing-wave ratio in medium 1 if 2 = 21. Solution : time-average power density, E1 ( z ) = a x Ei 0e j z (1 + e j 2 z ) 1 Pav = e(E H* ) E 2 H1 ( z ) = a y i 0 e j z (1 e j 2 z ) 1
1 1
1 1

Ei20 j 2 1 z j 2 1 z e e Pav1 = a z (1 )(1 ) e + 21 Ei20 2 j 2 1 z j 2 1 z e e (1 ) ( ) = az e + 21 Ei20 Ei20 2 2 j z (1 ) 2 sin 2 (1 ) = az e + = a 1 z 21 21

2006/10/17

81

Example 7-7
a)

(2)
Pav2
Ei20 2 = az 22
Et ( z ) = a x Ei 0e j 2 z Ht ( z) = a y

Ei 0e j z 2
2

since both media are lossless, the power flow in medium 1 must be equal to that in medium 2, i.e.,

Pav1 = Pav2
1 2 2

1 2 =
b) if 2 = 21,

2 1 1 = 2 + 1 3

S=

1 + 1/ 3 =2 1 1/ 3

2006/10/17

82

7-6.1

Normal Incidence on a Good Conductor (1)

if medium 2 is a PEC = reflected wave anr x Hr PEC Er incident wave E Hi y ani medium 2 (2 = ) z=0 E2 = 0 , H2 = 0 z

2 = (1 + j ) = 0

2 1 2 2 = 1 , = =0 2 + 1 2 + 1
, Et 0 = Ei 0 = 0

Er 0 = Ei 0 = Ei 0

medium 1 (1 = 0)

2006/10/17

83

7-6.1

Normal Incidence at PEC Boundary (2)

incident wave :

reflected wave anr Er

x Hr

Ei ( z ) = a x Ei 0 e j1z Ei 0 j1z Hi ( z) = a y e

reflected wave :
PEC

incident wave E Hi

E r ( z ) = a x Ei 0 e + j1z Er ( z ) Ei 0 + j1z = ay e H r ( z ) = a y

ani

total E field in medium 1 :

medium 2 medium 1 (1 = 0) (2 = ) z=0

E1 ( z ) = Ei ( z ) + Er ( z ) = a x j 2 Ei 0 sin 1 z H1 ( z ) = H i ( z ) + H r ( z ) = a y 2

Ei 0

cos 1 z
84

2006/10/17

7-6.1

Instantaneous Field Expression in Medium 1

E1 ( z , t ) = e[E1 ( z )e
jt

] = a x 2 Ei 0 sin 1 z sin t

PEC

t =

t = 3 / 4 t = / 2

t = / 4 t = 0

t = 3 / 2 t = 5 / 4
z

standing wave

jt

3 4

4
z=0

H1 ( z , t ) = e[H1 ( z )e ] = a y 2
2006/10/17

Ei 0

cos 1 z cos t

85

7-6.1

Notes About Standing Wave

E1

vanishes on the conducting boundary (Er0 = Ei0) as well as at points that are multiples of /2 from the boundary. H1 is a maximum on the conducting boundary (Hr0 = Hi0 = Ei0 /1). The standing waves of E1 and H1 are in time quadrature (90 phase difference) and are shifted in space by a quarter wavelength.

2006/10/17

86

Example 7-8

(1)

A y-polarized UPW (Ei, Hi) at 100 MHz propagates in air in the +x direction and impinges normally on a PEC at x = 0. Assuming the amplitude of Ei is 6 mV/m, write the phasor and instantaneous expressions for
a) Ei and Hi or the incident wave; b) Er and Hr or the incident wave; c) E1 and H1 of the total wave in air.

Solution :

= 2 f = 2 10
a) incident wave,

2 108 2 , 1 = k0 = = = 8 c 3 10 3

, 1 = 0 =

0 = 120 0

Ei ( x) = a y 6 103 e j 2 x / 3
104 j 2 x / 3 H i ( x ) = a x Ei ( x ) = a z e 2 1 1
2006/10/17 87

Example 7-8
a) incident wave,

(2)

Ei ( x, t ) = e[Ei ( x)e jt ] = a y 6 103 cos ( 2 108 t 2 x / 3)

104 cos ( 2 108 t 2 x / 3) H i ( x, t ) = a z 2
b) reflected wave,

Er ( x) = a y 6 103 e j 2 x / 3
104 j 2 x / 3 H r ( x ) = ( a x ) E r ( x ) = a z e 2 1 1

Er ( x, t ) = e[Er ( x)e jt ] = a y 6 103 cos ( 2 108 t + 2 x / 3)

104 cos ( 2 108 t + 2 x / 3) H r ( x, t ) = a z 2
2006/10/17 88

Example 7-8
c) total field,

(3)
x

2 E1 ( x) = Ei ( x) + Er ( x) = a y 12 103 sin 3 104 2 cos H1 ( x) = H i ( x) + H r ( x) = a z x 3

2 E1 ( x, t ) = e[E1 ( x, t )e jt ] = a y 12 103 sin 3 104 2 cos H1 ( x, t ) = a z x cos(2 108 t ) 3

x sin(2 108 t )

2006/10/17

89

7-7

Oblique Incidence of Plane Waves at Plane Boundaries

Snells law of reflection and refraction total reflection surface wave reflection and transmission coefficients Brewsters angle

7-7

x reflected wave anr

Oblique Incidence (1)

refracted wave O' ant B since both the incident and reflected waves propagate in medium 1 with the same phase velocity up1, the distances must be equal

A' A

OA = AO

r i
O

z wavefront

OO sin r = OO sin i

incident ani wave medium 1 (1 , 1) z=0

2006/10/17

medium 2 (2 , 2)

r = i
Snells law of reflection
91

7-7

x reflected wave anr

Oblique Incidence (2)

refracted wave O' ant B the time it takes for the transmitted wave to travel from O to B equals the time for the incident wave to travel from A to O'

A' A

OB AO = u p 2 u p1 OB OO sin t u p 2 = = AO OO sin i u p1
sin t u p 2 1 n1 = = = sin i u p1 2 n2
92

r i
O

z wavefront

incident ani wave medium 1 (1 , 1) z=0

2006/10/17

medium 2 (2 , 2)

Snells law of refraction

7-7

Snells Law of Refraction

sin t u p 2 1 n1 = = = sin i u p1 2 n2
for non-magnetic media

, n=

c up

: refraction index

1 = 2 = 0

sin t r1 n1 2 = 1 = = = 2 r 2 n2 1 sin i
if medium 1 is free space

r1 = 1 , n1 = 1

sin t 1 1 2 = = = sin i r 2 n2 120

Note : Snells laws are independent of wave polarizations!
2006/10/17 93

7-7.1

Total Reflection (1)

the wave in medium 1 is incident on a less dense medium 2, i.e., 1 > 2,
1 sin t = sin i 2
sin t > sin i

When

t > i

Since

t increases with i, an interesting situation arises when t = /2, at which angle the refracted

wave will glaze along the interface. Further increase in i would result in no refracted wave and this is the total reflection (t = /2) The incident angle for which total reflection occurs is called the critical angle.
2006/10/17 94

7-7.1

Critical Angle
1 sin t = sin i 2
i = c t = / 2

2 sin c = 1
n 2 = sin 1 2 1 n1

c = sin 1

2006/10/17

95

7-7.1

Total Reflection (2)

x anr ant surface wave

mathematically, what if i > c,

sin i > sin c =

2 1

reflected wave

c c
y

c = / 2
z

1 1 2 sin t = sin i > >1 2 2 1

incident wave

ani

medium 2 medium 1 ( 2 , 2 ) ( 1 , 1 ) z=0

1 2 cos t = 1 sin t = j sin i 1 2

2

2006/10/17

96

7-7.1

Fields in Medium 2 Under Total Reflection

a nt = a x sin t + a z cos t

Et , H t e j2ant R = e

j 2 ( x sin t + z cost )

Et , H t e j2 x sin t e j2 z cost
cost = j (1 / 2 )sin 2 i 1 sin t > 1

E t , H t e 2 z e j 2 x x

2 = 2 (1 / 2 )sin 2 i 1 , 2 x = 2 1 / 2 sin i

2006/10/17

97

7-7.1

Surface Wave
i > c, an evanescent wave exists along the

For

interface (in the x-direction), which is attenuated exponentially in medium 2 in the normal direction (z-direction). This wave is tightly bound to the interface and is called a surface wave. This is a non-uniform plane wave. No power is transmitted into medium 2 under total reflection situation.

2006/10/17

98

Example 7-9
The permittivity of water is 1.750. An isotropic light source at a distance d under water yields an illuminated circular area of a radius 5m. Determine d. Solution : refraction index of water is nw = 1.75 1.32

radius of illuminated area, O'P, corresponds to the critical angle,

c = sin 1

1 1 1 0 sin 49.2 = = 1.32 nw

d=

OP 5 = = 4.32 0 tan c tan 49.2

2006/10/17

99

Example 7-10

A dielectric rod or fiber of a transparent material can be used to guide light or EM waves under the conditions of total internal reflection. Determine the minimum dielectric constant of the guiding medium so that a wave incident on one end at any angle will be confined within the rod until it emerges from the other end. Solution : 1 must be greater than or equal to c for total internal reflection,
1 = / 2 t
sin c =

sin 1 sin c

cos t sin c
sin t = 1

2 1
sin i

r1

sin 2 i

0 1 = 1 r1

r1

r1 1 + sin 2 i = 2

2006/10/17

100

7-7.2

Ionized Gases
the earths upper atmosphere, roughly from 50 ~ 500 km, there exist layers of ionized gases called the ionosphere.
consists of free electrons and positive ions that are produced when the ultraviolet radiation from the sun is absorbed by the atoms and molecules in the upper atmosphere the charged particles tend to be trapped by the earths magnetic field

In

The

altitude and character of the ionized layers depend both on the nature of the solar radiation and on the composition of the atmosphere.
101

2006/10/17

7-7.2

Ionosphere

Ionized

gas with equal electron and ion densities are called plasma. The ionosphere plays an important role in the propagation of EM waves and affects telecommunication. Because the electrons are much lighter than the positive ions, they are accelerated more by the E field of EM wave passing through the ionosphere.

2006/10/17

102

7-7.2

Wave Propagations in Ionosphere (1)

Effect

of the ionosphere on wave propagation can be studied on the basis of an effective p,

2 p f p2 p = 0 1 2 = 0 1 2 f

Ne 2 p = : plasma angular frequency m 0

e : electron charge , m : electron mass N : numbers of electrons per unit volume

= j 0 1 ( f p / f )
2006/10/17

, p =

0
1 ( f p / f )2
103

7-7.2

Wave Propagations in Ionosphere (3)

0 as f fp. When becomes 0, D (which depends on free charges only) is 0 even when E (which depends on both free and polarization charges) is not. When f < fp,
f < fp 1 < fp / f 1 (fp / f )2 < 0 is purely real

indicating an attenuation without propagation. fp is also referred to as the cutoff frequency. When f > fp, is purely imaginary and EM waves will propagate unattenuated in the ionosphere.

2006/10/17

104

7-7.2

Plasma Frequency of the Ionosphere

m = 9.7 1031

p 1 fp = = 2 2
N at a given altitude varies with the time of the day, the season, and other factors.

e = 1.602 1019

Ne 2 9 N m 0
N 1010 / m3

0 = 8.854 1012

~ 1012 / m3

lowest layer

highest layer

f p 0.9 MHz ~ 9 MHz

2006/10/17

105

7-7.2

Effect of Ionosphere on Communication

For

communication with a satellite or a space station beyond the ionosphere we must use frequencies much higher than 9 MHz to ensure wave penetration through the layer with the largest N at any angle of incidence. Signals with frequencies lower than 0.9 MHz can not penetrate into even the lowest layer. Signals with frequencies between 0.9 ~ 9 MHz will penetrate partially into the lower ionospheric layers but will eventually be turned back where N is large.
2006/10/17 106

Example 7-11

When a spacecraft reenters the earths atmosphere, its speed and temperature ionize the surrounding atoms and molecules and create a plasma. It has been estimated that the electron density is in the neighborhood of 2 108 /cm3. Discuss the plasmas effect on frequency usage and the mission controllers on earth. Solution :

N = 2 108 /cm3 = 2 1014 /m3

f p = 9 2 1014 = 12.7 107 Hz = 127 MHz

radio communication cannot be established for f < 127 MHz

2006/10/17

107

7-7.3

Perpendicular Polarization (1)

incident wave :

a ni = a x sin i + a z cos i
x reflected wave anr Hr Er

Ei ( x, z ) = a y Ei 0 e j1ani R = a y Ei 0 e j1 ( xsini + zcosi )

transmitted H ( x, z ) = [a E ( x, z )]/ i ni i 1 wave ant E Et = i 0 ( a x cosi + a z sini )e j1 ( xsini + zcosi )

y incident i wave ani Ei Hi medium 1 (1 , 1) z=0

2006/10/17

Hreflected t wave :

a nr = a x sin r a z cos r

Er ( x, z ) = a y Er 0 e j1anr R = a y Er 0 e j1 ( x sinr z cosr )

medium 2 (2 , 2)

H r ( x, z ) = [a nr E r ( x, z )]/ 1
= Er 0

(a x cos r + a z sin r )e j1 ( xsinr zcosr )

108

7-7.3

Perpendicular Polarization (2)

transmitted wave :

a nt = a x sint + a z cost
x reflected wave anr Hr Er

Et ( x, z ) = a y Et 0 e j2ant R = a y Et 0 e j2 ( xsint + zcost )

transmitted H ( x, z ) = [a E ( x, z )]/ t nt t 2 wave ant E Et = t 0 ( a x cost + a z sin t )e j2 ( xsint + zcost )

y incident i wave ani Ei Hi medium 1 (1 , 1) z=0

2006/10/17

Ht

medium 2 (2 , 2)
109

7-7.3

Field Expressions in Both Media

incident wave :

Ei ( x, z ) = a y Ei 0 e j1 ( xsini + zcosi ) H i ( x, z ) =
reflected wave :

Ei 0

( a x cosi + a z sini )e j1 ( xsini + zcosi )

E r ( x, z ) = a y Er 0 e j1 ( x sinr z cosr ) H r ( x, z ) =
transmitted wave :

Er 0

(a x cos r + a z sin r )e j1 ( xsinr zcosr )

Et ( x, z ) = a y Et 0 e j2 ( xsint + zcost ) Et 0 H t ( x, z ) = ( a x cost + a z sin t )e j2 ( xsint + zcost )

2006/10/17

110

7-7.3

Boundary Conditions at the Interface

E1tan ( z = 0) = E 2 tan ( z = 0) H1tan ( z = 0) = H 2 tan ( z = 0)

Eiy ( x,0) + Ery ( x,0) = Ety ( x,0) H ix ( x,0) + H rx ( x,0) = H tx ( x,0)

1
2006/10/17

Ei 0 e j1x sini + Er 0 e j1x sinr = Et 0 e j2 x sint 1 Et 0 j 1x sini j 1x sin r ( Ei 0 cos i e )= cos t e j2 x sint + Er 0 cos r e

all three exponential factors involving x must be equal ! (phase matching)

111

7-7.3

Snells Law
1 x sini = 1 x sin r = 2 x sint

r = i

sin t 1 n1 , = = sin i 2 n2

: Snells law

2006/10/17

112

7-7.3

Reflection & Transmission Coefficients

Ei 0 + Er 0 = Et 0 1 ( Ei 0 Er 0 ) cos i = Et 0 cos t

Er 0 2 cos i 1 cos t ( 2 / cos t ) (1 / cos i ) = = = Ei 0 2 cos i + 1 cos t ( 2 / cos t ) + (1 / cos i ) Et 0 22 cos i 2( 2 / cos t ) = = = Ei 0 2 cos i + 1 cos t ( 2 / cos t ) + (1 / cos i )
: Fresnels equations

1 + =
2006/10/17 113

7-7.4

Parallel Polarization
incident wave :

reflected 1 transmitted wave wave reflected wave : anr ant Er Et a nr = a x sin r Hr

a ni = a x sin i + a z cos i Ei ( x, z ) = Ei 0 (a x cosi a z sini )e j1 ( xsini + zcosi ) Ei 0 j1 ( xsini + zcosi ) H i ( x, z ) = a y e

incident y i wave ani Ei Hi

Ht z

a z cos r E r ( x, z ) = Er 0 (a x cos r + a z sin r )e j1 ( xsinr zcosr ) Er 0 j1 ( xsinr zcosr ) H r ( x , z ) = a y e

a nt = a x sint + a z cost j 2 ( xsint + zcost ) E ( x , z ) = E ( a cos a sin ) e medium 2 medium 1 t t0 x t z t (2 , 2) (1 , 1) Et 0 j2 ( xsint + zcost ) H t ( x, z ) = a y e z=0

transmitted wave :

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114

7-7.4

Reflection & Transmission Coefficients

matching BC at z = 0,

( Ei 0 + Er 0 ) cos i = Et 0 cos t 1

( Ei 0 Er 0 ) =

Et 0

Er 0 2 cos t 1 cos i = = Ei 0 2 cos t + 1 cos i Et 0 2 2 cos i = = Ei 0 2 cos t + 1 cos i cos t 1+ = cos i

2006/10/17 115

7-7.5

Brewster Angle of No Reflection

2 cos t 1 cos i = 2 cos t + 1 cos i
i = B|| such that || = 0
sin t = n1 / n2 sin i

2 cos t = 1 cos B
1 21 / 1 2 sin B = 1 (1 / 2 ) 2
2

n12 2 cos t = 1 sin t = 1 2 sin i n2

2

i = B

for non-magnetic media

1 2 , 1 = 2 = 0

1 sin B = 1 + (1 / 2 )
2006/10/17

or B = tan

2 1 n2 = tan 1 n1
116

7-7.5

Brewster Angle of No Reflection

2 cos i 1 cos t = 2 cosi + 1 cos t
i = B such that = 0

2 cos B = 1 cos t

sin t = n1 / n2 sin i

sin B
2

1 1 2 / 21 = 1 ( 1 / 2 ) 2

n12 2 cos t = 1 sin t = 1 2 sin i n2

2

i = B

for magnetic media

1 = 2 , 1 2

sin B =
2006/10/17

1 1 + ( 1 / 2 )
117

8-10.3

Application of Brewster Angle

B and B|| are different, it is possible to

Because

separate these two types of polarization in an unpolarized wave. When an unpolarized wave such as random light is incident upon a boundary at the Brewster angle B||, only the component with perpendicular polarization will be reflected.
Brewster angle is therefore also called polarizing angle
Based

on this principle, quartz windows set at the Brewster angle at the ends of a laser tube are used to control the polarization of an emitted light beam.
118

2006/10/17

Example 7-13

(1)

The dielectric constant of pure water is 80.

a) Determine the Brewster angle for parallel polarization B|| and the corresponding angle of transmission. b) A plane wave with perpendicular polarization is incident from air on water surface at i = B||. Find the reflection and transmission coefficients.

Solution : a) Brewster angle for parallel polarization,

B = sin 1

1 1 = sin 1 = 81.00 1 + (1/ 2 ) 1 + (1/ 80)

sin B t = sin 2
1

1 1 1 1 0 = = = sin sin 6.38 +1 81 2

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119

Example 7-13

(2)

b) reflection and transmission coefficients,

1 = 377 , 2 =

377

= 40.1

i = 81 , t = 6.38

1 / cosi = 2410 , 2 / cost = 40.4

40.4 2410 2 40.4 = 0.967 , = = 0.033 40.4 + 2410 40.4 + 2410

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120