Filippo del Lucchese

Conflict, Power, and

Multitude
in Machiavelli
and Spinoza
Conflict, Power, and Multitude
in Machiavelli and Spinoza
Tumult and Indignation
Filippo Del Lucchcsc
.\\
contlnuum
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o Filippo Del Lucchcst: , 2009
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ISBN: I-IB: 978-1 -'1411 -5062-2
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T)' pcSl:! by Ncwgc n l maging Sys!ems 1'1'1 Lid, Chennai, India
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Contents
Inu"o d uctio n
Part 1: Realism
[nlfod ucon \O Pan [
Ch"ptcr 1 The Ihe SUII, Ihe Elemellls, Mall : Necessity alld
Occasioll in lhe Rcalism orMachiavcl1i a nd Spino:f..a
Chaple r 2 and lh e "Commo n Good
M
O l".
n OllJer Words, Tr rannr
Part 11: Confli ct
Imroductio n \O Pan [J
Chapler 3 Spolill/ is Am/(/ Suprl'Stwt. Furo/' Antw Mi,stm/:
I'hiloso phy as Rcsi stan cc
Ch;pt er -1 Jerusal em ami Rome
Charler 5 /l 1S/ilin 1'/ /\/"lII i
Par! llI: Multitude
Introductio n 10 Pan IU
Charle] 6 Quid Ctrtjms PosJiI Nemo J-JuCluque Dell'Tlll i llflU;I :
The Spinozist "War Cr(
Chapter 7 Ind ividual Multipl e Bein g
NO/ e!!
HibliogmPhJ
ffr x
7
II
39
45
64
83
11 5
117
IS8
167
194
207
Introduction
i5 in NalUre no individual thing 11);1. 1 is nOl su r passed in slrength and
power by some other thing. \\'hat soc\'er !ling Ihef e s. lhere is anolher more
powerful by which lit: said thi ng can be destrored.w Spino .... a placed lhis A.'l:iom
al Ihe openi ng orpart IVofthe E/hio, dedi cated lO lhe oflhe afTects.
The strmcgi c position of this affinnation. "long with its uni\'cnality and d az-
7.ling direClness, are <In indicatio n of h a w cru cial lh e thcmc s of limitati o n , cri-
sis, and deslructi ol1 are to Ihe 5pino:dst SystCIll of tho ught. Eaeh and c\'cry finite
mod e. whether a thing 01" a pe rsono appears to r emain foreyer trapped
wilhin Ihis horilOll , And r et, fOI" good reasons, he character of
Spinozisrn, he central role thatjoy pla)"s in OHr afTec ti\'e life, has beell widely
recob"l ized by criti cs. as is lhe love we lm\'e for ourselves. for others. and for
God. Spinoza took th ese aspects to th eir extreme limit, to an extellt fe\\" other
phil osophers have d one. by assel't ing that "we fed and experi cnce otlr bei ng
eterna!. " Fwm thi5 perspccthe . the Axi om o f pan IV would seem to repre sent
lhe dark side of the real from wh ich IVe must d etach ourseh'es in orde r to
achieve happiness and hliss. woulel be otlr rewards for alife lived \irtu-
ously, finall)' freed from t,hi s h orizon o f deslrucli on and mutual lim ilali on.
BUI no such noli oll is 10 be fo und in Spin07.a's phil osophy. llte palh loward
freedom and e thi cal perfecli ol1 Ihal forms the real core of his elhics is 11 01
fo ullded Oll tlw idea of definiti\'el)' lea\;ng behind sOTll e original slate of mi s-
e!')'. Bl iss is nOI achie\'cd at the expense of this realit)" but rath er f!' otll within it.
through immanenl d)'namics. on Lh:n !lame natural hOl.011 ",here .. is no
indi vid ual hing hat is no t surpassed in strenglh anel powcr by some other
h ng. Th e d estru(ti o n of an indi\idual mod e---of ils power-effeclively l'epl'e-
a siluali on of cr isis. Neverlheless. Ihis should be understood as a manifes-
tali on 01' an aspeel of nalllre's po"'er as a whole. Crisis i5 not Ihe opposit e of
power: il is Oll e of il$ expressions, a mod e of ils affi n nalio n. Starti ng out fro ll!
tltis concepli on of cr isis. it seellled opponune to int erwea\'e Spilloza's phil oso-
phy with Ihal o f Machia\'elli. Picking up on a few noti otls frolll ancient Greck
mcd icinc, espccially the thcot)' of th e humot's, dc\"C loped an idca
[at was similar to the conccpt of cr isis. I-li s rell cnion Otl this t1lCme rcmaitls
implicit. jusI as i was fol' BU! these aspects can be bl'oughl 10 li ghl
thro ugh politi cal theo r}', language, and refl eeti o n on polilical issues. [n Ihe
HippoCr:\lic medicall.nlditi on, a cr isis was lhe cr ucial point il1 lhe progress of
an ill11 es5 l. hal d ecided whclher a pathol ogy was h eaded loward healing or
d e,uh. For l>bchiawlli. usin!;" " similar concepli on." cn sis was not a ncgmion of
power and d" l ue; ,.alhe r, il wa.' o ne of Ihe i,. mode. of el Lm: nce, a fOl"ll' of Ih" ir
expre"ion. A crisis th:" a"d state., prine". and peop!". , d oe, no t
re pre, em a n exc"pti on lO the rul e or a pa lho logr in the ph)"sio lo,;y o f Ihe po lili-
eallife. and power are nOI o ppo. ed in Maehia,el1i . Iho ughl: they inICr-
m' ine, ove rlap, and meld logelher within Ihe limil.'l of a recur. i,." relati onship
in which one nece!osaril )' r efen lO the o lher.
Th" ro ll owing page. offer a di .cu"io n 011 Ihe", ideas a lld a n a ltc mpt lo
explo re the ir ,"lidi l)". Fr om Ihi. per'peeli,e. a comparisoll \\"ilh Machi''''elli
off;; r, an ;;xc;;l' li on"lI )' impo nmu eO'tillll Oion fOI" sheddill g li ghl 011 a number
of a'p.'el.'l re laling lo phil osophi cal a nd politieal mod crnit}". A eompa ri.>;Qn
belween diffcr ent a Ulhors "le,}" HIII Ihe risk of simplif)'ing their r<' !alio n . lnel
ing OUI Ihe differenn., a m! ) " rmonizill g di fferem wap o f Ihinking so as 10
come up with a formula abl e 10 s)'mhesize them Of e" e n sllnllua ,i7.c Ihe spi .. il of
:111 e mire age. l\I od e rni t} would end up fm m litis point of l e ... as the ag{'
of 1<11 io n"li slll. for eX"lll pI e, as ,he a fliTll HIt ion of Ihe !"'I"digm of " "1 ural bw.
Of eonlr.lema li,m, or <m-e r eignt)". TI,i, book seeb 10 d o j usI Ihe Opposile: lo
r,"'e"l Ihe di'cr. il)" and compl<' x il)" of Ihis pe,; od by c m p]",.i zi"g Ih" exi sten te
of ,,,dou . a ]1 i,c Ul odern i, ics a m! lhe ' " ri ou. concepl io n. of polil k . law.
:md the slale Ihal wue being fonnubted fro m the beginning of Ihe siXleenth
centur,. \O Ihe e nd of lhe se' " meenth Ce nl\lr)". NOI onl)' is Ihis lit" per iod whe n
Ihe I"oum!;>t;o ns of l'0 lil ic. we know il were laid. d;w: r,e a nd opposing ,heo-
re tiea! a m! philo.ophieal oysle m, abo eame faee-Io-faee duri ng thi . lime. Di" e rg-
ing lIl ud e milies " ",] di ffe relll fo rlllulali oll s of polili cal alld calegorie,
ca'ne ;nlo confEel wilh eaeh o lhe l". No"'. in lhi . fl" l1\ ewo rk. a eOl1\l' a-i'o n ",ilh
,\lachi''''e!li e , ,,, mia!. TI, e axis o ffe rs an o ri!,oinal.
fruitful perspecli .." for relmionship Il, ese differing
!ll od e rnitie.' f r01l1 a hislo ri eal poi m 01" vi cw as wcl! a. f01" for mulaling in lere. li nI,,'
theor eti cal, po lilical, andjurid ieal nOlio m .
This oook uffer. a companson bel ween Ihe polilic"l and legal doclrine. o f
alld Sl'ino za. It a ids in undn,t:mding :md a nalp";ng wha, Spino 7.:1
wdcolHed fro lll l>lachi"w lli', he ritage a nd II"hat he ;\1)' r e:ld ing o f this
rel,ui onship i, nOl int e nded lO be eXI1'lll S1i'e. The e mi re theo1"etical a m! phil o-
sophi cal "yslc1I1s of the IWO amho!", wil l nol be I' re", med in lhe following pases.
quc' li o n. sueh as the na lure of co.mology uf theol-
0b')' wi11 onl)' be d e,,11 Wilh in a lI1 arb';n,,1 f""hion " " d lOuchcd on purel)' in con-
necli o n with m)' chosen le rm. of com pari,on: the questi o n. o f reali sm. eonfliet,
""d ",,,Iti,,,/Qwhi ch ll1"ke ur Ihe thu'e ,eCl on, oflhi, wo rk. TheSt' aspects were
consid..,.cd l for IWO reasons: 011 ,he 011 (' h,Uld, in o rder lO ; merpre l
similaritic. ami differe nee. be tween Ihe Iwo tho ught 'plcm. ; on ,he o ther
ha nd. 1O icle11lif)' fe nilc. o fiboin a] e le lHe ms. in lemu or.", alt en"'li"e Ill odernil)',
th'1l thr Machia"Clli-Spin07.<' axi s ollcrcd at d incll \ l ime. to he ,ra d itio ns of
uto pianism, reason of state, a bsolulism. and na,eent
1/llmnll clio/1
,
Thc lhcmcs of co nfli cl and multitudc in panicular haye n OI bccn givcll llluch
attemi on in Ihe crilical1iter-alure. Criti cs wh o hal'e wrilten about Ihe re!ati on-
ship between f', b chial'eJ1i and Spinol.<'l hal'e preferr ed 10 foclls on he heme of
Ihe Sla rtin g from Spinom 's criliglle of ph il oso phers found in
lhe opening 10 he Poliliwl TnmliJe, commenlal ors hal'e d evel oped lheir anal )"-
ses around Ihe rej ecti ol1 hal lhe two aUlhors share of al1)' 1I 1Opian horizo ll in
polilicallhoughl. This aspecI lmd aIread)' callghl lI le all enti ol1 of Menzel in his
Mudics on Spinol11 al Ihe end oflhe nin ctcc nth and the bCb';llning of th e {WCII-
ticth cemuri es1and espccially in hi5 anide 011 the rclati onship lI"ith Machi;-
This is a thal was d evelopcd wit.h dilTerent IOnes and po ints of
foclIs hy several interprelers of Spinohl II"h o d clved mOSI d osely il1lo his rela-
li onship lI'ilh f',la chial'elli, like Maggi ore,' Ral-a! Strallss, ' Signor il e," and Galli-
cel Calvel!.i .' All lhese cr il ics emphasi zed (he anl i-ul opian aspecI ofSpi n o111 's
lhoHght as lI'ell as \-lachil'e lli's innuence in thi s regare! . They especiall )' e!rew
attcntion 10 lhe role that Spinoza's reading of chapler XV of Tll e p,.;l/ce pb )"ee!
in hi s formulation of realism. Gallicel Call'eni, for exampl e. rightl )' insisted
on lh is poil1l: hO"'evel', hc!" mo nograph is col orcd by h er gene ral opini o n of
Spinozi sm, influencing Ihe en tire argumel1lali on and Ihel"eby also limiling il.
Gal1i cel C.'llvetti mainlains in panicular lhal thel'e is a fundamental contradi c-
li on belween 's metaphpical and e thi cal s)"Sl ems. She stresses Iha1 man 's
liberali oll from Ihe passi ons Can1l 01 be cOll ce il'ed in a de lerminisl ic s)"sl e m in
II'hidl el'er)'l hing takes pl aee according 10 an absolul e necessity. In Ihis sense,
she says, a delermini sti e 11l etaph)"sics alld an alllh ropologi cal reali s11l defin e Ihe
lerms of an essential aporia lIlal chamelerizes Spin0111s enlirt: syslem of
IhOllght. Thc probl em for Galli ccl Calrelli d ocs nOl li e in Spi noza's accept.lnce
of he Machiavdlian tcachings, Ihen, so much as il does in lIleir supel"mposi-
don o n Ihe foundadons of Ihe syslem d eyeloped in he Ethir.$. This cri l ique
unclerli es Gallicel el1lire analysis, abo making probl ema ti c an}'
wilh Machiavelli .
O(her. specifi c C[ueslions hal'e also bee n lackl ed by co mment.'ltors, slIch as a
stal e's return to principIes, Ihe lrall sfonnaloll of regimes, amI Ihe peopl e 's
arm)', These are argumems thal Spinoza lakes up fro ll! Mach ia\"elli and di s-
cusses expli cill y lIlroUgho ul hi s lI'orks. Carl Gebhardl has po imee! o ut lha l an
in-deplh compari son belween Ihe IWO authors can be made by studying l hese
more specifi c In spilc of Ihi s, o nl)' recently have these tapies been
examined a an)' lengt.h. Ant oni o Negri, for example, has insisted on t.h e role
the 1""0 phil osophers played in crealing an al ternal\'e curren t in mod ern meta-
L'lUrelll BOI'e has also insi sled 011 Ihe relati omhi p belween Machi-
I'elli ane! Spinoza to d el'elo!, lhe th emes of resislall ce ami confli cl slaning frorn
lhe Spinozist concep( of w /wllls.I" F"inall}', Vinori o Morfino has provided
lhe 1110SI d ctailed im'esligmi oll imo Ihe belween lhe Iwa lhinkers,
providing an odgina1. d etail ed anal )"s is uf this crucial in lhe histOlj' of
phil osophi cal. polili cal, and j uridi cal mod crnily. 1I
.. COl/jliel, Puwer; (/lid Mullilrule
Thc nrst pan of 1his boo k i5 dc\'otcd to lh e subjcct 01' realismo
importancc in lhe rormulation 01' a rcalist!; co n ce plio n of rolides has bcen
widel)' acknowledged by critics. Less alt enti on has been dedicated LO Spinoz. .
011 1his heme, howewr. The intention of lhe fol1owing pages is to sho\\' ho\\'
dosel>, lie<l Ihe l\\'O thinkers are 011 Ihis poin(: realislll as iI appli es 10 he exis-
C[lee of Ihe individual finile modes 01' \O Ihe relati on between he rll odes rmel
Subsmnce in lhe Spinozisl s)'stcm. alld equally lO lhe n:latioll belween vinue
and fonunc, or belwccll ncccssit)' alld frecdom. in l\b chia\'cllian thoughl. Thc
qucstiOllS of llccessity alld lhe occ<lsioll a re cc mr.l] to !JI)' a nalysis, cspcdall)'
through lhe concc pdon that cac h amhor has of human exist encc in rclation 10
the nccessity that distinguishes nature as a whole; hut abo through the signifi-
cance ami possihilities of I'inuous aClion and ethic .. l perfection. The character-
iSlics of i\bchia\e lli and Spillow:s realism can lhus be defined slaning fmm
lher ornolog)'.
Frolll melaph}'sics we then pass on LO the o f the alTeclS ando more
gem::rally. of th eir conceptioll of humall nature. The necessit)' of interpreti ng
the alTeclll. likc all other humall phenomcna, as pro pertics and not as \ices of
human nalUrc stcms from Spi nozas geometl"ealmethod. A similat attitude is
lO be found in l'ob chia,cll i. wh ose co ncepti on ofman is taken frOIll exper ien ce
as l1l11ch as it is from historical natTatle. " 'e will a1so sh ow that on lhe political
plan e lhe IWO llllhou are opposed lO lhe ideolob'Y ofthe consen'alion ofpower.
foundill g il inslead on lhe immanell l power of Ihe people ancl the multit ude
rather titan on the idea ofa tJ"anscenden t reason ofslale.
Tit e secolld par! oflhe book deals with lhe theme ofpol iti cal and social COll-
ni CI. Thc importance of co nni cl in i\bchial"elli 's thought has ai read)' been
reco),'llzed by ctities. h has oceupi ed a minor position in lhe criti eal litcr.Htlle
o n Spin07.Ll. howel"er. 111e ntenton ofthi s secli on is 10 sh ow that the theme of
conni ct is olle of th e 1l10st important keys to an unrlerstanding of Maehi a\"elli
and Spin07 .. a's modernil y. In modernity, Ihe phcnomenon of conni cl inl"o kes a
H Ihal is th reat.ening 10 lhe power ami of stales. The lead-
ng phil osophers of lhis period cOlldelll1l conni CI-be il religious, cil"il. or p olit -
cal-in <In elTon 10 cxorcisc ilS desl.."lbi lizing elTecls. i\b chi\clli, on the
COlltrary. assigns a positi\e \'alll e \O polti cal and social COllni CtS in hi s Ih eol) '.
This idea is lcss e\"id em in Spinoza's thouglH; howel"er, since no thing in nature
can be eonceil"ed ofas a \"ice, il makes sense \O ask oursel\"es what lhe Slatus 01"
(onlli CI is in Spino:f.a's sTstelll . I wi1\ lherefore altelll pt 10 elatil)' th e role ofresis-
lanee amI slruggle for sUITI'al in a world lha! is conMant ly changing; one in
which, once again, "Ihere is in Nature no indil"idllal lhing Iha! is nOl surp<lssed
in slrenglh ami power b)' some ot h er
TIt e concepti on ofhuman Ilature for bOlh aUlhors is int er laced willt hi storical
narratil"e. Machia\elli and Spino:f.Ll turn 10 sel"eralmodels from hi slOt) ' 10 illus-
mue lhe elTects amll"Ol e of CO nmel in the context ofa philosoph), and eth.i cs of
resiSlanee. TIIC main modcls the)" lake inlO eonsider.nion fOI" thcir analrsis are
1/llmnl/ clio/1 5
J erusal em amI Rome. Le;l\;ng lhe polilical sphele, we wil1 lhen en ter into lhe
realm of legal phil osoph)', laking a look al lhe role and signifi can ce of poI iti cal
confli Cl in co ncePli ons of lhe la\\'. This Fi eld gives rise to SOlll e of lhe 111 0S1 o ri gi-
nal and imeresling l.h eoretical nOli ol1s. By sludying rh e r ole of conOicr in i\-lachi-
avelli and llw.1 of WII(lI w or illdiJjlllllio in Spinol..'l. I\'e wi11 bring 10 ligh t sOlll e
th eoretical elemen ts for a cOl1flinualist conceptioll of the lal\' and politi cs.
The Ihird pan of lhe book examines Ihe concepl of and
expressiolls of politi cs, namcly, Machia"clli 's popolo and Spinoz.as 1II1I11i
ludo. Based on lhe idea lhal lhe powcr ofthe peopl e and lhe multilude is imllla-
nelll lO lhc powcr of Ihe stale , reiLCI-;lIes i\-!achb,cl!'s ,;cw o f Ihe
o f th c mullipl e over lhe singular. The kind of bodr thal is 1110S1
.mited 1.0 persevere in bei ng, both o n lhe on!.ological and political plallPS, i5
Ihe one IlwI is mosl dil'erse , rich a nd suil ed 10 afTening and being afTeeled in a
mullipli ci l)' of difTerenl ways. In lhe language of politics. lhi", translal es imo lhe
superi oril)' of lhe peopl e o,'er th e prinee , and imo th e affirmati on of d e moc-
rac)' as Ihe 0(11 )' enirel ), absolute fonu ofgol'ern mcllt. No t. as i is I'i el\'ed uadi-
doually. as one form among others, bUl as the 'CI'}" esscncc of thc po litks of
po\\'er a lld frecdom, in which lhe mulliplc , co mpl ex body ofthe fi/n>m //Iulli/udo
self-organizes itself.
[n th e Iasl chapler we 1I'i11 see hOI\" this he Jll e is rl e,eloped by Spino7A a! ong
with t.hal of wisdom a\lC1 lhe difTerent kinds of kn owl edge, Wisdo lll i5 no t an
indil'idual ,'irt.ue hnl isolates JIlan fmm th e rest of lhe communi y, prolecling
him from he more negalil'e efTects of soci allife. On lhe con trar}', lhe highesl
fo nn of kn owl edge, II'hi ch Spinoza calls he s[el1/ i n ill/u/ n.m, refers direc tly to
lhe fonu oflife in COllllll on lhm lllOSl all ows individual virtues to d e\'c1oped
and pcrfecled: namcly, d emocr.:lcy.
Realism, confli ct, and //Iull/I/do are lhe hree lhemes th rollgh whi ch the
sign ificance of Ihe e ncounler bel\\'een these lWO phi loso phical and po liti ca!
srsl ems CUl be mosl efTeelil'ely examined , As we wi11 in th e foll owing
pages, and SpinOz.1 d evised o riginal reOeclions on lhese fUlldam emal
lheoreli eal noti ollS Ihal lie :u the eore of mod ern polili ealthought.
Part 1
Realism
I n lroduCLi o ll
The Prince is lo efhir.s wlw/ {ht wm"k aJ Spi /lQ:'/1 is lo /nith. S!ill(n.(I
slll'lm! {he !1I1/(111ll1f' II/als o/ jtlith, (/111/ dmilll'(f I/f slJiril 01 rrfigioll; MUfhim;elli
COn1IIJ/l'd polic)', (lid Ulldl'rlook lo desl"')' Ibt IJ/'!!Cepls o/ /tallh)' /l/omls: Ih, errurJ o/
11M jinl WmI 01/1)' fmurs 01 specll/alioll, IJIIlllwst of/he olher lUId a pmclicuf IlIrusl. The
IheologiulIs JWVI' sOZlllded he fllann bell (Inri bllltled ugaill$/ Spina::.a, njulillg his !VOIk
ill oml al/ ti defelldillg the Divinil)' ngai/lsl his all(lcR, lVIIi/e Madliavelli has Ollry bem
barlgewd hJ /11 s/Jile 01111e1ll, out! in .fJlil e o/ il.f jurmiciolu momll, The
I' rince is 1!f'1)' /l/lIdl 0 11 Ih, Pl/I/Jit 01 polig, i" QIII" da)'. /1<Iill diff,'ld IIIj//Ull/il .\'
flgainsl (his mmlslttr whi,h wlm/s lo des/IV)' il; I t/are lo al/pose 1/t!(lJO/l II/ld Jlu/iet lo
so"h is//l (j /Id ni //Ir; III/(I I ltellllt/l'd II!)' rffltclio/ls 0/1 M (/chilliJelli s Pri n ce, dlfl/1ler /lJ
dWI,Ier, so 1III/IIhe 1//IIidole is illlll!editl l elJ lIel/r Ihe I,OisOIL
Fm/elick 11, Kig o/ Pl1Issil/. L "lIui lll achiavt:!
An im"enig:l1i on in10 lhe po litical realism of Mach iavelli and presents
signifi can! dimculties. Machial'elli's wrilings. fOI" example. orrel" no syslematic
fonnuJalion of his conceplion of na1lJre or mano Ahhollgh he does nOl explic-
ill r d el"elop a metaphysics, his wrilings do nwke room. howe\er. for philosophi-
cal themes alongside the predominantlr political arguments. Wh ile a det;:liled
study 01' Machial'ell i's philosophy does nOI eme r imo the aims 01' this book, the
followi ng pages will allCmpt 10 br ing lO light the ph il osoph ical foundaL on on
which his polilical lhought resl'l. Machi:l\"clli"s r calism is dc\"e1opcd pI"imarily
thro llgh his political thought. The cr iticalliler:Hllre has placed grcat cmphasis
on Ihe fact thal Ihe Fl orentine Secretary is one of the maSl ers of 1Hod ern l)oliti-
cal realismo Sim iJarl r, il has been noted lhal realism also dislinguishes Spin07A"s
1I'0rk, especial1y as far ns his poli lical reflectioll is con cerned. [n" esligal ion in lO
8 COl/jliel, Puwer; (/lid Mullilrule
this heme thus makcs il possibl c lO trace OUl lhe lin camc llIs o ra radical 1hco-
rctka! o ut o f which 1he odgins o fmo d c mity we r c for"ged.!
There does exi .u an iniri al diHiculty, howcver. \\fha! exactly does ""ealism"
refel" lO? The lerm is somewhat am bigllous and cen;l.i nly presen IS a m uhiplicit)'
o f meanings, especiall y in Ihe hist oriea! perl a d nd cuhuml contexl we are
abo uI !O d ell"c h wo uld be difficuh \O attcmp' a preliminar}' defini tion of
lhe cOllcept. which would probably urn Out 10 be less han satisfactor)' in an)'
case . Howc"cr, by taking a lcss absu-an approach, Ihe ubjcCI is ('asic!" 10 b'TIlsP.
Ncithcr n o r Spinoza can b(' allri butcd with a complete and
ten! paradigm of polidcal realismo The ir writings d o Icad US, though, toward a
concrete approach to poli tical th emes from a realistic IJOinl of \"i ew. Our att en-
lion wi11lhus be directed loward specifi( Ihal are developed al Ihe
core of Iheir work. The Ihemes ha'"e been chosen becallse Ihe)' are panicularl)"
fruilful for Ihis Iype of analysis: namel)'. lhe concepl of man in relati oll 10 Ihe
s!ale; fonull e all d vinue; ami necessilr amI chanceo as lhe)' are trea led by each
o f lhe aUlh ors. No univocal amI rigorous definilion of po lti cal realism is thus
pUl forward in his slUdy. The term is used. rather, as a concepl Ihal refen in ils
tul"ll to a number of specific Ihemes Ihal have bee n dcvcloped as par! of this
multifaceled CutTelU of thought. Our invesligati on will pmceed in two dire(-
ions. On the o ne hand, polilkal realiS11I wi1l serve as a hermeneulic 1001 for Ihe
reading of and Spin07.a. On Ihe o lher hand, Ihe relalionship
belween these IWO alllhors pro,'ides an opponunit)' for inqlliring il11.o and
honing Ihe lueanng of r eal ism, especiall}' as il appears in ilS polili cal form.
Tit e first clH.pler anal)'zes Ihe on toloh'"} of Machia\"elli <lnd COIl-
ception of nature, the idea of (<Iusalil)', lhe role of necessity in human C\CIl IS-
with lhe intelll of establ ishing wh ethcr analogics bctwecn th e positions o f the
two writeu GIIl be l1<lced as far down as Ihis primar)' layer in Ihe philosophical
system. Si11l ilarities which suggesl any direcI inf! uence of i\bchb' e l1is Ihought
on Spin01A"l'S works wiH be 1eased out amI nOled. Tltis two-prongec1 approach
will allow llS to descr ibe wilh more precisio n th e dislinguishing ami Ihe
kind of realism tltat Ihe two lhinkers share. Wha l we will see, essent.ally, is Ihe
aCli\e amI elhi cal1r cogelll character of Ih is su"<.in of realism, one wh ich dri\"es
us \Oward \inuous ac!ion more than it d oes \O disen chal1l cd cOlll emplati o ll of
the e'enl.'; sllrrounding liS, and ofthe necessil)' ,,hich dmra cte rizes Ihem.
The second chapter deals wilh lhe reb lionship bctwecll Machia\clli, SpinoZ::l,
and reason of state. SOtlle critics have seen Machiavelli as Ihe origin of Ihis
Ihoughl Irac1ilion, while olhers I'i ew him as en!i rely eXlraneous \O jI si nce he is
stilllied 10 a conce pli on ofpolit ics considered 10 be not yet full y moderno The
5."lme tltjng can be said of Spilloza, \Vito Itas been d edared an esselllial slrallger
\O lItis cur relll of lltoughl . oro cOlll'crse1y. a full-ncdgcd me.u bcr when \'iewed as
an exponelll of rt:ason of StaIC. As we sltall sec, lhe question is
more (omplex. i\l achial"elli amI Spino:r.a do indecd discuss amI reneet on
thellles that 1I'i11 lake Ihei r place in th e lhought tradilio l1 of rcaSOI1 of S!ale.
UeflliS/II
,
In o rder (O examine the qucsti o n lll o re full y, SOlll e ofthese elelll e nu-like the
re btio nship be twee n politics and religi o n, the th e me of dissimubti o n, r espeet
fo r paet.'; and pro mise s, and final1,., the ideology 01' the eOI1l1110n good-wil1 be
taken inlo eonsi deral on. In Ihi s way, we int end 10 demi fy lhe precise li es
belween hese wri lers ami reason o f sta te, llnderlinin g Ihe inde1ibl e differe nees
liwt Maehiavelli ami Spinoza preselll . nOI because lhey are M m o r e ~ or uless"
moderno bUI becaust: lhe)" are represelllati\"es of all origillal I'ersi on of modt: r-
nitro SOIll C 01" whose featufe s are r<ldically difft' re lll bOlh fm m lhe d o minalll
philoso phical sehool amI lhe eo nsc r\"atil'e diseourse 01" l"Caso n of SlalC.
Chapter I
The Sky, lhe Sun, lhe Elemen/s, Man: Necessity
and Occasion in the Realism of Machiavelli
and Spinoza
The end poilll ofSpinow's EIMesis a renection on lhe condilion for de\'eloping
human freed ollL, Spinoza bcli el'es il is possibl e-and e\'en lI ecessary-for Ill an
10 undcnake Ihis palh \O liberatioll: 1101 <111 eas)' oll e \O take, <llld Ihe experience
of which, like all exec lle nl Ihings, is as diffi cull as il is I"Me (10 use Ihe ex pres-
5ion in Ihe laslsenlell ce ofpan Voflhc Elhics) , II isactuall r in pan V Ihal mela"
physics and realism inlCrlwine, ghing rise 10 some oflh e moS! original aspecIs
of Spin07.a 's phil oso phy, No new el efi l1ili 011S are inlrocluced, il11plying hal Ihe
Iheme of freeclo rn is 10 be handled using Ihe noti ons aIread)' ernpl oyecl in
lhe previous pans, " 'e do fil1d lWO aXl0ms, h owe\'er, whose fun Cll0n IS 10 clarif}'
tll e premi ses alld di reCllhe illqll iry immedialelr 1.0ward a possibili l}' ofhllman
freedom alld eondili ons Iha! are nOI founded on an)' kind of Iranscelldcmal
wisdom. Axi om 1 stalCS lhal l\\'O co mrary aeti ons are insti ga.led in Ihe s,ull e
subjeCl, a change must necessa.ril )" take place in bOlh 01' in the one ofthem until
Ihe}' cease 10 be contrar}', H whil e Axi om 2 stales Ihal powcr of an elfccl is
cl elined h)" Ihe power oflhe callse insofar as ils esse nce is expl ical ed or defined
Ih rOllgh he essence of its cause, H
A.xi o lll I la)"s Ihe fo undations for a concepion of man's e lh ical aClion in
lerms of change alld degree, Because illdi \'id ual s experieuee conmclUal emo-
lions (passi ons or aITeets ) in response \O whal happens 10 Ihem, ehange is lhe
ill ereasl' 01' decrtase of lheir power. This is a maucr ofdcgrec, bceause il is 11 01
a case ofu".J.tlScendingan ordinal"}' condition ofsla\' el"}' in orde!' lO emer inlO an
cxu<l ordinary, and abo\'c a11, definitivc condilio n of freedom. \ fl'cc Illan is sti11
aman ;l.I1d, as such, is conslilutionally MlI<lversed" hy elll Olions.
1
111ere is no
delin it!l'e break, going heyo nd Ihe realist ic elescriplion of lllall 's emol onal co n-
diti on realed in pan IV, t:vel"}' lhing Inkes pInce through a /:,'1<1d llal and lempo-
mI"}' adnplation. in lerms ofa or a an incrense or a decrease
ami sad ness. ami henee, ill power (Jott ntir/) , Thi s is whal A,xi olll 2 is gmft ed
OnlO, leading Ihe entire Ill echanism inlO a causall ogi c. The power ofthe eITen
can onl )" be d efin ed by lhe powc!' of ils cause. It is nOl possibl e 10 understand
lhe po/el/litl of a Ihing independ cn tly of lhe causal rc1ali on Ihal chal<l cle l'izes
COl/jliel, Puwer; (/lid Mul/ilru/e
mod es and aelions. Neither lhe path toward freedom nor th e dcscri ption of
man and his emoli o nal condili on can lhen'for'e lranscend lhe realism found in
lhe preceding pages. This lype of realism remains present and is infused
lhroughoullhe ellti re e lhical projec! of liberalion.
Thro ugh Ihe concepts of necessil)'. prudence. ami \inue. he innuence Ihal
Machiavelli !r ae! 011 he aealion o f Spino1.a s omol ob')' s made e"dem. Neces-
sit}', for s Il lt: eonr erstone of polti cal anion: lhe necessil)" of pnr-
de ll cc. firs l of all , "'hich lhus lakes o n a eomplelcly dilTerelll Status [rolll Ihe
classical eo neepl of plnol/eJis; bUI espeeial1y the neeessily of \"inuc, understood
as aet\'c resislanee against lhe obstac1es Ihal fortllne eominually plaees in our
way. builds 011 the possibilit y of imilating Ihe \'irtue 01' Ihe
His /Jisroro-,;I',J' open with he obsen -alion Ihal peo pl e who are qui ek 10 give
abstrae! praise 10 liqui ( do nOI imital e Ihe exampl es of \'inue l.hal hisl ory
has passed 011 to uso A frab'lllenr of a Slalue i5 admired and bOllghl al u a high
simpl ), beeause il is an ame ui t)', while the teachings of an cient republics
and Stalesmen. wh ch would be exuemel )' useful and are needed in prcscllI
timcs, are i''110l'ed Y
This idea of imitalon has ilS roolS in a specifie eo necpti on of nalUrc, cspe-
cial1y Ihal ofhuman nallrre. 11 is possibl e to foll ow lhe exampl e ofth e ancien ls.
Machiavelli S1ales. bee;l\l se men have nOI ehanged: Ihe)" are no difTere nl than
Ihe)" were in ancienl limes. PI-aCl ie,l! Ihings have ehanged. as h,we hisl orical
cire ullI slances. bul this does nOl hinder anyone who It as of
Itislory and who \\"a111S 10 il fro m imilatillg lhe allcierns. Howt:\er. as
Maehia\"elli goes on to say in Tlr p Diswrllle.J. imitati ol1 is judged to be diffieu ll o r
e\'t: n impossble, if th e hea\"cn, tite sun, the demcnts and man had in Iheir
mOli on, th eir order, and lhdr potene)', become difTcrcnt fmm whal Ihey used
la Hem:e, imitalion of the is nOI purel}' a rh etor ieal expedi ent o o r
an abstraet 1l1Odel to fo ll ow ane! ill1itate. He 11 01 ad\"oeating er udite knowl-
edge that has no eonneelion wlh eontemporary times. Beeau$.C of Ihis con-
stanc)' in lhe "molio n, order and 01' me n, anci enl limes are aewally
l'e'1' close to ours: "Let \l O o\le d espair. lhen, ofbeing able 10 elTecI Ihal whi eh
has been elTected by others: foro as \\"e ha\'{' said in our prefaee, men are born
and ve and di e in <In o rder wh ich rcntai ns ele .. lhe The structure of
realil)' prescnl'l eonstants and regularities II'hic h. lhrough a eareful reading 01'
h istor)', can be transfor med into knowledge serving 1'01' , irt UOllS aelion. Br deei-
phering Ihe histories 01" the ancienlS, we first grasp Ihe possibility 01" imit."1.ting
hem. Ihe possibilit r of retraci ng their feats. bul also 01' falling into Ihe s,"\me
errors. Ho\\' d oes thi s possibilily ofimi t."\ting Ihe anci enl'l assisl Ollr ilwes!igali on
inl o politi cal ami olll ological realism?'\
Before proeeeding, il llI ar be lI sefll[ 10 cl ear lhe field of a reduClionist i mer-
pretatiol1 of the possibi lily of imitating hi story that is based 01\ a rib<id and final-
isti c modd of hislOrical e\olution.
6
[n chaptcr 39 0 1' book [ of Tlr" DCOWlel', 1' 0 1"
exampl e, we read lhat
NUes,filJ anri OcrllsiOI/
"
[r lhe prese nt be compared Wilh lhe remote pasl, i1 is easil)' seen lhal in aH
dlies and in aH peoples lhere are lhe same desires and lhe same passi o ns as
lhere always were . So th3l, ir one e}( ami nes with diligence he past, it is easy
10 foresee lhe rU\Ilre or an)' commonwea[th, ami 1.0 appl y lhose remedies
whi ch were used or old: or, ir one d oes nOI find lhal remedies were used . 10
de\ise new ones owing to Ihe similaril)' belween eve lll s. BUI. since such
ies are neg[eclcd and whal is rcad is nOI underSlood. or, iril be IlnderSluud.
is nOl applied in prllClice by Ihose who rule, lhe cOlI scqucllce is lhal similar
roublcs occur al all times.'
Qne e}(amines and foresees, passing rrom lhe lO he future Wilh no solll-
Ijon of contilluit)'. Could il be asserted, then, Ihal t.he COlUlanC}' orhuman afTecb
[ends necess.'1ril )' 10 a similaril)' or e\ents? Ami is his simi1arity significanl enough
10 enable lhose who understnnd and are familiar wilh it to prevenl all possible
"lroubles
W
?
The sludy <llld predi cti on lhal Machiavelli suggeslS are far rrom a conccptioTl or
histol)' thal is dirccled and predstincd in accordance ,,'ilh a l"b';d concalenaloll
of cvenlS. His theol"y of imitauon is innll enced, "'ther, by his undcrstanding of
virtue and fortune. This, in panicular, seems to exclllde Ihe idca ofhistorica[ con-
lingency for 1'ob chiayelli. are not go\erned by chance, although men may
percehe (he con Imr)' 10 be true. TIle developlllellt of evenlS is shaped by neces-
sit)'. providing a backdrop ror a concePI of forlllne underslOod lIIainl )' ns the occa-
sion,8 Agai!lst lhe idea or contingent)' as an indetenninale alternali'e. sel rree
rrom alt }' son or causalil)', Machia\'ell pULS a ver)' difTercm conce]>l orhis-
IOI;calrca[iIY lhmugh his rOl"lltulaliolt offontlllc. A SU'ucture, har is, in which lhe
a[ernauyc between lWO possibl e so[utions is al"<I)'s delcrmincd by rnc compeli-
!ion ofl'inue, 01' ldlher of he vi/1ul!!" in acuon. mcanillg cSlablished powcrs (tJu/ell -
tia) whi ch, in thei!" turn, COl1lPete lO detennine the IInfokling of the These
powen (jJo/f'1//i(l) are a[ways linked lOge lher callsa!1y and by necessity.
[n book 11, chnptel" 1 of Tfe DCOIl rse.<i, ror example, a classic question is
discusscd, namely, whetlt er rOrtune 01" I;rme had the larger rol e in lhe grenlness
or Rome.
9
The chapter opens by taking inlo accounl t.he \'iews of P[lItarch.
"Tiler of b'H"<l l weighl am[ Lil)". thc aUlhor most dea!' to Machiavelli. Bolh <lrb'lled
lhal fortunc had the biggcSl pan lO pla), in he b'Tcatness of Romc. Vinuc, for
examp[e. appca!"s alollC in hcir slOri cs; it is alwa)"s accompanied by fonune.
'nlC Romans dedicat ed more lemples 10 fortllne than an)' othcr god: Hut
here, by turning lhe argll111 enr arollnd, Machiayelli argll es Ihe opposire. The mili-
tar)' conquesls were based on Ihe ,i rlHe of lhe annies, while lhe ,;rtue orlhe la\\"-
maken sen ed ro preserve lhem. AmI where fortllne appean in lhe foreb'To lll1d,
lil e nUlhor or Tlu DisrQ/lrses adds. one musI [ook hard er nnd deeper to d iscenl lhe
order ami , 'inue or thal repub[i c. For exal11pl c, fortune whi ch Rome h;ld .
all ml crs wou[d ha,c wh should emulalc Roman mClhods and shou[d be im bued
wilh lhe samc
COl/jliel, Puwer; (/lid Mul/ilru/e
This d oes not mean, howe\'er, that fortun e has no pan LO pb)' in human
alTairs 01' that it is simpl), ;: pale shadow of virtue , \\Ihat it means, r"<\lh er, is
that rortune t."1kes form in the occ;:si on that arises LO put vil'l.ue LO lhe test.
Machiavelli d ocs nOI mainlain lhal knowl edge 01' uncl enlancling of dilTerenl
histori es, such as lhe hisl ory of Ihe Roman republic, for exampl e, is capabl e of
slrengthening lhe \'inue of mod em princes LO th e eXl elll of allnihilalillg Ihe
o pposing power of fonune. Tit e forces of vinue and fonune are both plared
out in temu of pOVier, Realisti call y, howe\'er, these opposing forces collidl' in
the occasi on, which \'inue can and mUSI scize upon; not in all instances, tho ugh,
and nOI in an)" manncr whatsoc\'cr, If Rome had not seized the righl occasi on,
ir il had fought abrainst mulliple encmi es imtead o f o ne weak opponenl at
a time, its \'irtll e "'ould $oon ha\'e give n way 10 fortune. This interprelali on
promplS llS to rethink lhe meaningof cOIHinge nc)' as l appears in lhe course of
human e\'e l1ls. Fortune GUIIl OI be seen as an aut on omo us force based solel )'
o n itself, ",ith no roo ts in the terrain of human relati ons, ",hich can therefore
govcrn according LO its own whi ms amI Wilb no apparent logi c. \Vha! is inten ded
is quite the opposite, Fol'tunc is an occasi on which vinue either percei\'cs real-
iSli call)' and is thereforc abl e LO dominate, 01', co m-erscly, whi eh \irtue bils 10
recognize and th erefore all ows 10 get aW1I)',
Th e the me o f th e occasi oll signifi cantly shiCts th e tr.diti onalten m used lO
discILss Ihe probl em, It no 10 nger makes mll ch sense lO ask wh ether forlUne
has more innuence thUl virlUe in th e affairs of men 01' Ihe o th er wa)' around,
Vinue CamlO! be expressed unl ess lll ere is a fortull e-occasi oll, whil e an OCta-
sioll offers ilSelfin unless oue is ready 10 seize 011 il. E\'enlS are produced
o nl )' in the cncountcr-or missed cncountcr-bctwce n \'inue and occasi on,
which alloll's us 10 discard the image of fortune as a blind fOITe that produces
contingencies, in other wo rds, obscure eH' nlS that are entirely d e\'oid of
10gic,IJ In this sense, e\'en th e idea of causa1ily Lakes on a particular slant
in r-.-!a ch lavelli 's work, sheddi ng all sem blances o f rigidit y al1(l any reference to
a finalisti c mod el ofhislOr ical de\'elopmenl.
12
This br illgs liS 10 another eXlremel)' imeresli ll g POilll, lItat of predisposilion,
Since lhe c\'enlS ofthc I\'orld are so dilTcn:1H alld ull co mrollable, \'in uc is exer-
cised in pani cular as the abilit}' 10 adapt, as the capacit)' 10 follow and effccti\'ely
conform 10 lil e lIlullifaceted \'ari cty of c\'enlS, Ihus a\'oiding its dcstl' ucti\'c
t'lTects, The famous metaphot, ofthe dangerom river must be read in lhis lighl,
eschewing an)' skeptlcal inl erprcmti on o f lhe probl em of freedoll1 of actio n in
Ihe fa ce of fortune 's blind operati o ns, 1I-la ny ha\'e beli c\'ed lhal Cod and
tune rul e Ihe I\'or ld, withoul leaving an}' r00111 for human int er\'emi on, The
of natural phenomcna and lheir ullprcdi clable and destructi\'e chal"
acter seem lO tip the scale toward an absolulel)' al ealOry human existen ce.
Ne\'enht:l ess, Machiavelli co ntinues,
so as nOI 10 climinalC human freedom, I am disposed 10 h old tha! fonu ll l' is
Ihe arbiter ofhalf of our actions, but thal it le lS liS conlrol ro ughl)' lhe other
halr. 1 compare fortune 10 one o f Ihose dangerous r\'e rs lhat, wh en lhey
NUt-S,fil] flnri Ocrll siOI/ 15
becolll e enraged, l100d the plains. d estroy trees and buildings, Ill oye carth
from one place ancl d eposit it in another. EYcl"}" one f1 ees befo re it. eyeryone
gi\es way 10 Ihrun. wilho ll! being abl e to hah it in any way. Ihis does
nOI mean 1.hal, wh en Ihe river is nOI in fl ood , men are unabl e 10 t..ke precau-
tions, by means of dykes and dams. so 1.hal when il rises (l eXI time. i l will
eit her nOI o\e rl1ol\" its banks oro ifit d oes, its force willnot be so ull colllroll ed
or damaging."
The fact Ihat fonune is the arbitcr o fhalf of o ur acti ons. whil e Ihe othe half
remains in our powel" impli es thal: lO acti on is in our power unless is
.mffi ci enl virlll e and Ihe occasi on is seized upon, wh ile fll/] flnri r:veryacti on is in
OUI" power ifvinue has been prepared ;lIld il se izes Ihe occasi o n. Then: is 11 01h-
ing of Ihe skepti cal in Ihi s soluli o n; il is. ra lher, a dedar.ni o n ofradi cal rea.lism.
Vinue can be gauged olll}' wh en en,;nged in an occasioll , whi ch. in its turn, can
0111)' be judged posil\el)' o r negativel y based on hol\' well prepared \irlUe is for
the enco uTlI er. Predisposili on. in tb is se nse, refers tO a militar)' Ir pe of pra cce
and t:l clics. Dil e is made ready UI" predisposed 10 scizc the occasi on in th e same
war soldi crs are di sposed in adva ncc 011 a battl eficld. The)" occ upY the best,
tll O1 protected places in slIch a way as lO have Ihe sun and wind at their backs
and take Iheir enemy by sUl"prise witho ll! wasling Iheir an111lunili o n, by wailing
in readiness on Ihe hi gh ground. Vinue musI d o balll e al all times with a1l
eyen ts. presenl and fll111re.so as to be prepared 10 d ea! wilh changes of al! sons
aud wilh any potemial1y damaging d e\elopmems: see aSlOnishing
acquisiti ons are mad e and aSlOnishing losses occur dail y. For men ha\'e
but littl e ,inuc, fol"tune makes a b'l"Cal display of ilS power; amI. since forulI1e
changes. rcpubl ics and go\"cnllll cnts freqllcntly change : 1.
Nol\'. I\"hal d oes this mean fmm th e point 01' \"iew of human acL on? Arc wc lO
think thal onl)' the wise wh o are fu11,. familiar with historyare abl e lo cope wilh
Ihe fo rceful rush o f fortune, whi le a1l olhers are condemncd 10 sufrer ilS (l evas-
lating effects? Th ere are 100 few men ofwisdom 10 be abl e 10 mainlain a d oc-
tr ine of Ihi s so n. Dn the co ntrar)". does !l 01 suggesl an e thi cs
exclusivel}' fOl" scholars or the wise, but mlher a practi cal and principIe
of political aclon. direned lOward Ihose who kno\\' ho\\' 10. who al"e ablt: 10,
ando abo,"t: aH, who want 10 sdze Ihe occasion. 'I.t\ction cannot bc d c\'eloped
succcssfull,. if,irtuc is nOI in accord with the occasi o n. iflhe "singular
is not fa\ol-ableY;
Ne\'enheless-and Lhi s is Ihe crucial poim-nobody knows Ihe o f for ..
tun e. 111e in thi s COlHeXI has nOlhing preordained or leleol ogical "bOHI
il like a higll er, unfathomabl e destiny. Whal we are d ealing wilh are th e condi ..
tions under whi ch \'inue can and II1 USI IHl I itself to the test, whi ch are not c1 early
kno\\'n by an)"one. And this is wh ere Machia\'eHi's suggesti on comes in, one thm
is co mpletcl)' forcign 10 any son of skeptical interpretati on. Whcn b ctd with
the Mcnr;:ged 1100d
M
of fonune whosc dircctio n we cannot kno\\" in ad\-all ce, il
is not a mattcl" of sining d own and ,,-aiting fOI" il'i mOI'c o r less destnlcli\c e ffects
to occur. Ralh er, we are ca11ed upon 10 ne'e r gi\'e tlp, to ne\"er abando n h o pe,
16 COl/jliel, Puwer; (/lid Mullilrule
p rc dscly bc cause fo nune r.n-c1s b)' "obligue and u n kn own This is whm
makc s ii necess,.'I]' to think in tc nllS o f
I-I enee, M,u: h i,lxel1 i li S 10 ne\"er givc up. LO Ihink-somehow-of
Fonune 's course exactl y fU I[it wcre contingento as iril were no! necessarily eel
10 GlUSeS which. in an}' case, remain linknown \O us, He suggesls \Ve hink 5laft
ing frorn alld withi n Ihe fmmework of OIIC'S indi \idual necessit )'. whi ch is
pan of lhe absoll1t e universal nect:ssit)' tha! distiuguishes nature as a whole. JI is
ccn ainl )' 110 1 hope tha! will stre n glllCll \; nuc 0 1' crcatc bcnc r conditions fuI' a
favo rabl e occasi o n . Nc\'c rthclcss, I'irtuc mus! alwap be r cad)' 10 scizc Ihe o cca-
sioll Ihe instant il arises. This a cl ear idea of lhe kind of hope lhe
amho r o r The Discom:ie.i i5 sllggcsting: neilhcr adivine pro\'idence in which one
plaees !"lISI, nor so me offinalism by which evenl,s are creat ed Ihe
s.'l ke or human beings and hdr l'irlue.
17
l'lope means co nslam attenli oll lO Ihe possibilit )' lhat an occa-
sion may arise. One musl think and ael flS lhe co ntingent "'ere e\"er presen\ in
lhe course of c\"cnLS. There is no discnchanUllent , alld cI'en lcss resib'l1alion. in
lhis nodon of reali sm. gi\'e up" is a realistic expressi on of lhe aW<lr cncss
lha\ lhe enCOUllIel" between oeeasi on ami ,irtue is always possibl e, e\'en if it
should never be mken for grallled. aelive parts of lhe unh'ersal neeessity,
indil'idual life and "irme contr ibUl e 10 aCllialir.ing Ihis cOluunclure: necessity is
bUI also, al lhe same time, realized, aetHalized, and produced in lhe
conjunctHre, i\-lachial'eUi 's realism is Ihus inlended 1,0 del'elo p ollr strenglh of
mind ;"lnd inculcat e st eadiness and firmness, al ollgside an awareness o f o ur
Ill cans and lhe framework ofth e realwilhin whi ch tIlan acLS. h holds no similar-
ity tO lhe Swic concepli oll, wh ich is based on lhe idea of a pri mal)' in ner core
01' lII an lhal is prol ce led from lhe \idssimdes of fortune, an innel" fortrc ss LO
mke refuge in \\"h en e\'ents mke a turn fOl" lhe won c.
On Ihe eOI1l rar)', il is based on a stcadiness ofwill dcriving frolll lhe awarc ness
that o nl)' by \'irtlJOllS aCli o n can an oceasi o n be sll ccessflll1y encoun tered. Vir\ll e
never asserts itself un less it encoun lers an occasion; bUI Ihis is an e\"enl lha 1 can
be produced conrinllo llsly along lhe endless lwi slsand 11I1"l lS oflhe real. 1I is fo r
thi s reason lhal knowl cdge of the world mkes on increasing imponance for
kn owledge of its changeabi li l}' and Oll 111l one
hand, and st ead iness ofwil1 in the fa ee o f this spcetac1c 011 lhe other hand, so
that ne\"el' gil'ing up bceo mcs essen tial.
13
The stcadiness ofwill required by i\b eh ia\'el1ian virt Ll C d iverges signifi e<tndy
fr0111 lhe 5tok eo ncepli on. 11 is no guaral11ce of a protecl ed shehered
fr0111 Ihe ch anges of forl\ln e. On lhe cOlllrar}', il ll\'ol\"es th e awareness lhal
preci sel}' hecause nOlhing Is beyond Ihe reac11 o f fortune, no \;rtut' can be COI1-
sid ered absoll1te or transcendental. The opposi te illl1si oll leads ltS to be1ie\'e we
are s;"lfe OL co m'erse1y, to feel irrepambly losl. Although this killd ofl'inue is 1101
absolule. it bc10ngs LO lhe \'el'}' eSSCll CC of man ami is an csscntial resource fol'
him. Dcspite lhe fan lhal lhi s essential \"i rtuc eanll ot wholl}" escape lhe ehangcs
o f fon unc, it can ensure a eertain amount 01' smbility. II is lhe onl}' weapOIl in
NUt-S,fi/J (Inri OcrllsiOI/ 17
our possession and th e onl)' clement lhat lml )' bel ongs LO us, regardl css of
whether it is suflici ent LO ensure our sun1"a!. This obsen-aLon, once again, is
the mark o f a kind of realism closely lied to the noton of a strong elhical and
polilical proj ec\. The onl)' chance for lhe \'irlUous prince is 10 base hi11lself o n
hi s oll' n \'inue, It makes no sense LO place one 's trusI 01' hope in a fa\'orabl e des-
tin)' 01' Ihe OCCll rrell ce o f an occasi on .'lin ce Ihere i5 no guarantee Ihal this lI'ill
preseTll righllime,
\Ve ma}' no'" lUl'U o ur alleTllion LO Necessit)' aud caus<ll il}' are
d escdbcd in hi s 1I'0rks pdmadly through Ihe concepts of COIIfI/ !lS, \'inue, and
power, \Ve will thererore hase 0111' anal ysis on lhe lexlS lhat are most dir'ecl ly
ti eel LO metaphysics anel onLOlogy, To understand the mcaning of nccessity in
SpinoZo'l. as it elislinguishes nalllre as a whole, il. li S LO stan fr011l t.he
relation of caus-' 'l.lil}', The nexus between cause ano eITecl is characlerized by an
absoltHe principi e of necessil)', whose su-ateb';c \TIlue is confirmed by Ihe p05i-
lion il occu pi es in lil e E/hin. His descriptio ll oflhe relatan of caus..'l.lit }' is ro und
among the I'er)' firsl ideas prescmed in the \\'ork, in Ax iolllS 3, 4, alld 5 ofpan L
Axi om 3, asserlS thal a b';l'cn determinate cause lherc nccessarily fo ll oll's
an eITecl; on lhe olher hand, ir Ihere be no detenninate cause, it i ... impossible
that an eITect sh ould foll ow, " This is whal th e Mreal 01' NalUre i5
based on, Axiol11s 4 and :) or pan I develop lhe s,'l.me nOli o11 01' caus,'l. litr as
rel at.ed 1.0 lhe kn owledge we mar have of il and 10 lhe exclusil'il)' o f lhe
eiTecI relation Ihal eXlends 10 lhe enli re nalUml re;llit)',
Axi om 3 i5 an elemen t of slraleb" c importan ce fOf Spinol.'l's onlOlob" ca l and
politi cal realism, h is ent cial lh:n Il olhing-Tlo 1Il0de 01' el'em oeelllTing in
n:nure--call escape lhe imer connection of causes, Moreol'er, one might add, a
realisti c ethieal aud polti cal pfOjccl that guides man along the path of frecdom
makes scnse ollly as pan of a mod el of causal necessil)', such as the oue concci\'Cd
by SpinoZo'l., The causal interco nnecti on, by which lhe exi ste nce and aClion of
one Ihing necess,'lril)' depend o n the existence and ac!.i on of nolher, in arl infl-
nite pfOcess, nmkes every flnile Ihing si mllltneOllsl)' a c use and fIn eITecl, g No
cause, then, can be localed al lhe ori gin oral a prhi leged point orthe chain,
The ruain eonsequen ce of thi s caus.'l.1 scheme, as Spinoza maimains in lllt:
Seho liulll \O Proposilion 28, is thal God can no! be sa id \O be a remOle cause;
ralher, He is the pl'OXimalC caust' " ofall finitc things, This consti-
tUles all ol'erturning of lhe Can csi an modcl of causality. In Sp ilC of Descancs's
claim to ha\'e co nstrucled a rel'olmi onar)' and I'irul ently ami-Arislote!ian phi-
1050ph)', bis tll od el, as Pierre main lains, remains derlTItil'e o f lhe
Arislole lian doc trin e of th e prime mOl'er and Ihe idea of IlTInsitil'i t)' in lhe rela-
don belween cause ami eITecl. This scheme is rejecled by SpinoZo'l. in fa\'or ofa
concelHion t.hal, by pri\'il eging t.h e idea of reciprocal of finite
lhings, impedes us fmm modeJ ill g realil)' ill lerms of a finalisl c explarmlioTl, by
affi nlling the absolule Il ecessity lhat d istingui shcs all NfI/ um IIII/um/ fI, c>(J
The seco nd cOll seq uencc brings liS \O Oll e orthe argumcnlS we have akcad)'
cncounle red in relalion to l\bchi al'eltrs otnological realism, I am rcferring 10
COl/jliel, Puwer; (/lid Mul/ilru/e
the rejection of contingency. Th e absolute neccssity of the causal nexus, whi ch
connecl.'l th e tinite mod es lO each o th cr, makes il impossibl e for anything LO
occur with oul being delenni ned by a specilic cause, lhereby eliminating Ihe
possibility 01' chanceo Pl'o posi ti on 29 fol'cefull y asserts Ihalllo lhing in nalure is
contingent, bUI all things are frolll lhe necessity 01' lhe divine nawre deler
min ed 10 exisl ami lO aCI in a defini te wa)'. 11 This meaus hat lhe cOlllinge lll is
completely remo\'ed fl'om th e field 01' realit)'. In other words. Cod necessarily
produccd all things. Hence, the order and wa)' that realit), arc produced arc
absollltely nccessarr"'! lt is ccrtai n, thcn, that
in things there is absol11tely nothing by virtue of which the)' can be s..id lO be
... a lhing is lermed 1'01' no oth er reason lhan lhe
deficienc}' of ollr knowl edge. For if we do not kn ow whelher lite essence 01' a
thing ilwolves a cOll tradi clio n. or if. kn owing full well lhal ilS esse nce does
not involve a cOlllnldiction. we slill CalUlO! make an)' certainjudgmelll as 10
exisl ence because th e chain 01' ca uses is hidden frolll US, then tha! lhi ng
cannot appear tO llS cithcr as necess.:ul' 01' as impoS5ibl e. So w t' !Crln it eithcl'
01"
we have scen, in Machiavelli's \'iew Ihere is also no room in nalure 1'01' lhe
nOlion 01' conlingenc)' liec! 10 forlune. The Spinozisl ic cOllcepli o n 01' nece;;sil)'
all d caUS;IiI}', exc111ding all)' SOr! 01' cOlll ingencr. is compl etel)' consistem Wilh
the Machia\'e llian I'ision. Moreo,'cr, as in l\-lachial'el1i's case, fol' Spinoza. lOO. lhe
necessi l)' alld absolute caus.:llit)' whi ch go\'ern ll<uure do no t directly guarantee
an)' pI':.lctical knowledge or cenaint), reg<lrding the illterpretalion of reality. This
dOl'S nOI rct in\'ol\'e the pmblelll ofpolitical acti on; it Co nCCl'llS, mther, a more
profound, basic level of knowledge and interprctatioll of c\"cnl.'l. Simply bccause
Ihings alwa)"s happen necess.. ril y and frotll cenain and determi nate causes does
nOlmean lhal Ihis Slructul'e re\'eals 10 th e eres of man.
llls is lhe reasOI1 wh)'. accordi ng 10 l\ lachi a\'el1i, he fOl"ceful l'uslt of fOl'l une
11m)' appeal" tO liS as completel)' unl'e1ated 10 an)' order 01' reasan. dmgging llS illt o
desperation. leading us into illusar)' hopes 01' supersit ion, and causing the mosl
scrioll s disaslcrs. In the same wa)', for Spit107.a. he comingcm-which had been
exclllded fmm the SU'uctul"e of rcali t)'-rcappears becausc of the weakneS5 of
human bcinb'll and lheit cogniti\c tIIcchanisms. In apparent co ntr..ldicti on with
he precedi ng he Corollarr of Propositi on 31 in pan 11, tha:
al1 parlicular are contingenl amI perishable. For \\'e can hal'e no ade-
qllate knowledge of lheir d uralion (preceding Pr.), and tha l is what is tO be
understood by con lingenc}' and pcri shabilit)' (Sch. 1. Pro 33, 1). For apan
from this there is 110 ol]e]" ki nd ofcomingenc)' ( Pr. 29, 1).2'
Thc coningenc)' lhat speaks aboUl is wholl)' ncccssal, ', inscri bcd
in a framcwork 01' determinatc re\ati ons bctwcen linilc modcs hat ca. nno
NUt-S,fiIJ (Inri OcrllsiOI/
be lranscended. Thc SlaLCmem thal lh ings are comingcnl (ralher than simply
appeari ng 10 be so) derivcs from lhe faC( that lhe)' can be-indeed, the)' nor-
maJl y are-<onsider cd in Ihelllselves, thal is. detached from lhe caus<.1 and nec-
ess<.r)' lOt:JJity. A til e Ihat falls suddenl )' frolll a roof klling a passerby is an eYe nt
lhat belongs 10 th e absolut el)' d eterminat e chain o f callses and, froTll this p oint
of \'i ew. can onl )' be co nsidered a neCeSs,1ry e\ell t. Howe\'er, lhe !;ame eyen t can
be consid ered in il selC d emched from lhe chain. ami in this sense Oll e ma)" SI:He
lh<ll il is conlingent. BUI whal are lhe efTecl'> of lhis conccplion of Ihe neccss<n)'
and lhe cOlltingelll on lhe clhical and polilical planc, amI how do lhe)' relale 10
Machiayclli's thoughl ?
The two lhinkers converge substantially on lhis po nt. Both llIanlain Ihat
cont.ingenc)' does not exisl in t11c natural reality. In 1\bchiayelli's lhe
necessil)' by whi ch eye nl'> are produced. as wel! as Ihe co urse Ihe rh"er of fonlLne
wiJl lake. should not inhibit human aCli on. On the contrar)", we should C011 -
stantl)' prepare \'inuc for aCli o n lO th e fullesl eXlenl. no maner whal happens.
making il readr for the anempl 10 seize tit e occasi on bUI also, wi lhi n lhe limils
of lite possiblc, to produce lhe occasi on auto nomousl )'. In some wa)' s-as
Machiayelli suggesls-- predisposing- 0 1" making yinuc rcad)' in ach-allce rn cans
c01uidering lhe course of fortull e as contingenl and lhe occasion as always
possible.
Spinoza oft en something quit e simibr, moS( cl earl )', pe rhaps, in
chapter IV of Ihe n,o{ogiCl/{-PoliliCf/{ n , alisI'. in reference 10 diyine la\\', E\"C!11s
in nalUrt: are \O aosolute causal it y and d etenninati on. Spin07 .. a explains
tll e meaning of lhe word (In:) in lhis framework, dislinguishing il
fmm lhc lei"l1I (JI/s) . ux d epcnds o n nat ural necessity, wh erea s ju.s
d epcnds on human decisi on.
c
'!> Thc consen . u ion 01' mOlo n, for cxampl e, is
a unhersal la\\" lhal appli es !O aH bodi es in nature, whl e lhe I"Ol"lnati o n of
societies depends on human decisi on and Iherefore on jus. In a ce rtain
sense, says Spinol."l, deter minali on co ncerns aH naUlral pheno mena,
incl uding th erefore lhose that are specificaHy human. like Ihe fortnati o n of
soci eties.
Nevenheless. lhi s tr pe of e\'em must be considered difTerel1l from ph)"sical
laws: "allhough I gralll lhal, in al1 absolule scnse, alllhil1gs are dClcnl1ined by
lhe l1ni\crsal la,,'s of Naturc 10 exist and 10 aCI iu a d cfin ilc amI dClcnninate
war, 1 sliH say lhat lhese lalter laws d epend on human will.-
c
,; T\\"o reasons makc
lhis possib!e. Thc til"sl is lhat men are nOI eXlrins c lO Jlature; they are a par! of
nature and co nsliulle p:H"1 of lt s lnfinil e power. Eyen e\"enl'> relat ed 10 human
d eci si on also d epend ultimarel)', th en, on lhe absoll1l e power ami necessit}' of
nalure. 1\ l oreo\er-and liti s is th e seco nd r("aso n- Ihe idea we have h ere is sim-
ilar in (" \el"}' respeCl to Ihe o ne fonn uJared by Mach iavel1i: for Spino1.a. 100, il is
useful to consider lhings fU !flher lI' er(" contingenl. Indeed
we oughl 10 defin e and cxplain Ihi ngs through tlleir proximale causes.
Generalis<.ti ons about late and Ihe inlerco nneCli on 01" causes can be o f no
COl/jliel, Puwer; (/lid Mul/ilru/e
serviee lO us in for ming and ordering our lhoughls concl'rning particular
lhings. Furthermore, we plainly have no kn owl edge as lO lhe actual co-o rdi-
nati on and interconnecli on of lhings-lhat s, lhe way in whi ch lhings are in
actual facl ordered amI connecled-so Ihal for praclical purposes il beuer,
indeed, it is essellliaL lO consider Ihings as co ntinge lll .'!7
The co mingem makes its appearance once again after ha,'ing becn absolutelr
excludcd from lhe fleld of realil)', inexorably crushed belwecn lhe modalit ics of
lhe necess.,r")' and lhe impossible. Fr-om lhe poinl of view of nalUre, co nsi d ered
as a whol e, Ihe contingent d oes nOl exisl and cannot exist. JUSI as for Ma chia-
velli, for WhOtll th e CQune of is d etermin ed causally by lhe en counlers-
bOlh failed and sll ccessful-between vinue and fortune. Ordillaril)', lho ugh,
men are unabl e 10 grasp l.h e mean ing and order of Ihal ineluct.'lbl e chain. jusI
as for l\h chi ,lselli I h e)' are unabl e 10 fo resee lhe eX,K! cOl1rse o f fonune, T h is is
wh)', fmm Ihe poim ofvi <: w ofhuman aCli on. lhen. lhe conlng<: nt reappears in
Ihe fOnll of necessil)' practi cal Ordinarily, lhings can be-
indeed, lhe)' are--<: onsidcred 10 be possible. Wilh respecl lO lhe EllIies, lhe idl'a
01' contingency no 10ngcrdepcnds on a cogniti\'e d efect, due 10 the weakn ess of
o ur imaginalive fa cu! l)', bUI fmm a necessal")'---or, al least, useful-\'irtue lo r
real aclon in Ihe dail y pract ce of ordin,ry life.
Al Ihis point, a cOl11l11on gr ound in lhe o f Machial'e l1i amI Spina za is
o pened IIp for anal )"sis. The absollll e nebO";lli on of the conlingern, on the one
hand, alld ils paradoxical neCeSSil}' for lhe elhi cal praxis. 0 11 lhe olher hand.
makes lhe similarity bel"' een lhe lWO aUlh ors even more slriking, especiall )"
Wilh rCbtard lO lhc no t on offortune. The J c,,'s, \\'C rcad in chapler II I Oflhe
77Iwlogicnl-Po/ilictl/ Trml.it', were not super ior lO other nations based on their
knowledgc 01' their pi et)' : th ey "'ere b), Cod solely Mfor a quite dilTercllt
purpose. This 11 0 ti on of lhe chosen people prolllpLS 10 specify what
exacll }' is meanl by God 's inlernal and ext ernal help and II'hal is meanl by
fortlln e. he S.1)"S, MI mean Ihe fixed ami immtJIabl e arder
o fNalure, or chaill of natuml
This is from general point of I'iell', once by whi ch nalUre is co nsid-
ered <In all-encompassing ",hole thal is absol111clr necessary in lhe causal reb-
li on. pOll'cr ofall nalumllhings, including lhal of men, then, is lhe powl' r
o f Cod. is e\'el')' thing that human nalUfe obtains fOf its
presen-ati on solely by its o\\'n power, ",hile MCod's eXlernal help" is ",hat human
nalure draws from lhe power oflhe eXl ernal causes. lhe co nce pt o f ch oos-
ing, whi ch d epends 011 Ihe order of and llal of
fortune, wh ich tllrns Out 10 be none other lhan direction insofar as
he direcLS human affairs lhro llgh causes lhal are ext ernal and 1Il1foreseen"
are d eril"ed from lhi s d <: flnition.'''' The Iht."l1Ie of lhe impossibilil}' of foreseeing
ando t' specially, 01' lOtall)' controlling lhc course of C\'cnl..S thus makcs ano lhcr
NUt-S,fiIJ (Inri OcrllsiOI/ 21
For fortun e takes il.'l pbce wilhin a ncccssary and
IUle causal dClenninalion, whose unin' rsal inlerconneClion remai ns unknown,
howevcr. For oOlh Ihinkers. lhen, fortune u"3\"els by -obligue ;Itld unknown


There are al so differences belween lhe IWO Ihinkers. h owe\"er. Whilc for
Mach iavelli Ihe poi m of I'iew is reStriCl ed to that of human bei ngs. \\'ho suffer
lhe effeclS o f fonune alld mUSI comend ",ilh lhe course of el'enlS by employing
lhdr vinue. Spino:r .. a also lakes illlO considenlli on the point of I'i e\\' of lhe g lobal
Slruclurc ofrca!ity, ",hich is ncccs.'.arily and cll lirelr causal. In lhe sccond pan
of lhe Elhs. for cxampl e, we learn thal know!edse of lhe SlrUCIItlc ofthc rcal .
leach es us whal a((ilUde we should adopl regarding fort une, or Ihe lhings
,hal are nOI in our power, lhal is, lhe lhings Ihal do nOI foll o\\' f1"olll OU1"
lIature; llame!)', 10 expeCl and to endure with pali ell ce bOlh faces of fonllne.
For all lhin),,'1; foll o\\" fro m Gods elerna! decree by lhe same necessi tr as it
foll ows from lhe essell ce of a triang!e lhal its lhree ang!es are equa! lO 1\\'0
righl
[milia Giancotti underlines lhe proximilY of Lhis conce pli on with Ihe Stoic
idea of fortune, positing Ihe direct influence of Seneca." HOlI' en:r, although
Ihi s pass,"lge recalls Ihe Sloic allitude, lhe l\'lachialellian nOlion o f fOrlune se ems
equally, or perhaps elen more, d ecisile in Ihe for mati on of lhe idea
of I'inue. This is II'here lhe comp!exil ), of multipli cit)' o f COb'l titil"e f<lCu!ties is
along Willt lheir differellliati oll. Raliona!it)', unfolding wlto!l)' wilhin
rloalit)'. en lire!y caplures lhe causal suucture of nature, reca!ling SLOic and
Scnccan outlooks. BUI ralio nalit)' necessaril y also intersecl'i Wilh lhe emoti onal
dimensiono whi ch mUSI nOI be undenLOod as a defecI, but as a propen y. This
directly recalls lhe Machi<l\"ellian lisi on of fortlln e. entirel)' proj ecled loward
action and Ihe aCl.Ualiz."llion of \"nue. The crux of lhe argumeIH is nOI about
suffering equanimilY: bUI rather about aCli on ane! the strugg!e f01"
surl"il';"ll.
Tit e of fonune- dcpend on externa! causes regardi ng whi ch men are
cOlllplcte!y ignonllll. This i),,'llOmnCe app!ies as llIuch LO lhe foo lish as il docs 10
lhe wise, who are equal l)' subjCCI. in an idcnlical "'ay. 10 lhe chang:es offonune.
l-Iowe\"cr, linue is cXlrelll d )' useflll in wilhstanding lhe c\"enl5 of fonllne. since
lhe fool and lhe wise man d o no! Lh e elfecl5 in lhe same \\"3y. This I' irtue
is a wholly polili cal one, wh ich bears a close rese mblance 10 Ihe Mach ial"ellian
relali onship between ,ir\ll e and fonune. The acce nl, once again, is not o n
sufferingwith equanimit)', blll on lhe politica! strain of wisdom ami Irtue .lhe
onl)" means for o rdering a sociel)' and maintainiug its
assen ed the \l eed 10 rel)' exc!usil"ely 011 one s 0\\'11 ,'irtue in dealing with ext er-
nal rorces. 10 pUl oneos trUsl so!e!)' in onesclf. Ahhough Spinozas approach is
COl/jliel, Puwer; (/lid Mullilrule
from a different perspcclivc, he rcachcs similar eonclusi ons. Unfol"Sceabl e
and unco ntrollable event.'l are an integral part of namre. As Spinol.a will go on
lO !I.'ly in a nUll1ber of inS{..'lnees, men will never be ahl e lO heeome Inmquam
imjJOiulII in imjJt!Tio. Meaning, lhey will never be abl e lO eliminare Ihe lIndesir-
able effeels of ext erna! causes iljllllwis. Ne\'enheless, disenchantment and res--
ignalion are emire1)' lO Ihe realism shared by Ihese 1\\'0 Ihinkers, whi ch
is a realism fo unded . rmher. on aeti on.
What long-tenn effeets can a stabili7.ation of vlnuc ha\'e in Ihe faee o f Ihe
uncxpected c\"Cnts of fortunc? I f a pl"nec has lived l"inuollsly, wrilcs f..lachia-
vclli, the cffcets ol" lhis virtue will makc Ihemscl\'cs felt c\"en afler his dcalh, and
il" Ihe reign 01" IWO \'irlllons prinees sueceed him -they perl"orm magnifi ce nt
exploits and. Iher fame reach es lO lhe upperrnosllimil.s ofthe heaven s.
M
"
For lhis reason. lhis principie appli es 10 republi cs, which have the possibilily of
electing rul ers. l!tUS a\'oidil1g l!t e weakll esses whielt deri\'e from Ihe heredimry
sll ccession ofprinces.:!6
This principie of lhe slabili' .. ati on of "inuc is pi cked up agaill by Spinol..a
Ihrough Ihe Iheme of -s,,'lfely. M If a soci et)' is abl c lO Ih'e in safety for a giren
pcri od of time, it will also acquirc a ccnain d cgrcc o f Iinuc. Whl e Ihis is no
d efinilh' c soluti o n, il d ocs oO'e r lhc possibility 01" laking full ad\'antage 0 1" Ihe
oceasi on.s o f hist o r}' wh il e !imiling as tll ueh as possi!>! e lhe b!ows o f rortllll e. "
Machiavelli and Spinoz.'l 's thoughl hal'e more lhan oue po inl in (Oll\l11on.
lll eir lheorr of fortull e, I'irtue, amI occasion. like lheir lheor)' of causalil}' and
necessity, consliuue a commoll gro und of refl ec\i on, as lI' ell as a common
ground of ac\io n, ethies, and polili cs. They funher conslillHe lhe basi s fo r
a realisti e eo nce pli on of nature and histor}', alld hence, of po liti es.
Chaplcr 2
"Freedom" and th e "Common Good" or, in
Other Words, Tyranny
Olll.ological realisllI al1(l politi cal realism are analyzed as 1\\'0 separate lhings
onl}' for heuristic purposes Togelher lhey make l1p lhe al lilude thal bOlh
'\bchia\'elli and Spinoza sho\\'ed IOward the main theoretical aud politi cal q ues-
lions of theil" ti mes. The COll1mon good is oll e ofthese As a c1assic point
of imcrscctiou bctween onlOlogy and politics, starli ng fl"Om Grcck amiqui ty
and co minuing Lh rough Ihouglll n-adit io11s as \'\l"ious as Thomi sl AZ"slOlclian-
ism, chic humanism, and mod ern re puhlicanism, Ihe notion of the common
good has al\\'ays mirrored th e though l of each er-a's politicians ami phi loso-
phers. Mach jwe11i and Spinoz .. "l reneCl on Ihi s calego!)', using il as a polemi cal
largel al"Ound which 10 structure their argument.s. To illl1stt-ate how Machb\'e1li
appl"Oach es th e probl em of lhe co mmon good. we need lO take a step back and
revisit his 1I10S1 impon ant sources 011 Lhe top ic: Ari slOtle, who was the instigator
of sOllle of the main features of lhe dOClr ine; and Gi l"Olamo Sa\'onarola. ,,'ho
picked up again 011 lile lhemc as pan of Ihe great Thomi slc lraditi on.
Two main intcl'premti ons o f politics as it relales 10 lhe Iwppilll'.5s of Illall can
be dist in gui shed in Lhe hislOry of politi cal thOllght.
1
One of Ihem is well repre-
senled in SiXleen1h-ce ntury tho ughl, al a lime wh en po1iti cs was unclergoing
a ser ious crisis, reaching lhe point of eq ualing polilics with Iyl-almy in lhe work
of Vett ori and Glli cciardini . The olher is of a comple1e1y diITerenl kind, repre-
sel1led by the tmdili onal Aristolelian conjutl cti otl belween polili cs and lwppi-
ness, wilh happiness undcrsLOod as M an act i\"ity o f a certain kind. This act ivil}',
,,'hich has LO do Wilh man-slifc in soci cty, dc pends on lhe recogniti on of ce I"lain
values lhal make lhe cond iti on of"l ife in co mmon""just amI \"inuous.
Fo!" Ari slOtle lhere is a natm-al di\"isi on of ro les in soc iety. Falher and so n,
husband amI wife, master ancl slave al'e the fllndamen tal "couples
R
Lha1 describe
life in comlll o n. This dil'ision, beinga natural o ne, mUSl be accepled by ever}"-
one. [11 olher words, men must underslancl lha! it is "necessal1' ... fOI" beings \O
join IOgether, lhey are IlOt able \O exist sepamted one fmm the oth er.
Rl
This
necessily has positi\"c efTe cl.'l , "fol" lha t whi ch G III foresee by lhe exercisc of mine!
is by mllure intended \O be lore! and maSler, and lhat can Wilh ils body
efTec! \O such forcsigh! isa subj cCl, alld by naturc a s1a\"c; hencc mastcl' and
COl/jliel, Puwer; (/lid Mul/iltu/e
sla\-e have the same intcrest." ArislOtl e thus posits an unbr ... akable un ion
between the naturally un equal mem bcrs of lhe community.
In oppositi on lO lhe PlalOni c m)'th, which recogni7.es perfection in unity,
Aristotle emphasi7.es Ihe Ilaltlral ineqllality thal exisls between lhe members of
saciet,.. In other words, a posili,e, natural plurality is posited in contraS! 10 the
Socratic-Platonic unity.l h is for this reason that a relationship of frie ndship
(phi/in) b'Taduall)' forms between sla,e nd mast er.just as it does between those
who rul e ami those \\"ho are rulcd. a relat ionship from which both derhc the
greatest milit)". But for- this lO be truc, th e rcl:ni on must be conducted with j us-
tice ami reci pmcity.) Al"slOtle thus recogni7.cs an imponanl principIe, namely,
that not aJl relations of domini o n are foundcd on a natural difference that is
positive amljust: dominion may also derh-e fmm he r ight ofconqllest, and in
(he end. from the exercise ofa superior force. Under hese condi1ions, wha! is
,iewed as the pe rfecl form of life in co mmoll . namely. lhe Stale, would be
unable to come ill to existen ce_ In a word. tlatural inequalit)' does not ,,<i,e rise-
naturall)"-to a confli ctllal situaLolI; on th e contrar)', it ShOll ld inspire a semi
mem of mutual friendship.
The difference betwee n the just ami the unjusl resides in lhe good o f the
communitr, in Olher words, primaril y in concord (o1lloll oin), which excludes an)"
possible form of rebellion.
G
[t is aho importan I lhat lhisjllslice be recognizcd by
Ihe parts oflhe Slate. 11 does nOl arise, Ihen. frotn Ihe itnposilion of olle
,ision ofjuslice o\er anolher through force, bUI frotn Ihe cotnlllon agree mel1l
between the differelll mem bers regarding what justice cOlI sists of: if a COll
sliluli on is 10 be pen mment: we read in the Po/ilic.s. wal1 lhe parts of Lhe stau:
IllUSl wish that il shou[d exisl ane! Lhe S<ll ne arr-d.l1gclllcnts be maintaincd."'7
IL is further neccssa.ry that lhc)' pcr ceive lhe utilily ofthis situalion wh ich takcs
concrete foml in the co ncept ofa commo n interest and good.
8
111C COllllll on good is essentially lhe of this conco rd, its
transformali oll inlo a const.ittlli onal principie: what beb'<l.n as a as an
e l.lt ical and political \'irtue, is Iransformed by Ari slOtle in to lhe spirit ofthejllst
cOIlst.ilutiOtt. Now, these concepl s were widespread in the polilicallilCrature of
Machi al"dlis time. Maki ng use of these concepts, many writers sought 10 soll"e
the diffi cult problelll of the search for a nonconnictual order, by appealing 10
all mt' n tO recob'Tlize the mlucs lIhich create the conditi on for uni \"cl-sa! p<-auo.
The good is because it bel oll b'S lO evcrrone.
This aspect is particularly evident in Sal"onarob's thought, espedal1y in his
Trcn/is,- QII /ft !tu'" '[lId GOlln/II/II'II/ o/ H OTr.IICI'. \ Vhal comes out of this is a venion
o f Ari s101elian-Thomisl thoughl applied 10 lhe conniclUal siltlalion of late
fifteenthce nlury F1orence. The principie thatjoins PlalOn ic unil)' 10 the con-
vergence of Ari stotel ian di\ersity is taken up explicitlr on ''arious occasioTlS in
Sa'onarolas work: '"",herc llnil)' is ,,'reatesl. lhe Friar asserts, is greatest
force, but whocver li\"(:s in b'TIce and charit)" has grealcl- union ami thercfore
grealer fOloce."" Thc grealcl- the I"i rtue and unit)", Lhe more force is cxpressed.
"FruIlQIII" (mil he " COIIIIII()II CQ(){/"
, -
-,
Con\"erscly, by consequence, disunion leads 10 weakness. -nlf' theol ogical-politi-
cal cast of $:l\"onarola's dis<;oursc con\"erges with th e combinarion of Christian
cat egori es and \'irtues ",ith th e teachings of t\1"istotl e. The resuh is a path whi ch
proceeds \'ia d icholOmi es, be1\\"ee n good peopl e and bad people, r ight and
wrong. belween un ion, wh ich brings force, amI disun ion, which brings
weaklless.
5;\l"onaro[a el"en on Ihe quesli on of the ecoTl omi c s)'stem using dt ese
teflTlS. This e!CIlICnt is added 10 the speech on peace alld concord. d Clll olIsmu-
ing th:11 this u-.:\diti on is 1I 0t limited 10 the con\"cnti onal apolob') on pmert)".
Quite 10 the conu-.:\I,, we fi nd a direct connection between conconl and mat e-
rial wealth:
[ wo uld like )"O U lO ha\"e one h ean and a singl e soul Tsa)'s s."l\"onaro!a lO lhe
Fl oreminesJ and for each and ever}" one ofrou lO be occupi ed \\'ilh lhe COI11 -
111 0n good: and Wi1h th e good rou receil"e from lhe Cil)". aml l ,,"ould like )"Otl
10 be b'TIll eful 10 lhe cit}' alld 10 the public I"mher lhan 10 some ci tizen.
I hal'e airead)' said lhis and I will sa)' il ab'-.:\in amI I will not change my o pin-
ion, because th is is lhe sourcc ofyourwdl-be ing. If)' ou d o as I sa)', m'o trpes
o f good wil! result: one re[aling to your lack of Ulrmo il and freed om, and the
other 10 tempoml goods, whi ch increase wh enever th ere is peace ane! qui et,
and )'ou will alwa)"s have a belt er name a ne! repUlati o n with )"ollr n eighbors.
and aU shall stand in awe o frOIl .l o
Nel'ertheless, these ditli cu[t attempLS 10 conSlrUCI a politi cal discolt rse capable
of l"csponding efTeClh'cl)' tu the scr ious Fl orcntine crisis are combined with a
few aspecLS lhal are more I-;Icuoml,. idcolob" cal and abstracto Machial"clli's cri-
lique, based on realism, is d irected precise!y against lhese aspecL'l: oYer])' I-.:\gue
generic references to a purslJil of co nsenSIIS that is irnpossibl e 10
achi el"e as it is unil'ers;ll, somelhing Ihal Machia\'elli's pellell-.:\Iing realistll will
d emo tlSl.l-.:tl e o n 1)' a few )"ears later. Sal"ollarola allempls W tlank Ihe ideology of
lhe COTllmon good wi lh an un equil"oGlbl e message, a SO r! ofw:u chword cap:lbl e
of immedi:nel)' and precisely idemif)' ing an eq uall )' C0111111 011 enelll )', which
Illater ializes in the specter of lhe t)'ralll.
An)"one in F]orenn' who fouglu for the govenJmenl, for power, o]" againsl an
externa[ cnemy, prcached lhe "name of trecdom in oppositi on lO thal of t)"r.l.lln)'.
The I)"mnt, in lhe poltica] imagin:J.ry of Ihe Florelltines, represenl ed lhe ami-
lhesis of Iheir beloved spi r il of freeclom. Dislancing oneselr fro m th e C0111 mon
good meanl , by d efinili ol1, drawing nearer W l)'mnl1)'.I \ 5:\I"onarola lries 1.0 Ilnil e
al! the cilizens agllinsl lhe possibi ]il )' of someo ne inspired by lhe spirit of l)'r-
ann)" waming 10 selze power. Once again. dmwing on his Arist otelian theoreli-
cal baggage amI specifi cally on the Po/ilic.s. he ponra)"s these indi\"iduals as
tmilOfs of u'ue po[iti ca] Thc tymnt, 01' preciscl}'. h e ",ho
d esircs 10 usurp freedolll, is descl'ibcd as a[mosl inhuman. He abandolls and
COl/jliel, Puwer; (/lid Mul/ilru/e
dcspiscs fdendship ami thc truSI of his fcl1 0w man; hc no longcr r ccognizcs
"human things" and halcs pcoplc"; bm whal hc does aban ' al1 is intro-
duce discord and conrlicl imo lhe Cilr!' The rnain of Sal"onaro!a's
political lho ughl are conL.ined in lhese conclusions. The aUlh orily ofTh omas
o f Aquinas is elo ked againsl anyone who preaches disunion and l hrealens free-
domo The Friar has no wal' ofkrr owi ng il , bUl a fe\\' rears down lhe line Machia-
\clli ",i l1 be iTlc\udcd in lhis calegor)'.
Indeed. in Machia\e llis work. cOll ce pl of lhe COll1mOIl guod is refo nllu-
Jaled. u"<Illsforlll ed, and essentially cmpli ed of its originalmeaning. Machi avel li
\\TitCS ahout Lui gi Cuicciardini, the Confalonier of l-lorcnct'. on
lhe eve of l.h e greal Ciompi r cvo!l of 137R. Gui cciardini expresses lhc samc idea
as Sa\onarola, Il sing lhe common good as a rhelOrical argumenl againsl the
l}'1"anl. Respo nding in Ihese lerms to Ihe pressing demands of lhe Cuilds-lhe
prodllclive forces of lhe Cil r- lhe Go nf<lli er demonslr:ues his lack of lindel'-
smndillg of lhe economi c and slruelUml ehanges lbal are in lhe process of
\iolelllly rcnding lhe social fa brie of Fl orcnce:
Whal end ",il1 lhese dcmands of yo urs have, or how long will rou abuse o ur
liberality? Do rOl! nOI sce thal wc toleral c bci ng conqucrcd Wilh more
patience lhan )"Oll tolerate victor}"? To what will your disullions [ead lh is dI)"
ofyours? Do yOIl nOI relllember Ihal when il was di suniled c..struecio, a 1"le
cilizell of Lucea, defealed il ? Thal a dll ke of Alhen s, one of rouf con-
dotter i, subjuj,,'med it? Bll t \\"hen il was united, nether an arch bishop of
M bn nor a pope eould defe:11 il. and afle r many )'eal"s of\\"ar. the)" were lefl
in shalll e . Why, lhen, do you }ollr discol"ds to make a slal"t' of a eh)' in
peacc lhat so many powerful en cmi cs lcft free in "'<Ir?"
11lC Iheme lhe usual onc on the slrcnglh crealed by union. J)i scord cotll es
to di slurb peaee and can cause Ihal which nOI elen powerful foreign cnemies
are able 10 accomplish in times of \\"ar: like an el'i! Ihal d evo urs from wi lhin,
COllmCt s earable o f cOllSllmng lhe r0\\"er of lhe cil)'. Luigi Gui eciardini 's :ugu-
menl s are s\\"epl away in Ihe spaee ofa few lnes by lIl e course of e\ents, namel}',
lhe new tumults of lhe plebs. The Confal icr sho\\"s an absol ul C lack of undcr-
stand ing ahom the causes of lhe sCI"ious cri sis and Lh e meaning of the req ueMoS
thallhe min or Guilds pUl forward.
The ",ords l'ob chia\ci li Imts il1l0 Gui cciardini 's lIl o wh are inleresti ng. par-
ta1l)' than ks 10 Ihe examples of c;..struccio and I.he Duke of Athens thal he
inc1udes. On Ihe one hand, Machia\el1i eerlainly does nOI co nsider CaSlr uccio
10 be \il e ci lilen": on Ihe ol h er hand, a few pages earlier. Ihe Duke himself,
Wilh hi s demogoge and rcalislie speeeh. had kn ocked clown Ihe Confal ier's
HArislOlelian
M
al"b'llment. Tit e Duke, a genui ll e exampl e of a tyrant , is aboul 10
scile absolutc power OICI" F10rence amllhcl"c is n o apparent likelihood of stop-
ping Ihis "coup d tat" fmm laking place. TIH."' Sib'l lOri . "sinec th ey 1TCOb'llizcd
"FruIlQIII" (mil he "CQIIIIII()II CQ(){/"
27
lhe duke 's force, were [not] able LO think of any other rellled)' lhan LO him
and LO see, sincc lheir fo rces were insuffidcnl. ir Iheir pra)'ers were enough
either LO d eler him from his ent erprise 01' 10 make hi s less harsh.""
Ol1e can imagine how liul e l11ight lhe "pra)'ers" of lhe Signori had wh en faced
with Ihe force oflhe I}'ranl. In spite ofthis, one oflh em prese nts himselfbefore
lhe Duke, exh oning him lO nOl desire "blinded b}' a liul e ambiti on, lwJ be led
lO place )'o urselfwhere. lInabl e eitILer lO reSl 01' LO rise ILigh er. ro u IIlUSt n eees-
sarily fall ",ilh lhe greatcst harm lO )'ourselfand lO us:
IS
The !}'r<l lll-it is lrue-
will fall, bu! not befa re b.l\ing delll onsU<lted. with \i olencc and crudl)', how
difl'crent his dalllage was fmm tha! of the dty. With pmfound realism, Machi avelli
narl'at.es lha!:
t.hese words did nOI move he obdumte spirit of lhe duke in an)' part, and he
sai d it \vas nOI his int enti on lO lake freedom awar from lhe dt}' bUI lO restore
il; for 0111)' disunil ed eili es were ensla\'ed ancl llnited ones free. And ifFlore nce,
by his ordcring. should rid itsclf of seets, ambition. and cnmities, he \Vou Id be
gi\ing it libeny. not taking tha! ,1\\';.\ )'. h was nOl his alllbition but lhe pr;:)'en
o f man}' dlizcns thal led him lO take on this charge; so lhey would do wcll LO
contenl Ihel1lse!l'es with whal conlented oth en . As for those dange rs he
might incur o n acco unt of lhis, h e did 11 0 1 reganl lhem, bec,lIIM: it was the
omce ofa nl<ln not good 10 set aside lhe good for fear of evil. and of a pusil-
lal1imo us man not to pursue a glori ous ull dertaking because Ihe end was
do ublful. l'1
The tmb'; e reali srn of lhe Dukc foreshado,,'s }'Ct another bloodbath in a lo ng
seri es lhat Fl orence mus! bear, and -et ano lher peri od during ,,'hich frcedo m
will be nushed by tyranny. The Duke 01" Alhen 's argumenl is the opposite o f lhe
ArislOtelian lr;diti on. In lhis passage, lhe l)'ral1t is nOl descr ibed as arl"i\ing
in the d ty by weaving secret intrigues 10 pUl lhe cy's unity into crisi s ami to
foment int erna! di\'isions nd discord . Much more reaHstically. he ad\<lnces
in10 lhe Cil)' holding high lhe standard of freed om <lnd uni o n. keeping it
\\' cU \'isible. Bccause disunit cd eiL es are s1aves-sa)'s he ",ho "' ould ensla\'e
Florence-he has come 10 bring order <lnd un ion. And he respo nds 10 the wcak
"prn)'ers" of the Sign ori by saying thal he is called upo n by o lher
lhose ofmany Cilil.cns, and ccrtainl}' not by his own ambilion.
The delll agoguery the Duke uses is lmgically acco mpani ed b}' Ihe "llame" of
freedonl. Against pri\'ate ambiti ons and ellmities-condemned and a550-
dated by 5.-1\"onarola with lyranny-the Duke declares his wish to ghe Fl orence
ilS freedom, B tH lhe otltCOlll e. unfOrlUna lelr. isjust as one would expect:
palace was s. ... cked by Ihe famil)' of the duke, lhe standard of lhe peo pl e 10m
apan. anel hi s ensign mised abovc lhe palaee. This was recei\'cd with lhe inesti-
mabl e SOITO'" and amiction of good mcn, and with gt'eat pl casufe b)' lhose
",ho cilhcr in ignor;:l1l ce or out of wi ckedncss had consented 10 11 is Ihe
of .,."".0". 010<, n" ' .. ,, ' 10 ,",e ,h .. i, i, ' 10' ,10< oIi';"o",.,
,11< d., "",,el. 01' ,lo, (;" i Id '. ",. d, ,,"'" ie, .. "'''OH ,1" d; I!""", 1"'''' of, 1 .. d,,'
,h" k.d 00 "'mon', "" ,h. oppo.ioe denl""d" fo< orrio., "ni,,. qu" " . ",1
f ..... dom .
. \j.., hi,,,,, lli , mi!.>, ",lo", ,1" "n'AAIc ,
,h. ri t1i, Md,,,,,,oli ... o<! ,he s,-,,,,ni "I("i"" 1';"'0
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do,,,, l" d""']. Oto ,h, h"", of ,hi, ",l,io" i, "Pp". ",J ,h., h><l '''''"'l ' "
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poopk: rrighl<n<d 1' ,h;. u ... . furth" ",'" oflh. OC"', 'pp<>I <o m .. "" \",-;
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p"ci ... h' h." ,h" ,10< 'r.n,f",m,t;'", of ,h. m .. of ,he <omm"n g<>o<l
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In ," ,al" ","m of el",k "pub\k.ni,m. 0< or. "'publicon ,,<...ion or
A'-; .. li!.c ,h .. of&o..o" ... ou. th ..... mmu" guOO =, ",,,no ",me--
oI, i"g ti .. , i, 01" opl"',i'. of ,lo, d"""" ;,, uf ,h. - p'''''- Ma,h;',dli ' un" ,h i,
P"'I''," up. id. 01 ..... "" n , " -"'" ,", wn guOO- i, ,.,.., l.,,,, ,h. d "",
",,'-o""g off"",",,,. nI< Gui]J, ."d , h. f""'lpl. nl!' tu ,h. l", u", of M"""
\'eo; . pk .. l ro, ,h. to "'PI"'" ,10< 01'1"''''' * P"-" "/Pi"" , h.
"FruIlQIII" (mil he "COIIIIII()II CQ(){/"
openly panisa.n atte mpt by Maso degli Albiz7.i, precisely in lhe name oflhe eom-
mon good: "lhose ",ho T<l.n to th e hOllse ofl\' lesscl' Vcri begged him to take O\"CI'
the stale and free them fro m Ihe lyranny of citizens ",ho were d estroyen
of the good and of Ihe eommol1 5.'l feguarding it. for lhe people.
means asking a private cilizen to "lake o\'er Ihe slal e" againsl another "pl-h'al e
CHlzeIL ,
Then: no longer exisl.'; a stable. sure perspect i\'e from whi ch th e COIllIllOII
good can bc defincd. \Vbal CXiSLS in il.'; place is a plurali t)" a c\ash of intc rcsLS
and demands whi eh inereasingl )' lose thcir char,letcr, LS understoo d in
lhe elassic scnsc, namcl)'. with a positi\"e eonnotali on beeause contrary to pri-
\'al e ambiti on. '1Jis d oes nOI mean that at a ce nain poinl in his work Machia-
\"clli loses lhe visi ol1 lhal had aJwap dislinguish ed lhe public fr01l1 lhe prh'ale.
lyrann}' fr01l1 freedom, and Ihe Popol o from lhe Grandi. However, Ihis dislinc-
lion is no longer expressed using Ihe c1assicll di scourse of Ihe common good.
This nolioll. as il was understood b)' Alistotl e amI Thomislll. no longer makes
sense to Macbia\'e\li. He proj ecl.'; his \'isi on of politics onto his handling of hi s-
tor)', a \'isi o n lhat is ah'cad)' undentood in the mod ern se nse as a c1ash of int er-
CSLS. and one thal is often i!Tcsol\'abl e. [n this ,ion. a good Ihat hcl ongs to
C\'eITo ne and \O eac11 indi"idual, whieh is slill conce h<lble for and
which will relum in the reason of Slale, hecallse il canll ot be realized
;1\ litis time, in the sallle wa)' il could nOI be realized in Ihe time of Maso d egli
Albizzi. Significantl)', Veri de' /o.ledici, wlt o rejecLS lhe pl eas of lhe people lO
bl ock Maso's att empt by laking leadership, is forced like so mall y olher
10 willl ess th e unfolding of l.he oligarchi c ,'iolence. Tit e liol ence of
one pan exercised ab"ainst <lnolher pan. :.>:!
This dimcnsi on exhallsts the terms o f the co nfli ct. repudiating those Iike Ved
d e' Medici ",ho hclieyed that "humanity rath er Ihan pridc, prayers l";:thcl' than
IhreaLS" could moye lhe Signori to goyem Ill ore jllstly and in Ihe imerest of lhe
common good . Maehial'elli all oll'5 Ihis enormous eh ange in meaning 10 be
glimpsed nOI onl)' in his mosl importanl hislOrical lI'ork, bllt also in Tfi'-
Disro lll3't'.s, II'h ere a si milar fonn ulati on regarding lhe COlllmOIl good can be found.
\Vhil e di scussing lhe pOll'er of lhe Roman Republi c, Machia\'elli remarks tlml
it is u'uly I'cmarkabl l' \O observe Ihe ;:reallll-S!; ,,'hich ALhens attainl'd in the
space of a hundred rears aftcl' it had becll libcl'alcd from lhe I)'ranny of !lisis-
lralUS. BUI mosl maryell om of aU is it 10 observe th e gre;llIless whi ch Rome
auained afler free ing f,. 01l1 its kings. The reason is eas)' to llndersland;
for it is n ot the well-being of individuals that makes greal , bUI tit e 11'1' 11-
being of lhe comlllllnit)'; and il is be)'ond queslion Ihal il is onlr in repllbli cs
lhat lhe cOl11mon good is looked 10 proper l}' in Ihat aU that promoles it is car-
ried OUt; ancl, however lIluch this Of thm pri\me person lila}' be Ihe loser o n
Lhis account thcrl' are so lIlan)' II'ho benefit thereby that the co mmon good
can be rcalized in spitc o f those fl'w who suffer in
30 COl/jliel, Puwer; (/lid Mullilrule
This is n o lo ngc !" lhe case o f a princc \\'ho, as Xc nopho ntcs \\'ro1C, acl'l lhro ugh
pr\-atc rOUles. To lhe conllClll'. the re is a "C0111 1110n which docs n 01 have
he lIn\"crsa.l char-acler il did for $:wonarola and Ihe traditi on he represell led.
TIl e asslImpli on of lhe Arist ole1ian common good \\'as lhal jI was possibl e (O
unt e all lhe di\"ided ci tizens, lacerated by enmili es ami and
o ri ent th em toward a singl e elld. Insl ead. ill Ihis passage from The DiscQw:u,s,
airead)' inl e rpre ls the [e l"lll in a manll e!" thal is similar to ho\\' i1 wil1
be exprcssed in The Ilislorif!!i. Ir tht" Mpri\me good
M
belongs lO " few
M
ci tizens.
lhe good
M
hardl y bcl o ngs to "c\'c ryonc.
M
!le ,'c!" appcars in
his argumento Significantl )", ir is SUbsliluted by "'many.M ' n l e mn}" re lhose who
benefil fmm lhe comlll OI1 good whi ch, in an}' CSe, inevit..bly cuses sulTe r ing
la private c;itizens. And Mthose who from it re fe\\' in number,
bUl lhe}' also represenl the cal egor)' of Ihe meaning-this lime as Arisl.o-
Il e "'ould ha\e il-Ihe WealLhr. lhe nobl es, lhe Gmndi.
Machiavelli is mo\'ing IOward the horizon o fpolili cs underslOod as war. The
critique of the ideology of lhe comlll OIl good is precise1)' th mugh lhe
CO[l\"Cli on Ihat a o f war dOlllinates rebti ons bctween human beings. Ho\\"-
ever, dI e th eme of th e common good aho shows Ihal this aspect is d osely lied
\O th e Iheme of go\"er nment, to ils pl"aClices and ideologi es, its manifestati ons
and its mp tifi ctions. To bring Ihe pamdigm ofwar within sta les does nOI mean
conceiving of \olence as th e onl )' mechanism wh ich counts in rebtioll s of
power. Il means relea1illg lhe secrels ane! ideol ogies of governmenl , which lhe-
o rists of reaso n of Slale. bUI also lhe phil osophers of liberalism, would go o n lO
conSlr ucl so laboriousl)' oler th e foll owing cemuri es, 10 provide an image of
pOll' cr and order thm is neler pennanent1y al peace.
Th e paradigm ofwar is used by Maehial"Clli, th en, 10 illustr.He lhe lIl ost lIl od-
ern and sophisli cal ed meehanisms of his timc for j uslil)ing power. 11lis is eli-
d enl in lhe eyents reeoulltcd in book Vof Hi.5lo,.if'.$. Fl orell ce is 51ill divided
in to IWO o ne falorabl e lOward peaee ami an agreelll ent Wilh Fi lippo
Viseonti. the nel\' lord frolll Genol"a by righl of eoll (luesr, whil e the other pan is
11I 0re disposed toI\'ard wa r. Th e support ers of lhe war pre\"ail, by imposing ne\\"
laxes 10 par for lhe expenses, lhe IlLXeS weighed more on lhe lesse r
cilizens lhan Ihe b>Teater. th e}' fill ed lhe Cil}' Wilh co mplainlJ;, and e\"cr yone
condemned thl' ambition and greed oflhe powerful, accusing lhcm of,,'ishi ng
10 start an unneces5."l.\"}" war so as 10 indulge lhei\" appelitcs and 10 opp\"ess lhe
peoplc so a5 10 d ominate thelll."'"' As we 5ee, Ihe themc ofwar relll\"I1S, lInder-
Slood, on Ihe one hand, as a sOllrce ofrel"ellue and, on t.he o th er hand, as a 1001
for exacerbaling lhe condilions o f Ihe people. No\\', due 10 bad milila ll' plan-
ning lhe Fl orellline army sulTered a d mmali e cl efea! near Zagonam. causing
Ihe tempers of lhose ", ho had opposed lhe conni cl lO nare:
At lhe Il ews of lhis defeal, lhe Cil)' ofFlOlence gri el"cd, but espcciall)' lhe
g\"eal eitizens ",ho had adl"ised lhe bceausc they .\:IW the enem)' \'ig01"01IS
"FruIlQIII" (mil he "COIIIIII()II CQ(){/"
31
and lhcmsclvcs dis.,nned, without fri ends, and lhe peo pl e againsl lhcm.
Through all lhe pbu--"s lhe peo pl e seung lhem wieh abusive w01"(ls, co mplain-
ing of eh e laxes lhey hacl bor ne, o fa war begun wilhoue a cause, and sa)'ing:
did Ihey creale !.he Ten to bring terror [O t.h e enemy? Now, have lhe)'
rescued Forli and taken il from Ihe hands o f lhe duke? Look al hol\' cheir
acl\'ice has been exposed and 10 what end lhey were mOl"ing: no! 10 defend
freedo lll, whi eh is lher enem}'. but tu increase lheir own power. whi ch God
has jmtl)' dimllishcd. The>' have burdened the dt)' no! unI r with this
campaign bm with man)', bccause the on e against King Ladislas was like lhis
o ne. To whom I\'ill the)" no\\' turn 1'01" help?"""
What definitil"ely revealed h ere. for MachiaYelli and for lhe reacl ers o f T/IP
F-fisIQrie5, is nOl o nl )' lhe nobles' mOlj\'es for Ihis blu also lhe mechanislll
lhal always guides lhe imeresls of Ihe parts and whi eh ties mernal politi cs \O
for cign politi es. ami more generall }'. ties eeon omi es tu Omside an)"
logi c oflhe co mmon good, and following lhe horizoll of lhe slark reali sm Ihal
direcLS lhe entire analrsis, we discoyer lhal Ihe 1I1oliw: is simpl}' 10 enrieh on e-
selfand impovel"sh lhe e nemy. And here, once again, it is re\"eal cd Ihal il is the
peopl e who are lhe real enemy. h is no coi ncidcnce thal one of lhe cilizens
calleel on 10 sOOlhe th e people's ire is Rinaldo. Ihe son of Maso d egli Al b izzi,
who gil"es a speech, al limes inane and inco nsisl ent, lhal can be read as lhe
nebrati on of mOSI of t-. b chiayelli"s t.eachings. Rin aldo stales whal Mach i;welli
alwa)"s deni ed iu hi s works:
[heJ spoke al ICllglh, poillling out thal it was nOl prudem 10 judge thiugs by
Ihdr effcct.s, beca use many times things wdl advised do nOI have a good out-
come and lhings il1 ad\i sed ha\'e a good one; and ifwicked a(hice is
for a good OUl come, one does no thing bUI inspire men 10 err, which reslllLS
in great harm 10 republi cs because il woul d take away from d liz.ens lhe spiril
10 adl'i se lhe d t)' and 10 sal' whal lhey mean. '"
This passage seems like a page from 77/ePriu Cf, bUI witlt a diamelri cally 0 PI)osed
meaning. The peo pl e can only be asked 10 judge by lhe effects of this war.
becaust' lhe)' are lhe ones the cit)' has paid. Later on. lhrough an alliance ,,'ilh
lhe Venl'lians, lhe wal" againM Lhe Duke 01' Milan is conlinued. This pro\ides
Machia\'el1i with the oppo rtunit)' 10 discuss an issue thal is al Ih c hean 01' inler-
nal Fl orenlin e polics: lhe mall er of laxes and Ihe lax aUlhoriti es. The war
againsl th e Duke rcquires more and more revenues. In 1427, wh en lhe taxes
have 10 be levied once again. a new law in Ihe imeres! of lhe people is intro-
dllced. The law is dllbbed lhe 0 1' register. and sparks off conflict once
again belween lhe Grandi and Ihe Di sS<ltisfied by lhe proponional
Ilature of the law, lhe people "demanded thal Ihe)' return 10 time paS! \O sce
huw nmch lcss lhe powerful had paid accOl'ding 10 lhe calaslo and 10 make
them paye"ough 10 be "'ll ... 1 ",'itlt tIt".., who, SO "" lo' "h>\ lhey d>d nO!
"'"", 11:.<.1 ,1I.'i, 11,i . ,km""d, "'u<), m"," ,h." ,h .. w'ulo.
aJ.nned gr ' mell.'" .\Iach"dli ""'" the opP""uni'y 'o pro.ide detailcd
""plana'io,," of,he O]>po>ing ]>O'itiono, ,hose in r "" and ,h"", opposcd 10 tite
fdla,W,
[grcal men] condemne'!! i, c<axl"",ly. declaring ,h., i, ... " . m",,' unju"
becan"" il"'''' impoted al.., on mmable goorls .... -hieh mighl be
,oday ."d los, ,om",""",,; . "d 1h .. ,11;., 111>"Y P""""" "Id hidd"n
mone)' tita, tite aotaSw coukl nO! find. To whiel! the)' a<!dcd tIt., ,ho"" who
ha<! Idt thek b",i n ... in omor to 1I",'em tite republie ough' to be le .. bu,
d<" ed by il. "-, it ouSh' !O b<! enough lh .. lh")' had I.ho.-.d in P""":IO; ."d i,
... n<>t j u," ,h.t ,he cioy .h""kl "U"" d\e';, bdongiug' alld ,hei, in<l,,"1)' .ud
only tite mon")' of otlte ... Other> .,ho .,ere plcOJSCd witlt tite ca"""o an,,,,-cred
tltal if m", .. hle Soorls '''1)', lhe taxes could al.o",'1', and f''''luenl , .. ri.,;Oll of
<oukt r<!"'-.:Iy ,h .. illeOl,,,,,,,icnce_ And a. rO!" 0),,,,,,, ",'110 h:t< h;<:Id""
m"ne)', i, ...... nO! n",,",,'1' 10 ",Ice "cc<>unt ofi" .., i, ;" no' r ,,,,.hl< to
ror mon")' tltat b<!ars no frui<: i, doc, be., frui,. it mu>! be d i",,,,-,,,ed:
and ir 'o talle lfOuble fOO' ,h" r<public rl;,! nO! pie ... ,h,-"". le' ,h,m pu, il
<u;"k . " d "'" (1)' tJlc""",h'co ,,",'<t i" btt.usc ... '"" Id (,,,,1 "''''''
100ing ci,cn. to .. hom i, would nO! "pp"ar dimcul, '0 hclp;' ",ith moncy
and ",hice: .nd 10 ano tite ad, .. ntaS05 and honOr> Iha' go ".i,h
ill& ,h., ,he><.' ought 10 h .. cnoogh ror ,Iu'm ... ;,h01l' ... j,hillg nO! 'o ,liare ,h,
buldel1>."
This I"'-'-"'So P''''';(!e> a eo"den""io" of m""h mo.-e ,ru.n . i,np!e O]>;ni"", on
ta' l."'. n,c comr .... ing <ol\ptiol\' of Gr-.. ndi ond tite !",o>k .-.:g""l;"g
t hci, role in poi;,;", and in the go"cmmcn, of ,he doy are pr ... mcd . ubje<:-
,;,'el)' from tite poIn' of of tIt. eh.rae,e", involl-ed ;n lhe conmel. In aclc:Ii _
tiOl' 'o dr."'i n& a"<' '';OIt '0 <on11i"",,1 "'PI" uf ,1f.i" ;, 'loo ..... ,h,
irrrruncili.bilioy of tltcir po.iom. which ";11 ill e,itably k"d 'o cIu;h. be"."",,
, he "m.Bec" of eoment"" it tite ""y e"",nce of tite ind;,iduab im-oln-d and
, h";r p""er: ,he ""'<"',.. or lhe municipal eC<Hl(Hlly_ The g""crnmcm of
fcw"n<l ,h< K(K-'crrlU,.m or p""plc, "Cl} rcali"i".lIy. """,,,lO' """;bly ui"
.ide by .>de." lbese eumo unm .. k. once .!I";n, ,he idcology or,he comm""
good. In fael "Ih. ill ...... in ... -ha' tIt")'d>d nO! "'y' for it pained Ihem nO! lO b<!
abk 'o catl)' on a ... ,,, "" ;,hou, 1".. 'o 'he,,, ... I,,, . ha'-II& ;n ,he "XI"'''''''
other>, and ifthit mode ['he wl<ulo[ ha<! becn round , hc "'" ",ith
, he King [.adi>l .. ,,-ould nO! ru.,'c madc, no< "ould ,hi. one witlt Duke
r-oIipf'<>: ro.- 'h ..... "" "'..,ro m .. le 'o fiU up ci,;"",. and nO! Oll' of nCe',,lY:"
'[bi, "a'Omen' i . u<id, >nly bcrau", .fter ,he med,,..
n>Iru beh;nd ,he funconing of,he ideology of ,he commo" good, Mach;;"" lh
re.li";cally note. lh ei, elT""tveneu .nd lh. dilT,euhyof comooli!lg llo.m in tite
"FruIlQIII" (mil he "CQIIIIII()II CQ(){/" 33
"eITective realil)"" orpolilics. In clTect, Ihe pOll"er, f01TC and \\" ealth orprh:1te cit-
izens all ows lhem 10 buy lhe common good, Wilh no dilli cull)'; nOI to suITocale
il by I)"ranll )' bUl, on the conu"3ry, to make use of il as Ihe ballJ1er behincl whi ch
tyranny is This is anot.her CO nSlan\ lhal Machia\'elli sees at wo rk in
hislOr}", especi all )' in the history of hi s native Fl ore nce. The realislIl or his anal)"-
sis is cUll illgand peremplOry. There is no escape fro111 lhi s rul c or rroTll conni C\:
"1 hal'e heard it said Ihal hislOr}' is th e master or our aCli ons. ami especially
dlOse or pl'inces. and the wor ld has alwa)'s bet:n inhabited by mt: n II"ho ha\'c
alwa)"s had the same passio ns. thlTe has always been hc who sencs and hc
who commands; and he wh o serves unwillingl)' and he II"h o serves willingly; ami
he ",ho rebels and is pUl cl own.
M
" This is radical realism, capabl e of making
ahnosl an)' !.heo risl or lhe co mmon good turn pal e. and equallr a!!.racling cr ili-
cism from many poli!icians and phil oso phers or tlI odern it y. Frolll many, bUI nOl
al1 or them.
For 5pinoza. lOO. Ihe coml11 on good is one o fllt e cenlral elemen ts ofpo liti cal
andjuridical analysis; bUl one mealling of it in panicular. one Ihal stands rar
removed rrom the humanisl mldili on and much cl oser to lhe Machiavdlian
lradilion. The theme or lhe co mmon good as Ihe d ominant polili cal ideolog)',
as an argumenl pUl forward to support andjllslily politi cal cho ices 01' actions.
lakes a role or primar)' itllportall ce in all politi cal philosophi es in wh ich p ower
remains th e tI"3nscendentaJ el ement Ihal is superior lO Ihe aCli ons or meno
Un co nditio nal obedience 10 a so\ereign. ror example, is Ihe embodime nl or
lil e C01111110U good for I-Iobbes. The prerob'TItive or Locke 's sO\'ereib"l is rouml ed
on Ihe need oralllhe cilizen ry rol' the C0 l111110Tl good.
Comrariwise. although Spin07ll. do('s nOI olTer an expli cit critique or lhe ide-
olob,)' or lhe common good in Ihe S<lInc lcrms as Machia\"el1i. he does display a
similar attilllde. Namely, he maintains lhe importancc or lhe common good
1I'ithin th e 5lale, with olll sharing lhe u'lcliti onall'isi Oll or a superi o r, transcen-
d entaljudgmen l o r j llstifi catio n orthe so\'Creign's act iollS. So if",hal we mean
by Ihe common good is t.h e etemen! of transcend enta l reeonciliati on belwee n
pans aud re50lUll 0n or connicts in politi es. rhen t.his co ncept is completel}' ror-
eigu to 5pinozis1ll. 111e author orlhe Elhic..s uses lhe cOlllmon good to mean lllt:
result aud product or s011le objeni\'e conditio ns or organi7 .. alion wh ich lIow
lhe illlcl-esl ortbe subjcclll in a certain go,"crnlllclH to cndure.
Therc al'e thus two distillcl wa)'s 01' lIsing the lerm Mcommon good" in Spin07.a. .
The irsl lIleaning is more neutral and is almost circumSlanlial. an ex pression
lhat posith'el)' characterizes parti cular pol iti cal and sinmt.ions, IIsed
rhelOricall )', one mighl s,'\y. 50 thal an egotislical M
pr
i\"3le Is COllnler-
po ised by a wider inle rest: a good aimed al the ci lizenl"y understood as a
\\"hole; in other words. a good lhal, in lhis se nse. is associated Wilh
freecloll1. A democrmi c aud horizolltal conrrolllatio ll tO arril'e ,11 lhe best deci-
sion, eVl'n in situalons or cxtreme crisis. IIlUSt nl'\'C I" give way to lhe aUlho l"itar-
ian am) indi l'idual d ecisionism or Ihe sO\'crcigll p01l'Cl", whether involving a
,;nglc mOfla,eh or a limited drel. or pa(ridan .. -F,eedom and lhe mmm""
g<><>d- nnl<l I""i<lo ""d,', (h. ror 'l"ick a"d dljei. ", IV>'"rn-
menL" In ge"erdl, lherclore, (he ('mire oc,":;", of """CTeig" P'"'''' a>UKl he
epi(ornilm in lhe f<><mula oC a go>'cmmentaimed a( lhe cornmon or lhe
-"",nmoll welh", ofaIL-"
Ne ... "'hclu,. (hi. for",ula cka'l)I <1"", "m i" i""lr clarify a.t \),hing f<:131i ng 'u
, hc mooitiOfl' oC thi. go>'emmcn( o.- to indi,id",,1 poli(ial ",,(ion. ami dcei_
.iom, [ '<en used in more .pecifie context<o he expr ... ion oCIen turno Out
'o l>e gcncric alld ;( """In, (o I",,,,ide a lOo'" .1<:.,.ilt explana, ion
on (he (opie. ru f.r a. ari>tocmcy i. <Ollccmed, Sp;"""" .uggemlh,,( -Iu.lit)'
i, maintained among <he patridan ... fa, .. po"';bl<, and al>o <hal busin.,..;'
'f".ed il).' d i'rOld'ed in , he cou"dl" ,hal , ),e <'<Im,"on good i. p" .... ;'l<:d f<><J
and linally. (ha< .. 'hile , he ].".>",,, of (he pa, rici.,,' '>f roundl ,hou)d e.""ed (ha'
oJ (he pcoplc, <he pc<>plc .hould .u/Ter no harm lhercby'-" In lhi, ca><:, 'oo.
" ",hing deocnninam fmm a co" cepl"'.! poim ohie .. ' i. a.dded 1' ,he menti""
oJ ,1 ... -oomm"n good- lO ,he"" moro de",ile(i WSKCSlio<" "" 0),. rou"dl. or
01\ lh. ",Iauon be' .. 'ecn ""tri"", . " d lhe pe"Ple. In aH,h"", r .. c>. Spinot;'"
me of an exp""";Ofl (hat h .. an undeniably pos i';'.., ,.Iue in , he dominan(
iangHal" anel rh"Ol'k ", .. n, formal.
Spi""'", .1,-"", nO< q"""ion ,hi, , .. lllc hhough he fail. to gr.", aUf theorcti_
col importancc 'o the Ralhcr, i, ll med rne'onadly (o ", a .hared
dimen.;o" "ith rt"a<!. ,,'ho find. him", lffacro i" ".a.d ,,; ,h ' hco""ic:ally
'km.ndiog "<gil"",. ... ' h .. ufw" 'o .ep' , 'n,o l:u, "..,,,l. of ,lo,
'I', .... /i". fo< example. ",,,dude ,,' i,1! " ",fercn to (h" "el)'
eoneep" -if(hey conoide, "ny pa" of m)' "TI(ing to be conual)' lO lhe oJ rny
eouo,1)' <>< ,o be to , he g"".",1 &000. 1 rel""" iL I (ha, I 3m
hum"n . ,M.! may 1,." , e .... <'d, y" I h,,'c "'"eu ]Mi'" no<!<' e ...... ud 111""
made i, my primc objee' lha' .. -ha,,,,,,, I ha,'e ",ri(ten , hould be in complele
accord .. i,h m)' eouml)'" la",", ",i,h P;.'Y a"d wi(h mocalit)'-"
1" 'pi,e of ,lti, uf n w,,-.li'y i" SI,no","', ' .... of ,,( ,lo,
",mmon be" pcrfcc'I)I ... ,ue of i .. more propcrly dime",i""
.. ",,,,11. Th< critique oJ politid .. ", ,h., operu (he 'fmJtiy, fo.- e"""'pl<, i, nOl
drc"m,.",;al and j. d"""ly ,ied ,.-. hi. c",\ru:mna,'-'" of ,h. commo", gnod ..
an ide<.>l<Wc-..l ,.il t'Unc.,-.li"g hi<Jd"n ime""" o,, m,",,, ';mplf ,n
".a' em"," aimed at jU>til}ing a poiiucal acuon or pooition. Th;, "'pee' of
Spi""",. argumeftt, .hhough .pp".ring le .. f''''luen' ly. i. ;n ",'el)' "'.AY .imila,
'o , .. li,li<' ooooem"a'O<l, ]><,"'e, often ",a.l:" hi,
.ctio!" u, i"g ,h;" argumen' '"', more he ju>t;r,co I!i. a<oo", ba>l "',
, hei, ...,um1 cohcrcnce ",i,h higher, cornmOfl imem".,
J,,,';t, ... ,ion of "","", ha.;o,rl on a ,,'pf'O't-d lraos<c n,len"" he)..,,,d ,h. ae,ual
;me""" tha, ""'CS8>rily inlen";ne in "",",ld uf ><>litio i, OnC of ,hc
ehimcra! ,ha' Spinol.il eriuei"" ham,1y and forcefully rcjcr ... The pretex! oJ
, hooe ,,'ho -.. "m lO ha,'e ah<olUlc d",ni n;on oJ tite ... ,c- ;, decepti,,<.
The 'nah o ,he malle, i. ,h., "i, h:u . 1 .. ,,)'< been ,he <on"",m ,ef",in o ,hose
.. 'ho 1"" .f,,r dOIl\;"i"" ,ha,. rOl" ,,,,,e. """""q i" ,1,.. condu<, "r;o, afT.;, .. i.
uf ,'ital imf>O'1"ncr ." d they make OIher .ueh ""ti"", lI,.t. the more tloey a,e
el"al=! .. ilh >how or utilit)". th e more t hq are lil<el)" lo load 'o opp"",,;,'c
.<l ''''ry.- So",,"'), ."el hig"'" .'e mckkd ,ogethcr the umh,."lIa
'erno uf lhe "oon",, "" 8<>0<1" ,,, f,,,,hcr ",r,i",de ami t)'''Ill ''Y.
A .ignifICa nt ""ift in the rntdition"1 theme uf th e common goOO i. alrC".od)
noo:i"". hle, [f.O<1 thc 0'" hand. !>pi""",,, el"", noo: con.ider , his .xpre .. ion 'o be
f"'fl;wlarlji r;eh .. 'i,h "'coning. un ,I,e Io." d. ", . .. i'h ,\I"clo,",,,lIi. he crili
ci,c. il> idcological u,e; n.mel)". , he di"imulatioll of cenaill actio", thal are
j,utified in the name o a" inlereot tha' is highcr and lmnocc nd c nlall><."" Wl e it
i< commo".
' Il,o <hu;cc of lit<, OOmnt"', gvod in ,he ,,,,,Iil;onal "'" .. alll<>
"cm. from a fe,," more general eonccptiom in !>pino",,', p hilosophicrl >y>Iem,
Ikfore 'lualilj.'ng . gwel as "commo,,: i, m,'" fi ... , he a"'I)'''''<I, [neleed. ,he
,h<o". of i"di"d" ,,1 h" .. "" ,.k"" "" a ce,",,.,,1 role i" ,I' e doeori" . ofol," goOO.
Ralhor than talking a bo" , an .bsoIute goOO in !>pinoli.m. it is "''''"c appropri.
ate ... "" h.,,, ""en. lo refe, to -a goOO" defincd in relation 'o ineli,idual inter
l>. lo , he ,r. n.formOliotl from a on"",,1 ,' i,;"" 'o a" , ,,hi.,.>1 ,;.im, o ,he
w()fkl-to u .. Ilekut<:', .pl con<cp' of an ind i,idual good i. lied
lo that ointcrat and is tielll<hed from :rny poo:!iblc intcrprcta'o" exprco"" in
'raruceoocm"I,erm. ,"
, ,I' e bchi",1 our ... ",.II"g lllal <],arac
ler i. ,dali"e . ",1 irreducible lo a cornmon nOlion. ill the 1IC1l1lC of QUC th.t
.land. abo,'c ';ngular and ind ilidual inter ..... " ro< this ce""",, . "" do nOl scek
".. d.,l", g<>O(1 ,hingo<; "" ,ho """"''Y. 1, i, pred.dy ,h. ' hing< "'0'''
UJl ",Kl "l,ich .. .,,,,, tO obtaill , h .. co ... idcr 8000." 11<0",,1 or, thellC
prcm>c>, thc ",m< definition of . higher rornmO<l goOO, tr.tn>ccnding <hc
goocl .,,{[ ,he imere ... of the indi,id"" l. i"""hcd. turno out ,,, be highl)' p,of>.
k .. ,.tic. n,i. d""" 1"" ""';0" goul .n, irdy lC.<I"". Likc ("'o'eoy
",,,dd ",I, ich h., uo "pooiti"e" rcalily lo i, otIler t i,." the fonoal rc-.li ty uf il>
idea. th< goOO mayalso h,,'e 1IOme son o .""tegic u,ili,y, U",,'<\'cr. thi houid
nOl eOCO"'-' ge u, to , h., , h.".e i sood in i .... lr. 0" < 'ha, i.
",,<1 tr.o;ee",l<m. oc e"c" ICSII. ,h., COmmo" 8<><><1 of ,hi. ''')" uist."
The eO<leepl of thc mmmon good, thcrdor<, p"""r",. " ",...tcgie UJlC ont)"
rO<" cI""fyiog cenai u <kci';o,," and 1IOme poIi'i ...... 1 be h";,,.., !>pine"" carTi ....
01" "-,,,,,,,1 1""'. h i. no< at.oo" j" .. if)ing llo, ae,iun. or. >AAcr
<ign. for """m pie. in len", uf the commOl' good. bol bcing able to ""J'
,hat lfthose '<lio,," fulfill cortaio <ood ition . /hn thq are ai",OO ., ,he como
0>0," SoOO. Thi. i ignif,,,,,,,, be<;ause "0' ont)" fOfO,.1 eonrli,i"".
in><>I\'",1 bul _111<> fulliUm"rll of impooition. lhal ",,(st
cffe<:ti,'cly produce rlclCrminalC circe ... The lr.oditional common ood a" d
inter .. ' i. ,hu. tra n.figu roo .nrl ,ramformoo 11)' !>pin(lI'>' imo a principie o
36 COl/jliel, Puwer; (/lid Mullilrule
j udgmcn t----of imposition----of d c tcf minat c conditi o ns OIUO Ihe so\"c l'cign
power. Whe nc I"cr a sovereign powc r' is ahlc lO preserve itsclr-mcaning, 10 pl'O -
vicie stable go\"ernment-by necessi ty, l certain forrll of 0:0n1lnon good is always
aIread)' in action.
This d oes nOI Ihe problem of he dissilllub ti on or deccption lhal
the so\'ereign ma}' successfully carry OUt 011 his subjeclS. Th e subjecIs ma)'
belie\'c tha! Ihe so,'c reign is actillg fOI" lhe sake of Ihe commoll good whe n in
realit)" he is nol. E"cll in Ihis case. howc\'cr, Ihe COllllll on good s still poru-arcd
in iu rolc as a "\'cil,M ando a s such. s demystificd. More gcncrally. hOWCYe I", lhe
comlllon intercst is prcscntcd as a critc-io n ofjudgmcnl tha! co mes a[ter and
follo\\"s ll pOIl a political acti on, ralher han a formali.Hicjustificalion lha[ comes
before [he exerdse of powe r.
In an)" case, slales Spin07A't. men muS! be forced 10 aCI for Ihe s,'tke o f lhe
commoll nleresl:" Prudential politi cs based on the wisd011l o f Ihe go\el" nol's
ami on the \'inue o f hose that occupY positions of power. fo r Spinoza. is one
o f Ihe man)' chi lll CI'\S Ihal populate Ihe human mind. He lakes lhe op>osile
mutc 01" eonstructing a mcchanism tha! is not based nccessarily 01" cxdusi\"dy
0 11 th e ,i rtuc 01" men, but 011 mcchanisms that, in any casc, prod uce th e best
po.'lsibl e deci.'lions. This cloes no\ mean, howel"er, tha! aCli ons mus[ fi nalistically
foll oll" a Irallscende tHal idea o f COI11 Il\ on in terest, bllt, <]uite [.h e opposite. tha\
indili duaI are d osel}' lied 10 Ihose of lhe wh ole comt\\uni ly. Tlti s is
lhe onl}' path ofTe!" in g ho pe fo!" th e attainmen t of .'lOme kind of stabilit )' in
gOl"erllment. '
The comlll on good is anai nable, according lO Spin07.ll, onl}' b)' il'rel"ocably
binding pri\:ne interesL'l 10 [hose of tbe Each persono therefore. must
dcsire lhe pl"esenmi on oflhe .'llate as thci r highcs\ intereS!. Thi.'l doc.'l not mean,
ob\i ously, that eaeh individual pursues his exdushe imeresl in a way that is
cOlllplelely indepenclent from lhe cledsions and of !he others. And e\e n
so as far as Ihe sovereign pOl\"er is co ncerned. Whal il does mean, 011 Ihe
conlra!"}', is tha! lhe COllllllon inleresl is Ihe onl)" Oll e thal factuall)"achie\es sm-
bilil r of po\\"er. a life in co mmoll. ami care for one's own iTl lereSL'l. No\\". gil"en
Ihe enormo us impon:mce Iha! Spinoza attributes 10 Ihe alfecti'e dime nsion of
politics. tbis can 0111 )" occll r by focusing the hopes alld fcars oflhe \:\rious ind i-
viduals 1O\\-anl commoll objecti\"es.
Tbe state cannot allol\" cach subjecI 10 li\"e co mpletcl)" "in hi s O\\"n \\-a)"M ando
hencc, 10 be "his own judge.
M16
111e right of nalure. as such, does no! cease 10
exi st in a civil state, norl\"ould this be possible, since righ! coincides wilh powcr
o f each individua]. Ench individual. in any case, pursues hi s 01" her oll'n inleresl.
BUI al tllis poilll. unlike lraditional political thinkers, Spinoza lIIanages 10
link lhis argumem lI'illt the dimensioil of tbe cOlllmo n life. Botlt in lit e natural
and the ci,'il orders, he says. "man is led by fear or hope 10 do ol' refrain from
doing this 0 1' tha!. The main d ifTcrc nce bet\\'eell tbe tWO co nditi ons is lhis, Ihat
in Ihe cil"il order all men feal" the .'lame Ihings, and all ha,c th e s,'tme ground of
"FruIlQIII" (mil the " COIIIIII()II CO(){/"
37
security, the 5<1I11e \\';:\)' of life. But Ihis d oes no t deprive Ihe individual o f his
fa cuhy ofjudgment.'
This uni t)' of int erests, th en, COlllmunil y o f obj ectives, i5 no t imposed on
Ihe cilizens as a unifying end, amI, mOSI impon;1Il(1)', ajuslifi cali on o f Ihe
sO\'erei gn 's aClions in lhe name o rlhe co mmon gooc! . Quile Ihe Opposi le: wha\
lhis me:ms is simpl y lhat lhe aoion of power is t.i ed (Q-or e\'ell ben er-is sub--
ordimlle (Q th e common imeres!. To pro\"ide for the comlll OIl good, in Ihis
sense, becomes a pri orit)' for the so\"ercign power, continuo llslr exposed 10 the
jud''lllent-which continuousl y threatens 10 transform itsclf inlO aCli on-of il.'i
subj ecl.'i: a posith'e judgment leading 10 con sen sus or a negati\'e judgmcnt Icad-
ing 10 an o\'enurning of power. Between these two eXlreme figures li e Inyri ad
in siI1lali 011S, in conOicl.'i, in tensions Ihal do nOI necessarily lead one
wa)' 01' lhe o lher. Bu! lhe mos impo rtant lhing is he :l\\'areness of lhis mecha-
nis1l1. lndeed, th e sovereign who ullderstallds this will rarel)' issue "quite ultrea-
sonabl e cOlllmands." This \\' ould lead neces5."l ri l)" (Q his 0\\"11 rui lt . Instead. "in
lheir OW11 interest ami (Q remin Ihdr rul e, it especi al1r beho\"es 19o\"erll1llcnl.'i]
10 look 10 Ihe public good am! 10 conduCl al! afTairs lindel" lhe ''l.lid:mcc o frea-
son. For, as Scncca says, v iolen/o illl/m,.in lWIIIO con/hU/il fill, Iyranni cal goycrn-
nC\'e r lasl long. ....
Like eve ry individual endowed Wilh his own com!llU, afTeCb d esires, simi-
l;ul)" cOIl1l110nWelhh does nOI ha\'e to d eem nOlhing good 01' bad olher
lh;Ul lhat whi ch it self deci des is good or bad for Some of th e
whidl t.h e comlll onwe<lllh d ecides are Mgood for il selr may be \'i cwed positi\"ely
b)' the mullitude, leading 10 stabl e govcrnmem, ",hile olher aClions ma}' be
vicwcd as going against lhe comma n guad. pro\"a king an indignant reacti on
from Ihe multitude. In Ihis event, lhe sovcreign will par lhe conseqll c nccs.
Control of the stat e, th en, is obtained precisely by pa)'ing mo re att enti o n to
5."lfeguarding the co mmon
Individual l/tilitas cOlllinues to operale in lhe judgmems ancl acti ons of each
pollical ac!.Or. Each pen on knows, howe\'er, that lhe s.'une mechallisl11s hold for
lhe Ol hcr indi\'idual s as wcll. ll tis all ows th e sovcreign to renege Oll commil -
ments made 10 other so\'crcigns, for exampl e, Ihus subordinating forei,"n I) olicy
10 Ihe Mca tllll10n interest of his This is 1101 a concept used, the n, tO
justif}' or suppon political acti otls in order 10 win lhe of the subj ecl.'i.
It points 10 the faet tha! Ihe sOI'ereign's actions are subj cc! 10 lhe co tl sensus of
lhe tlllllti rllde. EI'en lhe tll OSI primal figUl'e ofso\'ereignty, Ihen, lhe agree lll ent
helween sllbj ects and heir SO\'ereign-also used in a way Ih:H is eOmplel cly
anomal OIlS to th e natural law be justified lhrough lhe
ideol ogy of lhe C0l11111 011 good . On Ihe eon tral")'. stat es Spinoza . "the \"ntid il}" of
all agree mem resl.'i on its milit}', WilhoUl whi ch Ihe ab"reemem automati eally
becomes nul1 and
Thc concepl of lhe comlUon guod lIscd widdy by Spinoza is deviated from il.'i
lraditi onal use. Thi5 does not invol\'c a simple rever5<ll, howevcr. Through Ihis
38 COl/jliel, Puwer; (/lid Mullilrule
tran SfOnllatioll, Spino7..a is ab!!' to e!ldow he idea of lhe comlll a n good ", ilh a
dynamic qualily and \itality 1ha1 il did no! possess in lhe slightcst in Ih e preced-
ing philoso phy and which many phil osophers of mode rnily will bter go (HiI of
their "'ay 10 make forgotten. Ir re"ious 10 Ih is time lhe idea of lhe common
good hekl a transcendental and ahnost h)'post.'\tic \'alue, to lhe e"le n l
ing lhe sovereign's acliolls lindel" ils banncr, in Spinoza. Ihe cOlTlman good
be;omes lhe s)'Tllbol oran <lCli"itr. a p rocess. a b'TIIdual cOllslructio n o flhe bes!
politics (never absoluudy good).
Thro ugh Ihis idea, Ihe helllt' o f lhe of powcrs is al work again.
o rlhe Prob'Tcssh-c stl"ucmring of a knowl cdge and a com ili o n po",!' ]" tipO n whi ch
the politics of the nlllltililde are founded . Spin07.a.'s intentiol1 in o\"erllwning
lhe Ihe11le of the c011l 11l 0n good is nOl lO abandon Ih e idea of Ih e c011l11l0n
po\\'er. Quit e lhe contra!"y, in o ppositi on 10 a ch imeric high er, u-anscendenl
unity.juslified predsely in this wa)". Spino7.a underlin es lhe process.
lhe becoming Ihat cha raCle rizes lhis common po\\'er: men come IOgelher
and join forces. Ihey ha\'e more power O\'er Natllre, amI co nsequellll)' more
I"iglll, than cithcl" alone; and the b'Tcater the numbcr ",ho fOl"ln a union in this
wa)", lhe more I"ghl lhey will togcth er possess.
Th e common good does nOl j llsti f)' the soyereign's anions a pI"iod, nOI" does
iI bind lhe polilical COI111ll11l1ily togelher as sudl. 1t needs, l-ather, 10 be continu-
aH)" demonslraled and gh"en life by C0111111011 anion. This is wh)' lhe slabi lil y of
Ihe state is proporlional, at every inst.'ltl l, 10 Ihe deb'l"ee of consensus il is able 10
obll in from i,..; T he rigln of nalure lhus find s its proper ex pression
in lhe union and interaclion ",ith oll1 er indi viduals; il exis,..; soldy ",ithin and
through lhe weh o f I-elations with lhe righ,..; of olhe!' indhid ual s.!.6 To c1aim
lands, dcfend onese lffmm anacks, cllltivale one 's own lifest)'le: this is lhe mean-
ing of lhe co m111on good, th e meaning o f a new "colllmonali IY."' The politics
o f th e COllllll o n good is no longer a hYPoslalic concept, then, lhat is superior,
lI-anscendenta1. and normaIle. bUI rather, a POlil ics thal is ;mmanenlto hUllwn
relat; ons.
Part n
Conflict
Inlfodllcuo n
/, poor wre/ch, ive he lije uf (/ /'llSlie, f. ./.
rebellioll IIgllilL'i/ il.
wm; Jm' il is iglloble lo gi1x. Uf

Hisl orians Grecee h,n-c stressed lhe oppositi on belween IWO modeJs
lIsed 10 describe lhe poltical lllOUghl aud life of a co mmurli t)'. Que is stali c,
inte nt 0 11 conSLrtlCling <1. 11 ico nogmphi c t)'pe of r e presentalioTl based on lhe
myth of concord in lhe 1J{Jlis. th:l1 of a cominuous, unbrokcn un!)' se! in a
modonl ess time. Diamctri call )' opposcd to il i5 a more dynamic mocll'l, aimed
a l capturing Ihe a nd I" upture s, lh e dhisi o ns amI lean in lhe social
[abrc thal l1lark a cOll1111unity's coming nlo being. The static model, as Nicole
Loraux has d escr ibed so cogelllly in her reconsll"uclion, belongs 10 Mthe an lhro-
polob'ists," ",hile lhe dynamic model is lhal histori:ms.
M'
These 1\\'0 hisl oriographieal mod els correspo lld. in mm. \O IWO coexislem
and opposing modts lhe Greeks Iht ll1st h'tS used lO desclibe lIl eir polili callife.
Because lhe 1Il 0del of lile anthropologists, on the Olle hand, gl osses over con-
niet, Ihe nar r01lil'C it tclls of the dt)' is d cpolitidzed: lhe lllodcl of lhe histodans.
on the other hand, recognil.es thm co nfli cl is inherent lO lhe Y(' 11' idea of poli-
ties, Both modes of represelllation origina te. howe\'er, in lhe ",ay lhe Gl'eeks
represented lhe lllselves, The Greeks presented a d epolilidzed image o f their
dI)' Ihal efTa ced lhe conniclual characler o f ils polilics and origins. For
eX;\JIlple. IIl'kll" lhe lerm for !egilimal e power, is often preferred 10 kra/os, ",hiell
indi eates super ioril}', or \'ielOr}' ol'er ;\ 11 eXlerna! or internal ell elll )',
Ho\\'e\'e r, we need \O loo k bt )'o nd lhe ob\'ious ideolob'; cal funetion of sllch
sclf-represcntation as peaccful and peacc-making and rccognize the co n cep-
tual undeq >innings of lhe words and lhe semantic fields they deril'c fmm,
Whcn the rhelOric ofpeacc-making amI harmon)' bdcs awa)', co nflict, internal
and ext.el'l1al ",al', s/asi,f anrl fa Cl ional dissensi ons no longer appear as al1lil)olili-
cal phenomena 01' as palhologies of lhe life in co mmOll, They are rel'e;led,
ralher, as lhe essence of polilic5, lhe fOlllldation of lhe communil)', se lling inlD
.. o COl/jliel, Puwer; (/lid Mullilrule
mOli o n and fucling a positivc d )'llamic in lhe cOlllmo n !ife o f lhe IJO/. SCCIl in
his light, Ihe noli o n of .!a.IU, Ihat s, sediion 01' r e\"011 in lh e dl}', would appear
10 refe .. lO he idea of a standstill, a stalemtle, DI" <In impasse. This Is o n1)'
in arrearance, lhough. sinee s/nsiJ is aCl uall y a splOnym of !lis/l1mi, mea nin g
seule stop," amI a SrIlOIl)'1ll in its Wnl of killes, indio
cating "mo\'emcnt" or
This b'rowing co mplexit )' al he level of language suggesls hal J/flsis stands
illllllobile ami innadicablc al lhe hean of he polt ical dynamic in he Grcck
dI)'. This also explains Ihe law bid down by Solon. wh ic h is crcditcd fOl' ha\"ing
c1iminated lhe betwccn rich and poor by introducing the obligation to
t..ke up artllS in th e e\"en t of conflicto $olon thus acknowl edgcd that conflict is
ine,itabl e ami thal unit)' and concorel can onl}' be reslOred in lhe state t.hrough
armed slruggle. MUnil( cannot. lherefore. be inlerpreledw mean th e elimina-
ti on of d ilTerenees. ami eanll OI mean the absenee of cOlime!. $ololl's
law gi,es us insight into lhe classical model of ci tizellShip as the riglH 10 bear
arms (lhstlw; t I/Opta). But il also gires us a sense of the scandal ereatec! by Lh e
idea Lhat eonni ct is pan and paree! or polilics. I' hil oso phical lhought has will-
ingly represscd this unwelcome idea, whil e aL Lhe same Lime maintaining an
ambiguolls au.itudc toward il.
Th e central positi on o rconOi cl in philosophical kn owl edge c;ln be discerned,
aceorcli ng!O Umben o Curio lhro ugh the langllage IIsed by some of Ihe
Western Heidegger. for exampl e. tLlIders!Oocl how sler il e kn owl-
edge is whell it is in tended as an aceutllul:ni on of cOll Cep ts. empt)' er uditioll. or
a fixed llarral,e of a lmdition. Genui ll el)' phi losop hieal lhoughl co nsisls,
ralhe ... in "Iha,,-ing OlllM ",hale\"er has been fro:.r.en in Lhe tntdilonal ll arr:.ui\"e
in order to head direClly to lhe fundamental q uestlons of definition (o r as
J\lachia\"t' lli pUL it, lO Ihe h eart of Lhe pt"ob1cm'). FOI" Heidegger, l hen,
phil osophy is a dispute beLween one and th e ol her IhaL seIS the two apan, an
The narrat\'e of a peaceful, fixed, unified kn owledge is
underslOod as a collecti on of opinions. 01" as Hegel pUl l. a o f Ihe
follies or d evialiol1s of man who is englllft'd in Lhe thOllgh t of pLll"e concepls."
Th e similaril}' bell\'een Hegel and Heidegger. So."l)'s Curi, is el"idem in this p oinl.
BUL PlalO also strt"sst"d hol\' importanl iL is lO a'oid Ihe traps posed by a nOLion
o f phil osophy as lhe of Pot)'lIwlhffl, ene)"-
dopedic el" udilion, Lhe accul11l1btio n of kn owlcdge cull ed f1"ol11 lI-adi-
tion, is th e OpposiLe of lrue phil oso phy. Thi s is based, t<lLher, Otl Lh e diairelic
method, IInderslOod in Ihe sense of Ihe "erb 'mireo, typicall)' appearing in Greek
lit el-alUre in descr iplions ofballl e scenes. Phil osophy in Ihis sense, lhen, nOI
in tended 10 hannonize concepts, reconcile dilTert'n ces or arril"e al a knol\'ledge
of things Lhal is neulral 01" peaceful. What iL po itt LS to, r<lLh er, is dil"isioll . dualit}'.
conniCl, and lhe torture (bnsll/liu-ill) Oflhought.
The samc gcncalog)', says eul", Icads back to HcracliLus, Lhe fint lhinke!" to
have inquired into lhe slIbjecl of ,,-ar, CO nmCL, and polemo.r. This has nOlhi ng to
COl/j/id 41
do with lhe empid cal meaning of 11''' ,\1', 01' politi cal COnmCI; it goes back lO
a much deepe r roOl of phil osophi cal kn owl edge. There is nOlhing pea ceful
ahout lhe dispule Wilh lhe olher: nei th er ilS odgin Il or its expression are
ludi c 01' Mcivi 1." Fol' Hei degger, ti lI.5til/(lJu/l'Tse/:'lwg is Ihe beM tr:l1lslati on of lhe
Heradil ean nOlion of jlOWlOl. Phil osophy ilSelf is a Slruggle, an encollnter!
dash Wilh Ihe oll1er. a forl11 of dominatioll . eliminati on, and \'iolence. \Vords
are weapons.
This eq ually descl'i bcs Ihc allerlJ:ni\'es lO polilical alld legal phil oso ..
ph)'. NalTal\'es on lhe o l'igin o f poli1ics, on the fUllctioning of inslituti ons, 011
relaliolls between groups ami between subjects alld sovercigns ha,'e ne,-er becl1
nelltl-al Some sort of rclali on with the idea of confli CI is always implicd.
The available optj o ns include !.he same approaches, mod els, and narr.'I1ives
d escr ibed by Lot-allx wilh rel:,'"3rd 10 hisl oriogmph)' and by Curi with re,-ard 10
phil osoph)': on the one Itand, Slatic, recollcili;lOf)' descripti ons ofpolitics: 011 the
olher mnd. drnami c descriplions that fOCllS on rllptllres, changes. and ambi\'a ..
lence. Ifwe <leeept Curi's "polemical'" !t olion of philosoph)', and lhe idea of "phi ..
losophy as w:u" foune! in Hel'aclitus, f'blO, and Heidegger, lhen Machiavclli and
Spino:r.a must also be placed in this traditi on. They are phil osoph ers in lhe fully
po letnical scnse o f th e word . \Ve l1 eed onl)' recal! the torture (bn.lnll::R.in) whi ch
Machiavel1i applies \O Ihe Aristolelian traditi on, or \O lhe medi eval
JjlPCII!UI/I tnillcijliJ, or to Renaissan ce ci\'ic humanismo The torture thal 5chola.o-
tic IhOllght and Cartesian philosoph), are subjecled 10 b)' Ihe works of Spil101.'l
is eq ually evidell1.
Howe' er. al leasl one other crilcri on needs \O be added 10 this genealo
b
')' of
political and legal phi losop h)'. It in\'0[\'c5 lhe relalionship betwecn lhear}' and
lhe concrete reali t}' ofpolilical conflict. If. as Curi puts it, e,'cll phil osoph}' is a
to rture of lhought and lradi lion, not ever)' u-adition and 1101 evell' po1i lical
lhinker i5 wil1ing to deal with lhe phenoll1cnon ofconfli cl in lotalitr Ba.sed
0 11 Ihis distin ction, we can pro pose a ne\\' dh'ision and anolher genealogy, in
which confl ict is cOl1sidered a sul:jecI of politica! phi losophy, forrn ing a t-adi-
cal1,. importanl fl eld of sludy.
BOlh Machi,,,e1li and Spino1.a, as we shall sho\\' in lhis pan, fully acce pted lllt:
challenge of examining lhe phenome noll of con!liCl. This is not lhe case for
ArislOtlc and Plato: for them, confli ct was primaril)' an obslade 10 remo\"!", and
a problem to solve. J acqucs Ran cierc has Ihoroughlyanal)"Led lhe c1assical moLS
of this queslion.' In his "ie\\', the political phi losophy or lhe ancient Gree ks is
founded on lhe const ruction o fa poli tic,1 CO m11111Jlil)' thal has been purged of
wrongs. 1\ is a C0111111llt1il)' Ihat has eITaced dominatjon and relations of superi-
oril}', as \\'e h;\'e see n, in order lO present a peaceful coexislence ofdilTerences
in which ineq ualiti es are accepted as the natuml order. tlrrhk; versus kmlM,
once ,gai n.
Still , as Rancict"e poillls out. the ancielll Greeks rcco),'nizcd that politics onl)'
comes inlO being when lhcre is an cs.o;ential asymlllelI')' 01' a primal con !lict.
COl/jliel, Puwer; (/lid Mul/ilru/e
The an of phil oso phy eo nsists prTcisely in maint.aining Ihe legitimaey of differ-
(' nees, in ofan)' reladons of dominadon. The arilhmetkal equality imp osed
by demoeracy subslituted by a geomet.rical proponion. In Ihis sense, I' lalO's
/Jo/ill'ia is nOI lhe basic constituli on whi eh is th en divided irHo differenl \"ari elies
(democracy, oligarch)', and Iyranny); rather, il is th e alt ernati\"e lO lhese alterna-
ti\es. On one side slands /JUlileia ancl on Ihe olll er lile v:uious \'ari el es of regimes
associaled wilh conf1i cl and Ihe d ominalion of o ne pan o\"er anol her.
Now, Rancicrc \ '1cWS IIH: ullimal c fonn of Ihis noton as a fusi on of IWU logi es
within Ihe \"er)' eoneepl of poli li cs that in realit}' are qui te dilTerenl. The lo,ric
of lhe IJo/ice whieh Rancicre eo nlH'cts. as does Foucaull, 10 go\"ernmcntal tech-
niques, 10 Ihe constnH;lion oflableaux that lransfortn co nfused,lIsc\ess,
01" dangerous multiludes into ordered muhiplicilies,' and 10 th e placement of
those who are -difTerem- inlo Iheir respeclive roles. Then [here is Ihe logic of
politics. an o pposing aclil'il)' lhal break!; up the confi guration of lhe pans aud
lhe sl.lIi e defi nili on of lhe rol es. Politi es re\'eals whal had not bcen seen, that
which changes th e mea ning aud order of the reladons. I'olitieal activit}', s.ays
Raneicre, is always a mode of l'c\'cali ng that dcSll"O)"s thc divisiollS put into order
by the polia'.
The lheme of conflict is preciscly what reveals Ihe openl)' polilicalthough t of
ami in aH ils radicalismo Their direcl engagement wilh Ihe
Iheme of connict opens tlp a new line of d enHl rcalion nOI onlr in Ihe lllodern
era, bUI also in lhe emire hiswl"y ofphilosophkalt houglu. This makes il possi -
ble lO Imce out a difTerem genealogy of PO/PillOS \"i ewed as a positi\"e concepl.
a theme thal was inau,"unll ed by Hemditus. At the poil11 ",here Plalo pulls up
shon , stating decisil'ely th<lt the cilr 11lUSI <lim for Unity as <In cnd . bascd 011 lhe
model of man and Ihe soul (Loraux's model of lhe all lhropologisl5),
a\"oiding the patholo,'}' of confl icl (and in Ihis respect, Aristo de foll ows cxac tly
in h is masl er's Mach iavelli and I'e nture onwards. They d o so
withoul remo\'i ng COllniCI from polilical life; o n Ihe co ntrar)', Ihey follo\\' il
Ihrough 10 its mosl extreme consequences.
The th ird chap ler deal s wilh the theme of Ihe irreducibilily of li fe 10 apure
obj ect of mallipulati on, 10 a ge011lelric poil1l of appli catioll ancl exercise of
power. Th e theme of co nfli cl is del"eloped in Mach iavelli and Spinoza stani ng
from th e onlOlo,'}' and cenU';.1.lily of Ihe COll cepts of I'inue as powcr am] of COl/ ll-
IU.'ias 1"esistance lO am] affirmalon ofl ife. Where\'cr there
is power, lhere is also resislance. BUl beyond lh is formula, the phi losophics of
Machiavelli and in\'i te 1.1S 10 consider lhat where\"er Ihere is life, there
is resi.slance. Re\"Crse Ihe poirH ofvie\\', Ihen, and Slarl from Jife ilself. In Ihis
sen se, life is conce il"ed of t.h rough a slralegic lo,ri e of aClil'e resistance 10 exter-
nal forces. Makillg use of Ranciere's temlS. but pushing the bOllndar)' of h is
logic, we might say that where there is the po/ice, th ere is also necessaril )' politi es.
And politi es, underslOod as resistance and conniC\, is juSt as intl"nsi c 10 Ihe seU:
of an individual body as il is lO collccli\"{' bodics. Thc challc ngc of
COl/j/id
lhinking .. boul liJe lheme o f connin, and of aning in response LO il, is posed by
life by lived experi ence. Our refl enion on confli CI in polilical phi loso-
phy thus wlh ont.ology.
The founh chapter expl ores t.he role ofhislOrical narrati\'e in bOlh alllho rs.
Machiavelli presen 15 many of 11 is lheoredcal argumenls Ihrough hi slorical nar-
ratile . especiall )' 0 11 Ihe power aud cri sis of Rome. bUl also in reference to his
natil't: F"l orence. Spinoza also 11lakes use of hi storicalnarratil'e rat hel" lhan limit-
ing lhe pn:sell1atiOll o fhis ideas 10 lhe geolllt:lric 11l t: lhod utilizt:d in the E/llies
(and wilho ut li11liting his lhought LO lhe IWO o pposing modes). I-I e docs 50
through lhe histol")" of lhe Jews, bU! al so through co mpal'isons Wilh the England
and l-I ol bnd of his lime. HUI historieal narratil'e, as we shall see, is wh erc lhe
theme o f co nnicl is most readil y lackled . The of h istor)' all ows some o f t.he
mechanisms and conSl:lI1lS in human behavior 10 be discerned . Such constat11s,
il should be recaneel. do nOI const. itute a form of hi storical d eterminismo bUI
radler. th e capaci t)' to imitate anel underst..'utd history. without which no escape
from lhe licious cirde of superstition, h elplcssnc5s, and bondagc would be pos-
sible. I'agcs on lhe history o f Jcrusalc11l. Alhcns, ROl11e, Florencc, and Amster-
ebm are tr.l1lsfo nned imo fenil e theorclical co ndusions of greal pOWCI. For
Maehiavelli, the history of Rome occupies a pril'il eged posili on. ",hile rOl' Spi-
n01.3 Ihe hisl ory of Ihe J ews has primar}' importance, part icubrly Iheir co nJli cts,
Ihe ways Ihe co nflins d evel oped, a1\(1 Ihe crises they proloked .
The fifth chapl er di scusses lhe reblio nshi p belween conflict and law. Machi-
al'elli 's conninual cOll eeptio n of polili cs. like Spi noz.""\ s j I/s W /)Vlrllli(/. do 11 01
box law inlO a posit ion lha! is subord inate 10 pol ili cs. There is no d elermiuislll
in\"ol\"cd. as \\' e ha\'e said, nor is lhe real e!Tacee! or simplifi ed in ,my \\'ay. On lhe
conlTary, lh ... la\\' ane! laws lhal a re del'do pcd out 01' a cOmllltlllily'S confli cLS go
on in lheit tum 10 produce c!TecLS on lhe real praClicc ofpolitics. L.w and con-
fliet refer 10 each olher and are Illulually influenced Ihrough a recurslve Slr uc-
ture Ihal remai ns fore\"er open and indet er minal e. Crisis and power in stat es
cannot be analyzed in a linear or leleological wa)". Th er can onl y be ap proached
lhro llgh tlli s continuousl)' open and recursil"e relatiol1 shi p by whi ch co nni cl
produces lall's. whil c lall's. in Iheir \tlrn. shape socielY's relati ons willl ils
connicLS into fonns lhat are more 01" lcss positi\"e for i15 1lH"l11bers.
Chaplcr 3
Sllobalis A1'Ina SupeIJunt, Fumr A1'Ina Minisl'ral:
Philosophy as Resistance
N;tural1ife figures in bOlh Machia\"e11i and polilical and
writings, Machiavelli's meno reduced la an ;lmost feml Slale,
lil e 0 1' like and Hobbesiall wolves, de\'ou r each olher in .. a 's
stale of lIalure, t For bath, in COIIIIII OII with lhe great thinkers of 1II0d enlit}'.
po litics has a lot 10 d o with the lowcsI rallk o f humanity, in thal haz)' sphere
belween "beasts and Shockingl)', we are for ccd 10 contempla\{' Ihe dark-
est, 111 0S1 disturbing aspects of po liti cal auon, I'ower is brought iulO direcl
co ntact with life, and strips il of 011\ that i5 specifl cal1r human. Al! beings-
humans, brutes, of naUtre, whil e the st.'lt e of muure, by
;dmission, i5 al1 imegral l>,lfl
What has becn lenned the thus emerges Oltl of alld
Spin07l l's realislII, ltlldersco rillg the more \iol em and lrab'; c aspect.S ofpol iti cs,
Gi orb'; o Agmllbcn ltscd the nOli on of"bare pn:ciscl )' in Ihis sense, LO define
liJe most secrct, hidden OutCOIllC of politi cs amI power.
5
Nalural life is n OI a
presuppositi on I'o r sovcrcib'll power 01' 1'0 1' sQ\'cl'ci gnt)' ilsell'. And so\'cl'e igmy
does nOI exel'ci se itselr in the natural world br raising anifi ci al il
d oes for Ihe eOlHmelll;lislS-in order lO ereel a fence aro und Ihe sphe re of
pOlil ics. l3are life is Ihe resltlt, mther, o f Ihe lIhinHlt e aehi e\'Cl11 el1l peculiar tO
power that is tmgi cally playcd Oltt al panicltlar limes in hist o!')' by parti cularl}'
:llrocious figltres o f mod ern politi es, in lhe eXl erminali on e<lmps, for insmncc.
For Agamben, lhen. fo ll oll'ing in tlU' 1I',1kc of FOll eaull, the production and
rep!'oduetion of bare 1ife, fa r from being a fai lure of politi es, is aetuall f iti
est aeeo mplishment, ilS hiddc!l mal!'ix, lhe ver)' lUimos of polilies,6
BUI in this sense, is more ofa theoreti eal figure than a real Ihing,
It is a radically n egalive eo neept inl ended to express lhe lowesl possibl e d egree
of hllmanity, reduced 10 an inen obj ecl. No\\', Ihe of Machi a\"elli
al1(\ Spinoza deni es lhal bare life can exist al all, negaling its real -
il}'. if )'o tl \\'111. 111e phil osophy of resist.'l nce and lhe absolul e affinnation o flife
lhat emerges frolll the pages of these thin kcrs prevcl1tS tl S from thin king aholll
lhe oflife; and !ife is never submiued \O lhc \'i olel1l acti on ofp owcr
as a purcl)' passi\'c objcet.
46 COl/jliel, Puwer; (/lid Mullilrule
Lct li S bcgin Wilh Machb"clli. Thc llum ber of imagcs of r.:1W ,iolcncc appe ar-
ing thro ughoUl his works is cxtcnsivc . They are ll o t purel y d ecorative, rhc LOri-
cal figures. ho\\'e\'er. They are e1ement.'l needed l O illllstrate the
mechanisms of politi cs in a fe\\', 01" perllaps. no authon had d one pre\"i-
o usly. Politics, Ihen, seems t appl ), 10 Mbare and strips human Jife to uner
barelless. The ,'iolence of mcn !ashes OUt in all ils power againsl h tunan bodi es
amI body pans. rt:\'ealing what prinees nd sO\'ert:i b'lIS, scribbli ng way:u lu:i!"
desk,s, prefcr rcd lO igno rl' , Machia\'el1i uses hese bnllallr fa'" mages 10 force
liS to ,icw th rough hi s words, to makc liS undcrs!and that what is thought o ras
an cxccpti on, th e harsh of life, is actually the normal out colll e of
politics.
There is no mo ralislic ovenone 10 be found in i\-lachi:l\"elli's words; whal he
ofIen, as alwa)"s, is a lucid observa li on on Ihe normal violence of human aClion.
The images of dealh lhal rUIl throughoUl his works esmblish a paradigm.
upholding d eath 's ultimate power ol'er th e liles. nesh and bl ood of human
beings. h is 110 t a maner of simpl}" killing people: th ese images show the work-
ings of power and hall" Jife iLSclf is wrapped insidc iLS fatal embrace. Dukc
Valentino, fOI" cxamplc, I"cprescnLS th e pOWCI" acquired OVel" Romab'lKI thro ugh
lhe body of Ramirl"O, cut in two like an animal, stripped and exposed 10
lhe peo pl e of Cese na wh o were "s,'uisfied and ama7.erl.
H1
But this is lhe auiLude
lhal i\lach iavelli. lhe polil ica! analomisl, generally has loward Ihe o fhis
s\tldy. He applies lo Ihe lell er lhe melh ocl lhal Creso, King of Lydia. advi sed
5010n 10 lIse, namely. 10 look wit h )"otlr own The Mbodr
H
of power is dis-
sected lInd anal)'zed in order 10 rel"eal il'l imemal organs and full )' understIlIld
the mcchanislIIs thm makc it work.
ClIuing th e bodr of one's encmy inlO pi eccs and annihilating his ph}'sical
presence are prcsented as the nor mal b.ws of polili cs. The cruelty of poli tics is
10 ils fullesl o n lhe bodies of human beings. And the space of Ihi s
is a shared, public oll e wh ere peop!e sho\\" Ihemsehes ami observe
each Olher, utweiled. wilho Ul respecl for dealh even-or 1Il 0st especially-
becausc, aft er all, il is a mall er of polil ics. Banolomeo Orbndini . Ihe Gonfali er
of J usti ce, has the ill cO\wenielll Baldaccio di Anghiari pUllO dealh, Ma nci once
he wasdt'ad, they th!"cl\' him OUI of lhe window facing the palaee ofth e Dogana;
and frolll th ere th ey can"icd him illlO th e piaZ7..a and CUI off bis bcad. and for
a whole day madc a spcctacl e of it for lhe pcople.
H
"
I' ol il ks is revealed Ihrough the speclacle o r d eatb. This is why appeal is made
allhe s..'\lll e lime 10 Jife made meaning, slripped ofi ts human character-
iSlics ancl redllced \O a purcly objecl. This is Ihe slrenglh anc\ sco e of
exlreme vi olell ce, In lhe images of cannibalislll whi ch Machial"elli IIses 10 lalk
about politics, this 1l0tiOll of Mbareness" takes on its 1I\ 0Sl COll crele fonn . Polilics
feeds ilself 011 d eath, and human life is thus bid bare. like th e power \\l en fight
and kili cch OIher fo r:
47
\Vihout d o ubt, indignati o n appean greatcl" and woulIds are gra\-c r wh c n
liben,. i5 hcing rcco\"cred lhan whcn il is be ing defended. Mcsscr Guglie1mo
and his son were placeo among of lhe;r enellli es, and Ihe SOIl was
nOI yel eighteen years old: nonetheless, his age , his form, and his innocence
could nOI &'lve him frorn lhe fur)' orlhe lllultilUcl e. Those whom lhey co uld
nOI wa und liling. lhe}' wounded wh en dead. al1d nOI satisfi ee! wilh cUlling
thcm \O pi eces wi lh Iheir swords, lhey lore lhelll apan with Iheir hands alld
their tcelh. And so tha! all Ih eir senscs might be satisfi ed in n:\'cngc, ha\'ing
firsl hcard [hcit" wails, sccn hcit" wa unds, and hand1cd [hdl" IOn1 ncsh. Ihey
slill want cd Ih e ir laste LO rclish th c m; so as all Ih e parts o utsid c we re sa.tcd
wilh lhem. lhey also sa.led lhe parts wilhin, lO
People dis.'"!ppear. swall owed ur by the s:l\nger,. of ,'iolence. Othen remain.
al ong with lhe s."1111 e ineradi cabl e amI co nstilut!" e vi olence. Wha l Machial'elli
d escribes appears similar. lhen. \O Agamben' s "bare life w: lhe ultimale OUlcome
of polities, as extreme violenee exelTised ab'ai nsl life itself. Its "exceptional
W
fOrllls are the fans of potities.
Howcver, obsen-ati ons on this exeepti onal nOl'malitr are n ot all
he has lO s."1y on the tapi e. Jt could be said that Machiavclli's political phil oso-
ph)' shows Ihe direcI contaCI Ihal power has wilh human Jife preci se!}' in o rd er
10 negat e whal Ab'am be11 call ed bare life. The "zero d egree W of soci;lit}', human
!ife as apure obj ecl of polilical "ol ence , is never [,O be fOllnd in Machia\'elli's
th ought. On Ihe cOl11mr}', peopl e show that lhe)' ha\'e il1 exhaustible reso urces,
albeil minimal al limes. againsl lhe ,'iolence of power. Resistanee, o ur insup-
pressibl e telld enc}' lQward cOl1flict, ultimately remO\'es bare life from power's
rangc o f aedon. As we have seen. at ilS moS! vi olent, power is exerciscd on lhe
lives and bodi es ofhuman beings. BlIl peopl e never give themsel\'es up en trelr
10 its blindly destructi" e force, This resistance, whether sll ccessflll or nOl, is
what d efin es th e life of bOlh men and politi cal bodl es. making a d escripli o n of
Ihe clash be lween power and boeli es in lerms ofbare life im]>ossibl e. Resistance
is 11l.lrtured co rttinuously by man 's insuppressible po\\'er, tlt ereb)' making
connict lit e ontologi call y cOl1stiluli"e dimension ofpolilics.
[11 olle of th e 1I10Sl cOll ceptual1), "dense - pass<lges froll1 Tlle Dcoul'Sts, chapt er
[[[ .6. Machiavc11i expli citly states that power can nc\'Cr strip human lifl' com-
pl ete)y bare. A tp-ant ca n ne\'er be entirely safc fro m hi s enemics, "fo r he can
never so d espoil an)'one bUl that th ere will re1l1ain 10 him a kni fe with \\'hich ta
II'reak \'engeance. Nor can he d e prive a mall of his hono ur to such an extenl
tltal his mind wil1 cease lO be SI' l on vengeance." " To despoil yOllr enemy,
reduce h im 10 bare life, tO lIl ake him a pure1y passive obj eCl for lhe exerci se of
pOll'er and \'ioleuce, is impossible. Onl >, through death, says Machia"elli, can
powcr ensure ilS safct)' fr01l1 enemi es. These imagcs of extreme "iolence a
profoundly ambhnle n l chal'aCler, then. 11H:)' sho\\' powcr at wor k, bUl also ilS
4'
COl/jliel, Puwer; (/lid Mullilrule
limits, including ilS incapacity to reduce Ill c n to barc life. Aman canno t be
co mpl e tel)'; al] means 0 1' rc sistan ce canll O! be takcn way fro m him,
c\"en f1I1hal rernains Is a rnind 011 vengeance.
H
P::lI'acloxical1)', 0111,. dealh
can create Iha! "oid, lha1 uue!" barell ess a f tire which lhe )Tan! requires.
This idea a r insuppressible resist.1l1ce ami Ihe formidable 0pp05i1ioll lhal
people pUl up againsl obstac\es ami ad\'crsit}' i5 counected lO he nOloll a f
necessil}'. which chamclt: r izes al! naturc. Resistllll Ce and conni ct. we mighl say,
are Ihe ordinal-y reali1), fol' <ltl mIlUl. \1 phcnomcna amI. consequcntl)", j ust as
much so fOI" human bcings who find thcmsd\'cs in naturc and ael in <leca r-
dance Wilh ilS laws. These are the dr kes and dams that virtue can put up against
fortune, as a spontaneolls act of dirc;ted primari!)" against the h ostil-
il)' of natllre. F"ortune, as we hm'e .'leen, ils where no force h;s
been organi sed t.o resist it .. and Iherefore strikes in I.he places wh ere it know.'!
thm no dykes or dams h;we been builll0 restrain The whole ofhumall his--
lO!"}'. we miglu .'la}'. is lhe SlO!"}' of lbi s resistance. Li fe is never stripped uuer[ y
bare in this narrmil"c either. OfTensil"c capacilies uf aCli on aud resislance, inher-
ent 10 Jife and specific 10 human bcings. h;iI"c bec n dcvclopcd since lh(' lime
people bcgan 10 Uve IOgethcr in common:
when in l11;]n)' smal1 COI11I1Hl!lies. find thal th ey can-
nOI enj o)' seclIrity .'lince no one comtllunit )' of itself, owi ng 10 iLS posl li on and
10 the stll ;l[ness of ilS num bers. is slro ng enough 10 resist lit e onslaugl!1 of an
illl'ader. am!. when Ihe enemy arril"es, here is no li me for Ibem lO l1 uite fo !"
Iheir d efence .... l-I el1ce, 10 escape lbese dangers. eitll er of lheir Oll"n accord
01' al he suggcslion of SOI1I<!OIH' of gn:a tcl" authorit}" alll ong thcm, sucll com-
munities undcrtake 10 lh'e together in .'lome place thc)' have chose n in arde r
10 [ve mOl'e cOI1\'cn iently amlthe more easil )' to defcnd themsel\"cs
I3
.
" 'hen natural conditions are nOI harsh enough 10 kee p men in Ihis slale of
aCI\'e vigilance againsl pot enliallhreals, Ihen artificial cond i,ons muS( be sel
tlp. The 1aws ofRol1lultls ami Numa. for examp[e, al10wed Rome to keep I' irt ue
honed 10 a leve[ of need thal is indispensabl e rOl" a !"epub[ic. 111is nalural dril'e
for resistance can be weakened, howe\"e r, nOI by \"iolcnl, eXlreme ci r clll1l StanCes.
bUI by the eX", CI opposite: namcly. b)' tlu' cOI1\'C' ni enccs ora [ife in which here
is no need 10 struggle fo r sur\'il<ll. Neilher the violenc!! ofpower nor he hostil-
ilr ofnalure, thcn. dl'ivc men toward the bare Ufe; whal does s
he co nvenience ofa Jife freed froll1 confl ict. A people hal has li\'ed for a long
period under a pri nce, for exampl e, loses its nanu<l[ ap,it\lde for conflicl and
resistan ce, juSt like a wild animal ,hal has been d Ol1l esticated.
'
The p" imal
desire of a11 peop[es is 10 ofTer resistance, uto al"enge lhemse [l"es against lhe s
who ha\'e been the cause or lheir sen 'ilude, alld 10 reg';:in Iheir freedolll. This
prima[ dl"\"e nced s 10 be foslcred and howc\"er, by crcati ng arti ficial
condili o lls of hardship. Machial'clli's criti cislll of Chl'istianit)', for C' xample, is
based on this Whi le anci ellt religi on "assib'11Cd as man's highesl good
... borl il)" sl rength, and e\'er)"lhing else lhat ;onduccs 10 make men very bold,M
1l1Odern religion
d emands Ihal in rou lhere be slrenglh. [relJ \\"hal I1 asks for is slrenglh 10
sufrer nuher lhan strenglh \O do bold 1hings. Th is panern of life, lherefo re,
appears \O llave made Ihe wor ld "'eak. and \O have handed il over as a prey 10
Ihe wicked. ,,'ho I"UIl it slKcessfully alld sccurcl)' sin;e hey are well aware lhal
1hc gell eral ity of men, lI'i1h paradise for hcir goal. ;onsider ho\\' bes1 10 bear,
1"::llher han how besIto avenge, heir
Mod ern religion ;ondll;es men 10 ra1her han to aet. lt 10 weaken
that primal d rive fOI" resislance and connict \\"hich is proper 1.0 eveJ' individllal.
1I is 1101 Ihe external I'iolenee of power 1hal creales lhe bareness of life. l hen,
bUI he unceasing \Vor k ofa cuhure Wilh he "passion
M
alld "conveni ence
M
of
civil li ving. Vi olence and power provo ke a reac li on in every individual Iha is
inslIppressible. lIJ ore "assail ed" by need aman is, Ihe more indined he is
10 offer resistan;e and engage in ;onnin, which d emo nsnales hal a ZCI"O
d egr ee orlife is never auai nable.
BUI Madlia\"el1i's reasoning is 1101 reslr icted 10 generic obsen ".uions 011 rela-
lions wilh (or opposed to) power. His lhinki ng also r-anges o\'er lIIore pmclical
issues Itl\"oll'ing Ihe distribulion ane! sharing of power in Slales. The d rive 10
offer resislance comes 10 lhe fore in lhe concrele dYll amics of polilics, ill , he
il"tiull clion 10 "anack olhers or be altaeked.
M
There is no room gi\"en 10 lnl11quil-
ilr ami no chance for escapi ng ; onnict. In Rome, fOI" cxample,
e idlel" Lh e peo pl e or lhe nobili l)" always be;ame arroganl whcn lhe o thel'
part r was h umblecl: lhat wh en Ihe pl ebs was quiet and kep IL' place, lhe
yOllllg nobles began 10 (real il badly, ami hal Ihe r.ribunes co uld do li ll le 10
mell d nmllers beca ll se \'iolel1ce \\"as being used also ab'ainsl hem. On Ihe
olher hand. Ihough 10 I.he rest of lhe nobilil}' it see med Ihal lheiryoung men
"' ere going 100 fa ro il ,,"as nOl1e Ihe less 10 lheir liking thal, if excesses h:ld \O
be c0111llliued. Iheir own Ill cn should e011llllil Ihe111 mlhcr Ihan Ihe p lebs.
Thus lhe desirt' for liben y ;aused eaeh pan r 10 opprcss Ihe olhe r in so far as
i gOL lhe llpper hand. And lhe seqllen;e in whi ch hese C\'Cll 15 O;Cllr is sllch
lha mell seek first lo be free from apprehensio n, Ihen make Olhers appl'e"
hell sive, at1(l lha he ofwhidl lhey had ri dded th emsel\"es, Ihe}" pro-
eeeded 10 il1 n iCI on ot hers. I1 was as if il were necess."lry eithe!" to Irear orhers
ill or \O be
The necessil )' 10 offer resistance, 10 atlack o1hers ami oppress lhem so as nOI 10
be oppressed. is once ag-.ln lhe reasoll why lhe model of war is so sllitcd LO poli-
li;s. War wiho m qllartcl', oll e might add, in thal resistan ce is deployed in a
50 COl/jliel, Puwer; (/lid Mul/ilru/e
tolalizing fashion, Icaving no cmply spaee and olf edng no truces. [' erhaps, in
lhis sense-but onl}' in this sense-Jife appears al lhe hean of po Jilics
because whal is co nst.an'ly pUl al slake is life ilSel r. \\fh en danger is al ils highesl
and dimcuhi es threaten 10 tLlI erly d eslror life, Ihal is \\'hen vinue is forced lO
emerge: mar be many kiucls of necessili es. blLl Ihe slro ngesl is Ihe one
whi ch compels rOll 10 be \; clori olls or Life ami dealh. Ihen, viclor)'
o r d eslructioll are al\\'ays al hand. clasped IOgelher in a cr ilical bOlld Ihal is
constantly tlu'ealeuing \O cause ruin. bUI II'hich is also Ihe onl}' palh opc n to
vinue.
This pr'imal ch'ive I"or resistan ce lhus prevenl'l Jife from being redueed to an
o bj cel, LO Ihe endpoint of extreme power. Now, although lhis drive is \'el"}" simi-
lar 10 an inslinct, il is nOI a simpl e natural guality. Ralher, il is a germin e polili-
cal Slra teg)' of self-presen <lli on and con niel . This is evidenl, for exam pI e. in Ihe
lheo r)' of conspiracies Ihal Machia\'elli seIs Out in Tll e DiscO/mes ami whi clr
Spin07A"l lal er pi cks up on ami discusses in similar lerms. [n additi on 10 lfUeing
OUl lhis noli on of resistan cc and connicl, lhe conspirac}' argumcnl o\"en urns
the traditio nal \'iel\' ofl)'r.mnicidc :lIld the l"ghl 10 resistance.
Thc mod ern Ihcor)' on Ihe righl 10 r'csistancc was d e\'clopcd during Ihe
bl ood)' wars of rcligi on during Ihe siXleenlh and se\'enleen lh ccnllll"es. '-'" \ Vhal
slamb al th e co re 01" this doctrin e is Ihe legitiuli7A"ltion and presen-alion of Ihe
existing power. As far as regicides are concerned. for exampl e, onl)' \\'h en lhe
king betmys Iri s promise do lhe become hi s enemi es. All tLnfailhful
111011al"ch is oue \\'ho, essenliall)'. d estabilizes lhe llr eoloboi cal,jll ri di c, alld 1I1ot-a1
eq lIilibritLm and \\'ho places himself in a Stale ofwlIr \\'ilh his subj ecl'l. h beeomes
a r ight ami a d uty, lhercforc. 10 resta re lhe equilibriulll prceisd)' throllgll lhe
juridicalllOlion of lhe right 10 resistance. Now Machjl\-clli discusses lhese isslles
through hi s discourse o n conspirdci es, lInderscoring al1 lheir dangcrs and, lIlti-
matel)', Iheir I"milit}'. Whal he pllt..'i fo rv.ard is essentiallr a condel11nali o n of
indi\'idual act..'i of resistance like Ir mnni ci de, whi ch gen eml1y onl)' worsell .':iitua-
li on5 thal are airead)' criti ca!. The primal clrive for I"esislance, we mighl sal',
111USl no t take form in Ihe isolaled <l el ofkil1inga Iymrrl .
Chapler 6 of boo k [JI of T/r DiscO/lIJe! Oll conspimcies is lhe longesl in the
enlire "'ork. COllspiracies. I\'e read. arc futile lI nd dallgcr olls, bl11 11I OSI impor-
tand)", lhey do nOl produce thc d esi rcd l"csllll'l. J\lachiavel1i's argument ,,,ould
appear 10 CSpOllSC lhe cause of unconditi onalr'cspect for princely powcr. Vet,
lhe argulll enl is directed not lO he subjects bUI to Ihe prince, expbining how
10 condllcl himself in ord er 10 pre"ent co nspiraci es and avoid universal

BUI ift.lr e prinee's concluct mUSl be ",lril e Ihe subj ecl.'; musl in no
fa5hiorr conspire againsl their prill ce, ho\\' is the relation belween power alld
the cssenlial el cmenl of resislance-what Machi avelli has unequi\'ocall)' lc nncd
Ml o\"c offr-ced omM_10 coml' inlO bcing? Thc anSll'cr li es in lhe Mlh cor)' o fthe
hUl11 ors.
M
MOSl oflhe time eonspiracics arise from the fa et lhm part..'i ofthe cily
"
must scck a way 10 ""c nt thcmscl\'cs.
M
pre pares Ihe gmund f OI" his
co nflic lual Iheo l1' o f politi cs, passing over lhe traditional tri partite dhision o f
he [o l'ces into lhe r eop!e. a r iSlocrac)' and monarchy. by instead thal
"in c\'cry republic her!' are lWO d iITerenl hlJtl1ors. Iha! orlhe people and lh:n
of he MI-f umon" Is a lenn taken frolll lhe medi cal1anguage o f his
lime ami mmsferred illto lhe polti cal discourse. JUSI as hefe are diffe rem
humors in lhe bod)' Ihal need 10 be purged 10 pn:\"cllI lhe death oflhe
botlr. so. too. he "body politic" muS[ he ablc lO "purge those hurnurs."
\Vhc n hese Illcthods do n01 work, reco urse i5 had 10
nar)' IllClhods," such as conspi raci es. Yet rcgardlcss of Ihe OUlcome of Ihe COIl-
whelher a Ip<l. IH is kill ed 01" not, for example. the causes of the t)T"I.llIl)"
remain and co ntinue to produce Iheir ill effects. This is why r-.lachia\'el1i pU1.s for-
warel a th eory of poltical humors in opposili on \O a consen":!.ri\'e theory of polri-
cal ordel" 01" 10 a lraditioual doctrine ofresislance and Iyrannicide. A co nspimc)'
rnay be tite s}'mplOl1l ofa latentcollni ct Ihat s unable 10 be expressed ami purged
in Ihe ,",ay. BUI ';exu<lordinal)'" Ill elhods do nOI sol\'e problems: Ihey
only cxaccIbale and cOlllplicale Ihelll. Political and social co nflict, howe\'er, are
lhe only praClice5 Ihal 5uccessfull)' b>i\"e form 10 Ihal Plimal (hi\"c for rcsistance;
indeed, il prO\ides Ihe onl )" exprcssion al"alahlc 10 it. The Ksecthng of the
humors" is a healthy sign of thc body poli tic. Conspiracies are oflen alien 10 thi s
dynamic of Ihe hllmors, making Ihem an expressi on of a politi cs o f co nsen-a1on,
lhe cl osllre ofa tmditi onal co nception ofpo\\"el" and so\"ereigllt)'.
Machin-e1li s significant use of lhis si mil e Ihus SUIllS IIp lhe lheol)' of lhe
rewrn to principies. Ihe sign and s)"mptol11 of a healthy stal e of political life.
The o rdcrs of a stalC often d evialc frolll Ihe original principIes Ihal once el iSLn-
gllished Ihcm. For tltis rcason, 5.,')"5 Macha\'elli, using an argument lalcr llsed
expli citly by Spin07.a. Min order thal a religi ous sect o r a slat e sh ould long sur-
vi\e it is essenlial that it should freq ll enlly be restored to its original princi-
I' osil\\e clwnges IOward the original \inllc proceed within he stale
"elther by some eXl ernal e\"Cnt 01" by ils o\\"n inlrinsic good sense." Ex ternal
el"en ts are nOI alwa)"s posilive, fa lling lInder lhe d omain of fortlll1 e t"alher han
vinue. [1 is bell er. therefore, lO base oneself on ones OWII abi li ties. namely, 011
"intrinsic pr udence.
M
To ser ho,," Spino:t .. .a handled lhis tapie we need 10 take a slep backwards 10
re,iew lhe anlhropological and on talogical backgl"Ound behind his political
ph il osophy. The idea of Ihe lmitaliOIl of finil e 1H0d es holds a central positi on
",ithn thi s neldo [n nawre, e\'el"}' express on o f th e subSlance and al1 aspecls of
Ihe real are characlerzed by !tis issue oflhe 1imit.
Spinoza's doctrin e ofatlrlblll es s kll own as M parall elism
M
: Ihe onl)' exislent
SlIbst:Hlce is composed of infinil e Mpamllel" altriblll es. This means tltal lhe
modes of <In :tltribute cannol aCI o n o r be affected by modes bel onb'ng 10 a
different aul'ibule. For examplc, Ihe mind can ncilher ae! on nor be aITce!cd
by lhe body. In Ihis framewod::, Spino:t .. a posits th e idea of a lllulual, universal
COl/jliel, Puwer; (/lid Mullilrule
limilali on on al! modes lImt bcl ong to th e same attribute. Thcre is no such
thing as a mocl c that is not limited by an othcr mode: no idea can withollt
cbshing with an other iclea; no body can exist without being obstructed by
ano lher bocly. This principI e is th en confirmed by Ihe Axiom in pan IV which
stat es: Thel"e is in Nallll"e no indh'idual thing that is no t sUl"passed in stre ngth
amI power by some otll el" thing. Whatsoe\'er thing Ihere is. lhere is another
more powerful by \\"hi eh he said Illing can be The uni\ersal limim
li on thal pan I ofthc Elliies opens witlt is no\\" intcqJrcwd in terms of strength.
power (polel/lia) , and d estrunion. lt would bc diffi cuh to exaggel, lIc th e impor.
lancc of this axio lll. Whilc Spin07.a begins th e par! on Hondage" with
Ihis axi om ami ilS scope is th en eXl ended to a dilTerenl conleXI in the
part on this univers.al!y valid principIe can in an)" case serve as
a baekdro p to lhe entire Elllic$. This al so pro\'ides a clear demonslralio n ofh o\\'
highl r importanl [he Iheme of eollni el was 10 SpiIl07.a.
Limitati on and finitude. lhell. are att ributes of he entire natural world. The
finite modes are nOI considered statical! )', bUI ralher. d)"namically. in lheir con
crete existenc{' . Thcir cxistcnce is one of mutual constraim. of intcracti oll th:n
can be \i olcnl and destnlctivc al times, in a multiplc , dr nami c network of causes
and clfects. Rclatio nship immediately takes precedence o\-er essence and the
relati onship inl'oll'ed is primarily co nflictual. is Ihe nOl"lllal sllr\'h-al dynamic
of each alTecI, fOI" exampl e, which is cOlllinu;lll)' repressed "eheckecl 01" destl"o)"ed
{onl }" ] b)' il cOIHmr)' alTee l which is slrougel" than Ihe aITcet which is lO be
BUI Ihi s is also he case fo!" Ihe parti cular fiuile mod es tha l mosl
inlerest uso Ilamel)', hUlllan bt:illgs. lndeed . "the force wh ereb)' a lllau persisls ill
cxisting is limitcd, and infinitcl y surpassed b)' hc po\\"er of extel"llal causes."C'ti
whether these be o the!" llICll 01" olhel' finile modes. Al! idea ofllnivers"l l. genero
ali7.ed limitadon thus chal-acteri7.cs all o f natllre, sparing not a singl e e mpt)'
space. and wilh no truce whal'loeve r in this infinil e, pOlenlially cl estructi\"e
dynami c ofin lerani on be tweell Ihe mocl es.
The primac)' of relati onship ol'er essenee needs 1.0 be undersco red ""' !O
emphasize Ihal Spinoz<l' s OIlIOlob,)' immedialcl)' and direclI)' add!"esses itself 10
Ihe questi on ofcon nicl at Ihe s.--une lime. Tlle slrenglh. thc power of e\"er)' finit e
mod e, whidl constilUteS il'l essence. nt'\'cr presenl'l itself abstmctl)" and in il'lelf.
but radlCr. concretcly and in afio, meaning as pan of Ihe infini tc \\"eb and neto
work of rclati ons with o th er mod es. The space of co nfliCl and confrontation
WiLh the other modes precisel)' within this web and nelwork. Conf\ict and
resist."l.tl ee are nOI o nl)' a mod e ofbeing, Ihey are our ver)' esse nee, in;lSmuch as
each mod e presenLS ilself o nl)' in rela ti o n to other Ill odes and inside Ihis rela
ti onal ami concretel)' eonfli etual space: Ihe elTecli\"e we endean) r tO
persisl iu is ne\'er isolal ed, il alll"ays Illrtl S OUt !O be the power of
external causes cOlllpared wi th otlr OWII
BU! this is prcciscl)' whcrc resistance co mes int o play. Can human life, whell
faced with an "cxcessi\"e

powel", be th ought of as complcLCI)" dcspo iled and
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flJ lqOUl!l[d
COl/jliel, Puwer; (/lid Mul/ilru/e
The more COIllI<Il)' forces attemlll LO our life, we might say, aU the
more d oes it takc on thal or iginal ami inali enable powcr Ihal is proper LO each
existent e. To arri \'e al a lll ore d etailed uncl erstancling o fSpin07.3 's POSili oll. we
can add rhat Ihe co ncepti on o f jrls as power derh'es precisel)' from Ihis iclea.
!-Ience, Spino7)J fruilfull y d epl oys hi s ontolo!,,'y directly on Ihe plan e of pol il1cS
ancl law. By d oing litis. as we have seen, he is abl e 10 find a realisti c exil from Ihe
weaknesses and o f the mod ern phil osophy that was being ro nn ulat ed .11
Ihe time, especiall )' cunu' lclualistll and an abslI<lct co nceptio n ofrighls. Indeed.
airead)' in the !' rerace 10 th e 17u!UlogiCllI-Polilicnl Spin07.a pUIS ron\"ard
hi s concepti on of th e j lls ue polenlin, by founding il on an individual natural
righl thal cxpresses powcr, whi ch C\'cl)'onc participates in direcII)'. This
makes il 10 transfer rhis nalllral righ! 10 olhen. such as a sover cign,
who holds Ihe highesl power ami becomes lhe pro lecLOr of This
ransference is never absolul e, however; ralher. il is nawrall y ami physi call y
limited. Amllhis limiwlion entails cer["tin pmClical cOl1 sequel1ces 011 he plane
o flaw:
since nobod)' can so depri\'c himsdf of he powel' of sdf-defence as 10 cease
10 be a human being. I condude Iha! nobodr can be absohuel)" dcpl"vcd of
his natural and lhal by a rt uaSi-nalural righl subj eCLs d o reta in some
riglus which cannOI be taken from lhem wilhoUl imper illing Ihe Slate, and
whi ch Ilt erefore are eilher taci ll)" cOll ced ed or explicitly agreed b}' lhe
rul ers. :If;
The rdatio n be!wecn so\'erdgn power and Ihe individual powcr of Ihe sub-
j ects is thus one ofim' crsc reciprocit)'. The transfel'en ce rcndcrs the soverc ign's
powcr absolul C, but il d oes not makc him the absolute holder orall powcrs. "nle
power o f each individual ne\'cr bends 1>(')"o nd a certain limito essenlblly. since
no man c<ln 10 be a human being." This tha! Spinoza
o ffers of Ihe human as Ihe being Iha! ca nnol himself of lhe power of
is particularl)" int eresting fmm the poinl of"iew of a philoso ph)" of
resistan ce, TIl e power 01' self .. d efellSe ;lnd resislance-in lhis case expl icitly
fmm th e actions of po,,'er--defines and chamctel'izes politi cal mano This con-
cept derives from he relalion tha! each finite mode, ami pani cularly the Ilnite
mod e o f man, has Wilh Subslance. Spino7.a d oes no t remark. fOl' cxample. thal
big fish are able to ea! small cr ones, but r<tlher, "il is by sO"ereign na tural righl
Iha! ., th e big o nes eat Ihe small er In Ihe s,"lrn e way. hen, what ever
porti on of lhe IOlal nalllral power l.hal each finite mode expresses in aCli on is
always exercised bOI] as a righl alld as power.
Now, can il be claimed thal this power is al so irrepressibl e? [n olher words,
can it be denied thal a grcat er comr:.\f)' power can produce lhal zero deb'l"ee of
life, strippcd of all d cfenscs? [1 is truc ha an indivi d ual human b cing
can lose th e vel"}' characterislics that d efine him as such, namcl )', thc pOWC1' of
55
sclf-defense . Indeed , Spinoza assert.s lhal aman is onl)' independcnl when abl e
10 Ml"epel all force, mke whalever w ngcance he pi cases fOI" injul")" d one 10 hlm.
BUI II is precisel)' al lhis po inl lha l lhi s co ndilj on appears as anylhing b UI gen-
erali zed . In some C011l eXI.s, il could e' en appear-reali slicall y- as lhe privil ege
of a fe\\" or of Ihe so,"ereign al one. One can be enti rel)' under someo ne ehe 's
po\\"erwilh no Ineans or opporlunity 10 d efelld oueself. in bonds' aud
of lhe The bare life reappears through the absence of altlOnom)', mean-
ill g, lhe possibilil)' of de fe nding onesclf ami a,ellging onesclf fOI" d o ne.
Notwithstanding, as wc han' scen gen erall)" for the finite mod es ami lhdr
cona/IIJ, lhc human ddvc for resistancc is inslIppl"cssiblc. In o thel" words, it is
lr ue lhat power can WI<tp us in chains and di sann us, bUl
il is undeni abl e lha! man o like oth er individual lhings, endeavours 10 pre-
sen -e hi s own being as flr as in him li es. For if there could be here an)" possi-
bl e d ifTerence. il would 11.1\"e 10 arise fro m 11llllS h;J\;ng a free will. Yel
th e more free we co ncei\"ed man 10 be, the more we were co mpell ed 10
maintai n lhal h\:' muslnecessari1}' presen c hi mself and bc of sound mind, as
wi1l rcadil)' be gr.nted by e' TITone who d oes no t confusc frccd om Wilh
conlingency.><l
This dri\"e for therefore, can in no way be d ell ied or suppressed,
inastlluch as il is parl of Ihe same essence-po\\'er-ri ghl of each h llman being.
Nor can au)" difTerell ce be found, o n lhi s r oinl, between man ,md lil e o lher
beings of mn ure or belween illdi,idual men, ",ho are more or less free, 10 lhe
eXlent lhal lhey usc their !"cason 10 a b"r cller or lesser degree. The and
insupprcssible dd,"c for resistancc is posit cd beyond lhe clhi cal pcrspcniyc of
wisdom and frecdo m. h would appeal" 10 bc an e\"cn mOl-e unhers.- I ami gen-
el<t l princi pi e wh ich, co nsist en tl y wllb Ihe pol it.i ca! wrllings, is \-al id in all cases,
and especial1 )' wi lh respecl w men as Ihey are and nOI ho\\' we would like Ihem
10 beY
No\\', as we ha' c posited. Ihi s imrinsic ori b>" nal power 10 ofIer resistance
aga insl conlrar}' and eXlernal powers d efines lhe ind ividual exislence of a mode
as an o utright baul efie1d: nol 0111)' lhe hostil \:' cnvironmclH whi ch each mode
lrVCrses. bUI also lhe way lhc indiyidual himscl f is "mwen ed
w
by COn ll<lIj '
afTccl.'l and by rorces that ch ange him ami red efin e h im cver,. instanl of hi s eXl s-
ten ce. \Ve o ursehes are in so me way an expression of co nfli cls lhal co ntinua]])'
Iraverse 10 a greater eXl enllhan \\'e panicipale in a genera li 1.ed conf1ic l wlh
o lher finil e modes wh o are more or less similar 10 uSo Spinoz.- lakes lhi s idea
in 10 ser ious cOlI siderali oll, assening Ihal Ihe con tinual handling ami di sp lace-
menl of llt ese conOi cls i$ in lhe nature of each alld thal "Ihillgs are of a
conlmr)' nature, lhal is. unablc \O subsist ill Ihe same subjecl, \O lhe eXlen t lhal
one can d cslro)' lhe This idea of COl IU-aI-ictr 01" opposition d efi nes bOlh
Ollr bClng, as an expression of mullipl e countl ess co nf1i cl.'l, ami th e tr pe of
56 COl/jliel, Puwer; (/lid Mul/ilru/e
confli cl, which can destroy one oflhe conu. n' elemenl'! present at a given time
in Ihe same individual. Hut il can also cause the indi \iduars destrllClion, if the
connicl goes beyond a cenain threshold, for e"ampl e,
T he drnamic b}' which "ir two cornralT aCl ions are insligat ed in Ihe s,,'lme sub ..
jecI. a change musl necessaril y lake place in bOlh or in Ihe o ne of Ih elll 1I11lil
Ihey cease \O be bears a close resemblance \O Ihe IheolJ' of Ihe
humon desclibed by Maehia\'elli , SOllle eonfliCls, in this sell se , mar express the
difTerence between the humors in th e body, whik othen mar lead palho logi ..
call )' 10 il5 destruclion, u \Ur cnt Bo"e has spoken abolll active, positi"e
lance 10 lhe internal corlll,ldictions that .. each indi\'idual.
lI
Ultimalcly,
he observes, hese are e"pelled and [he resist.ing
This co nt.inual displace ment, is aehie\'ed in practk e by two pr incipI es:
a principIe of"resislance,M which has bee n discussed al lengl h, and a principIe
o f T he fil'sl corresponds 10 lhe capaci ly of lhe to oppose
anylhi ng which goes againsl his e"isten ce. whelher an eXl ernal 0 1' internal ele-
ment (<In affcet of lrislilifl. for example ), T he seco nd refers, ralh er. 10 the capac ..
it}' of eaeh body \O unitc with otber bodies in order \O compose an individual of
b'l'eate l' slrenglb and power, and, th ere fore, with a greaLer capacity 10 resist. "
Now. in agreement with these IWO principIes, one can say Ihat th e ca nce pt of
e"pulsion and displacement cl oes nOI men thal the conmctllal d imensi on has
been lranscended. Tit e individual wouid ppear 10 displace ami e"pel Ih e n eb-a ..
Ih'e efTecIs of !he confl ic!, bUI ",ithou! :woiding: confli ct per se. Exisl ell ec , on
Ihe eOlllralJ', can be defined as a conlinual :md ill surmoll1lwbl e experi en ce of
conmCl, [lS negali\'e elTeelS, if Iher cau destro)' a1l individual. Other ..
wise, he wil! feel jo)' orer a b:mle 11'011, a pai n O\'ereome. :111 increasingl y absolLne
affi nnati oll of hi s Oll'n being,
\Ve re a\Vare 0 1' lh e effol'l made"" amI Lhis is whal determines liS S subjecl'!
o f resiSlall ce. as individ ual s who are necessarily imnl ersed in this hattl efi eld thal
OCCUI'S, firsl of al!, inside bu! wh ich immediatel)' ilself in a pl ural,
instanll )' polilical dimensiono As Spinoza says. "we endea\'or 10 affirm of o ur ..
sel"es and of an objeel loved whal e\'er \\'e imagine afTecls us 0 1' the lo\'ed o bjec!
wilh jo)' (Il1elilitl), and, o u Ihe olhel' hand, 10 negat e whate\'er \\'e imagine aITects
us or lhe lo\'ed objecl ",ilh saduess The priucipal anns in lit is COII"
mct-IO affirm 01' negatc, to produce j o)' 01' s:.dness-transfonll the original
c"per ience of 'esislance illto lhe language of the afrecl'!, And th e doctrine of
pa-allelism is whal sllggesls, once again, the inSlI rmount.abl e lIature of this
e"perience, No e"pectati OIl fo!' geuing beyond lhis d imension from an Kexter ..
nal
K
!'emedr, fol' e"ample, is possibl e. T he language of lit e aITecIs expresses litis,
o nce again. "'lh cl arit)': "an afTeel caunol be checked 01' d eSlI'O}'ed e"cept by a
conlmry afTect which is stronger than Ihe afTeCl whi ch is 10 be eheeked."!I This
s Ihe onl )' ter mill Ollr vinue can be exp ressed 0 11, namel)', by puuing: these 1\\'0
principIes of rcsist.ance ane! alliance to ,,'ork on both the ontological and pollical
le"els,
"
Now, lhese 1\\'0 principIes o f allian cc and rcsistancc can also c xpbin lhe rc la-
ti o nship bc twcc n cthics and politi cs in Spin07.:1 's syslcm. i\bn 's c mpowc nnent,
his cthi ca1 gr'owth IOw;,.rd freedom and wisdom. occurs aS :ln immediate polili-
cal resul\. The free man arrean in Ihis ligh! as Ihe powerfuJ man ",hose princi-
pIes of resistance and alliance work in he bes! of possibl e ways. Howe\"er, as we
ha\"c said. Ihis clocs nOI oITer an escape frolll conni ct hut rather ils displace-
mento meaning lil e po/eulin, continuo uslr in aClion. of neulI-rllizing nd annul-
ling ilS dcstruc,'c dTects. Ethi callr mi polilica1l)'. ihis takes place in lhe
multiplicity of exchangcs and rclations, in Ihe llluhiplicity. 1ha1 s, of alTccti\"c
rclations. In lhe Scholium of l' roposition 13 in pan II orthe Elhic.f, Spino7.a had
mainui ned that proponon as a body is more apt than other bodies LO aet
or be aued upon simuhaneously in matl y wap. so is it.s mind more apt lhan
other minds to peree i\"e man)' things A di sposition toward
slIITering or action d etermin es lhe power ofresistance ofa bod)' or a mind, This
u,;mslates direulr imo terms of milil)'. that is, into political terms:
Thal whi ch so disposcs Ihe human body Ihat il can be aITected in mOl'e ways,
o r which renders it capable 01' aITecti ng extemal bodies in more wap, is
adl'anlageous lO man, ami (lroporti onat ely more adl'aIHageous as the ha dy is
lherehy rendered more capabl e ofheing aITeued in more ways and ofalTecl-
ing olher bodies in more wap, 011 lhe olher h;ll1d, lhat wh ich render s lhe
bod y less capabl e in lhese respects is harmfu1.
Tho:: plineipl e of being disposed \O aITeel and be aITeeted, tu make ehanges and
be ehanged in a nondeslructi\'e way impli es Lhal eonni e!.'; are Out' I'cr)' exi s-
lenee, lhrough lhe displaet' llI ent and ol-ereoming of their eITee!.';. The
sean:: h fOI" otlr milil)' eo nsists, lherdOre. in Ihe aflimlati on 01' \"inue, ami in a
eertain sense, of olll' power. This is when lhe two principIes of allianee and resis-
tance. of coopenui on di splaeemen 1 of lhe eITecl.s o f el"el)' eOI1-
ni ct , are funct ioning properly: lIt ore el'elJ' Spinoza "Tites,
"endeal'ors alld is abl e lO seek his own adl'a ntage, lha! is, to preserve Iti s own
being, tite lIt ore he is endowed with I'inue, 011 the other hand. insofar as he
ncglccts 10 prC'"se l"l'C'" what is to his th;H is, hi s own bcing, lO that
cxtent he is Thi s pursuit of utility cOl"r esponds tu Lhe insupprcssibl e
cxpl-ession of each man's essence, what makes th e zero degree of li fe ullthink-
able. E\"en suici de, as lhe case of Seneca shows in the Scholium o f I' ropositi on
20. pan IV, eallnOI be preselll ed as a 7.ero degree ofl ife, in other wOl'ds. as bare
\ife 011 the thresh old of self-deslruuion. DeMrneli on alwap comes froll! out
side, because \\'e always c1ash wilh th e wil1 10 exis!. \O affirm o ur I'irtue alld
po\\'er or, in Machia\'ellian terms, our "Iove 0 1' freedom ,-
As mar be recaneel . 1'0 1" tit e Fl orentine Secreta!"}' the besl stmtegy for revi taliz-
ing a I"epublic's oriboinal core \"inue is by a "rc tul"n tu pdnci pks.- This mo\'e-
mcnl of reasscm bling lhe \"ital eore was a gen uine strategy DI' resistanee
58 COl/jliel, Puwer; (/lid Mul/ilru/e
degeneradve ami corrupting forces. Spinoza imagines th e existence of the indi-
vidual n.nile modes, whether human beings a l' states, in lhe same wa)'. The lWO
principIes of al1iance and resiSlance, as I\ o\'e out, co me frOIl1 lhe seman-
lic fielcl of war ancl connict, and from Ihis penpeni\"C, lhey represen1 lhe IWO
poI es in the Hl"uggle 10 pene\'ere o ne 's own being. Spinoz.'l 's d ebt 10 lI,'lachia\'elli
is explicit ami openty slated on lhis po illl. The retllnr 10 prineiptes---the l\-laehi-
avetliarl strate
b
')' of \; nue-is an inl eb'TI\1 pan of th e analogolls st rategy of resis-
tanee on Ihe pan of a republic againsl externat forces. Thc principie of all iance,
from this poil1l ofview. is always subo rdinate 10 chance enco unters whh o ther
mod es, e\"Cn if sought out. One 's hopes cannOI he founded on lhese positive
en COllnters Wilh an &"1.)s Machi avelti. On Ihe COlllrar)', a rel tU'n 10
original \'i!"llle-Ihe relUl"I1 lO principies. as Machia\"C1li wo uld plH iI-lakes ils
place in lhe lheoretical and practical plans of ever)' republic.
l\l achkwelli had spoken about uexlrinsic ami pruden ce ,"
maill1aining lhat th e rel urn 10 principIes fell unde r lhe latl er stnltegic
Spin07 .. .a follows him dosel)", assening lhe need for a similar relUnr "to pr inci-
pIes." The principIes ofalliance and resistann' thus coincid e with lhe languagc
Machiavclli llsed lO describe prudence. FOl' a repubtic, resistance lll eans o rg-d-
ni7.ing ami eSlablishing laws and o rders capabl e 01" effeCli vel)" realizing lhis
capadl}' 10 respond lO cOlllrary forces. '''riles
Ihe primar)' reason why Slales of tItis kind disint egra te is the one n o ted
by Ihat ;lcute Ft oren ti ne in his Book 3 on Li\")'. Discours 1, where he SO: I)'S.
UA S1ale, like lhe human body, h;lS cvery dar s011l clhing added \O il whi ch
some lime 01' <lnolher needs to be pUl [1 is lhercfore necesSO:lf}', he
cOlllinues. thal sOlllcthing should occasionally occur \O bl"ng lhe SIal{' back
\O lhc ol"ginat principIe on whi ch I was firsl established. [(Ihis does not hap-
pen in due lime, ils will develop \O such an eXlenl thal Ihey cannOI be
remo\'ed wilhollt deslro)'ing Ihe Male ilself. And lhis reslOralion, h e teJ1s us,
can come abou t ueither by some external evenl or by ils inlrinsi c
oflhe laws ofa man ofsingular \irtue. 'Ve call1l Ot doubl Lhal Ihi s is a mall er
of the b'TealeSt impon ance, ami where 110 pro\ision has beell made againsl
this danger. lhe stale wi ll 11 01 be able \O end ure by itl; own strcnglh, bUI onl)'
by a rigid fate.
3
!
Spin07.a does nOI completel)' adhere 10 the practical methods J\l achiavelti
suggesls lO reslOre original principIes. The Ft orenlne had praed th e inSlitu-
lion ofllte Roman di ct."1.tor, who was able !O pUL inlO praclice the re tlll"ll 10 origi-
nal \'inue contrar}' tO an)' \ices l.hal had developed in the body politic. Spin07A'l,
howe\'er. j udges the inslullion of lhe dictalor lO be a danger for Ihe slate,
because a dinalOr friglll ens ever)"one, lhe good and Ihe bad alike. For lhis rea-
son the TJlfu/ugictll-Polilim/ Trr.tlliJe insisls on Ihe establishment of instiluli ons
that fun ction pl"O perl)' indcpendcntl)' of the peoplc who occupY the kc)'
positions. Starting as earl)' as Ihe chaplers on arislocracy, Ihen, Spin07.a
59
discUS5es the role of the a eouncil with Ihe task of eo nstnJining and
-eenslIring- Ihe high powers of the state, especially Ihe assembly of arislOerats.
M
They are a power "eontrar( 10 other powers, Ihen, entru$led 10 ensure tha[ lhe
exercise ofso\'ereignl)' remains failhfulto lhat original virtue also spoken ofb)"
Machia\'elli.
5pinoza's fOflnulaliou of lhe relUnl \O principIes Ihus becomes a cOUStalll
resistance 10 vices Ihal cOTllinually Ihrealen 10 remol'c the Stau: fmm ilS ori&.-j nal
\"inuc. This language of resistan ce mighl be taken as a melapho r. once again.
exeepl thal it is Ihe sign of a real conmel belween l-ice and ,'irtue (whi ch hal"e
nothing 10 do with Illorality here). Dne of SpinQ;O'11's main pol iti cal principIes
proli des confirmatl o n of this fan: h e ",ho is independent is able 10 de fend
himself and oITer practi ca! resislanee 10 conlrar)" forces. 'T o enable Ihis eoundl
10 diseharge i[s dI!!)' in seeuri l)',- 5pin01A"l adds, -a pan of he armed forces 1ll1lS1
be assigned \O ir. [O ",hich il ma)' gi\'e whal el"erord ers il
51ill. Ihe full significance of lhe inSli[ulioll of Ihe s)'ndics is onlr rc\'ealed after
di e passage in which he ex plicitl)' a,,"rees ",ith Machia\"elli's rClUnl 10 principIes.
This is nOI an abstr;:et inl"cstigmion imo Iheorelical equilibrillllls in Ihe cn:-
alon 01' a polilical order. What Spin01.a is d eseribing, r<Hhel', is lhe rea listi e
princi pIe of ereating powedul, e!l"eetiw strategies for resist..an ee: lhe eapacily to
respond adequalel)" 10 Ihe conflicl wh ich co nlinuaJly Irollbl es the e"islen ce of
Slales.
He is in agreemell l wit.h Machave11i, lhen, bUI h e also goes berond him so as
10 ensure lhat principIes are slrayed fmm as lilll e as possible. so Ihal resistance
10 corruplion is sU"onger and more eITccli\'e in e\"t: ry installl of Ihe republi c's
e"istence. - In order lO secure al! th ese eo ndili ollS, 5pinol .. ,a adds, proposed
lhe insltution of a counel of s)'ndics subordinatc 10 Ihe supreme eo un ci l with
lhis in ,ie"" thal lhe sword 01' Ihe dietalOr should be pennanenll y in lhe hands
nOI of nalllral persa n bUI of a d "il Spin01.3 's s\]";Hegy makes il essen-
Ibl for th e sword lO be meani ng, lhal lhe -councl [be] in contin-
ItollS omee." Nor does il mall er [hal Ihe Roman "'ere eonl inll OIlS
office,- sinee ill spite of this. lhe)" "'ere uf> \O [he lask of reslraini ng he
po"'er of a 5cipio ami "",henel"er Ihe lribunes sUlllmoncd a meeti ng of lhe
COllllllOllS they appeared lO be raising a rt',"oh !"'ather Lhan cO]]\'oking a

In spitc of th ese el'itieal obsenations 011 the nature of Lhe Roman instilu tlons
whkh Maehiavelli had praised, SpinOla stays close lO Lhe Florentine in th ese
fundamental pass..- ges o n politi callheo ry. Rel"olt is certainly no 10 lhe
polilical problem o f corrupli on and lhe of lhe l)"r.ml is hardly beuer.
Once again. 5pinoz,l is in fll1l agreelllenl with /o. h ehblel1i ",ho rejecls conspl"<l -
c es as a solmioll LO political problel11s. 111 Spinoza's Iiel\'. lhis POilll is act uall}" a
dislincLI'e trail of Machia\"e1li 's leachings. In lhe Po/itic(j/ Trerl tisr Y.7, he wI'ites:
In lhe case of a prinec whose sole mo til"e i5 lusI for power, lhe lll eans he lIlUSI
empt oy 10 sll"cngthen and presen e his stale hal"e bee n descr ibed al some
60 COl/jliel, Puwer; (/lid Mullilrule
lc ngth by 1ha1 kccn o bsc r"vc r, l\bchiavclli. b UI with what purpo sc a p p cars
ull cc rtain. Ir he did haye some good purpo se in mind, as o ne sho uld be li c\"c
0 1' so wise aman, il mus! have been 10 show h ol\' roolish are Ihe tte mplS so
oflen made \O gel rid of a tyrant while r el Ihe causes Iha1 have made Ihe
prince a tyralH cannot be remo\"cd; 011 lhe conlrary. lhe)' become l1Iore firmly
established as he prince is gi\"en more groullds for rear.)9
Getling rid 01' lhe [)' mlll does no! mean gctdng rid 01' Ihe causes lIm! prod ut ce!
him: a heme whi ch rccun condnuo usl)' in Spino 7.a's works. lt is a ca c hing
whi ch can be drawll fmm Ih e history o l'thc J cws. fo l' c xampl c. Al the time o rlhe
Mdiscord and dvil cyen "he prophcts . me! widl no great suc<::ess by
Ihese melhods; for even Ihough they removed a I}Tant, Ihe causes 01' I)Tanny
remained. Thus Ihey merel)' sll cceed ed in inswlling a new Iymnl al Ihe COSI 01'
much ci lizen bl ood ."OO The possibilily of conspirac}' and tyrannicide are dis--
carded by Spinoza, lherefore, following 's argumems and the tcach-
ings of hislOry_6\ Alld nOljusI anci em hislOl'y, as is shown by the affairs o f the
English people , who soughl 1.0 remo\'e thcir monarch only 1.0 recogn ize ano lher
o m' under a different ll ameo With b'Teat bloodsh cd, lhell o Ihe people d ecided 1.0
retrace Iheir sleps and reSlOre lhe 'oprimilive SlalC. ""
11 is not a q uesti on of Ihe name, Ihen, hm of lhe concrele disposili o ll of
a peopl e loward an incorrupl polil icallife. ils 1010e for freed om thal, foll owin g
Machiavelli, is nOI "ink-slained paper" bUI aClual resislance 1.0 Ihe causes of di s--
so luti on and crisiso This is \\'h)' il appears 10 be a conseno;tjloe alliltlde, as ir\ Ihe
case of Machial"dli. The of lit e I}' ratll \\'ill onl )' worsen a cOlllingenl sil-
muion. withoUl remol,ng lhe causes lhm lcd 1.0 1}"r.lnTl r "Ihese exampl es, t hen,
fun)" co nfirm o ur asscni on lhal e,ocr)" statc mUSl neccssaril)' preserve il5 own
fOI"1I1 , and cannOI be changed Wilholll incUlTing Ihe danger of utl er ruino""
The rsl sce nari o, Ihal of I)"rannici de, is rej ect ed as wh oll)" i11-limed, ineffectil"e,
and eloe n
1-! owel
o
er, as for Machiavelli, litis is nOI th e onl)" possibl e scenari o o Based on
Ihe concepli on that eaclt man's natural riglt t atses di reclly from Ihal o f "all
NalUre," Spinoza conSlrUCLS a po\\' crfu1. original concepli on of "resismn ce:
based on affect of il/rfiglltlliQo As in J\lachial"clli Os lheor)' of lhe h umon. I/dig-
the nat ural dynamic ofall bocli cs polilic. h is ano lher namc for
Ihe insu ppressibl e d r iye for resistance that Machial"el1i call ed "IOH' o f frecdomo o,
This arreC! of the mullilude is expressed in criti cal silualons, reloealing lhe posi-
tive side of e\Oery crisis, namel}', Ihe driloe ane! capaci ly for resiSlan ce th1I opposes
what.c\"er callses Ihe body social 10 di s."lggrega leo Spinol.."l's reOecli on on Ihis
theme Slarl5 in Ihe lasl chaplers of t.lt e ThrQ/ogiad-Poliliru/ Trrfll5l', wlt iclt Irace
o ut the deslruclye charact er of measures intending 10 limil or el"ell suppress
"opini onso-
These are prcciscly Ihe kinds of laws thal spark off Ihe indigna lio n o f the
multilllde. Disorders and "misdeeds
M
are a negalve elcment capabl c of subvel"l -
ing Ihe bases of civil lil"ingo Vel inst ead of co ndenllling lhcse Spin07.a
51
tries LO understand thcir r casons, maintai n ing thal il Is th ese very laws tha! I11USI
be removed and 1ha1 lhey are he firSl cause to pUL lhe "Statc in greal peri1.
M
The sovereign power. according 10 Spinoza's delinilion, has lhe I"igln 10 what-
ever il likes and can mpose whateyer illikes 011 its cll ilens. Yet Ih is possibilil)'.
which Is so uniyers.'11 in Ihcor)', i5 rtluch more limit ed in praclice. Indeed,
ir ... 1 S:I)' 1hat 1 ha\'(: the righl 10 do ",hatel'el" 11ike ",itb this table. 1 am hardl)'
likcl)' to mean 1h:u 1 han: lhe righ! to makc Ihis labl e cal graS5. Similarl}',
although \I'C say tha! llI Cll are 110 1 i n co ntrol o fthcir own dght bUI are subj ccl
to lhe right o f th e cOlllmo nwealth. we d o 110t mean tha! me n lose (he ir hUlnan
natllre and assmne an o th!' .. nature, \\'i1h l.h e re sult Ihal th e <:ommonweal!h
has Ihe righl 10 make men Or, or-and Ihi s is jusI as impossible-to make
men regard as honourabl e things lh;u mo\'e lhem 10 ridkule or disgusL No,
\\'I ml \\'e Ill ean is this, lhallhere are cenain condilions Ihal. if opermi\'e, e mail
hal subj eCls will respect and fear their commonweallh. whil e lhe absence of
Ihese co ndili ons emails lhe annull1l ent of lhal fear and respec l and lOgeth er
with his, lhe d estruCli on of lhe
The famous e:Kample of Ihe labl e and lhe gr.ss gi\'es a perl"e<:1 indi<:ati on 01" lhe
plane SpinoT.as argumenl is de\'eloped o n. 11 il1\"ol\'es, on<:e again, lhe agree-
ment belween olHol ogkal 1aws-physkal and natura l ones-and th e of
polit ks. [1 is ph}"sicall )' impossible ror lhe dl ilens lO ac<:ep l lhe unac<:eplable or
10 1Oler.u e lhe intol erable 0 11 lhe parl orthe sO\'creign powcr. No\\', as wc ha\'c
seen in the prc<:eding chapler. tllen: are lIlan)' silUali ons in which lhe imo lera-
bl e is ami made acceptabl e to lhe maj ority of peopl e . Bere. Spino7 .. a
is talking aboUl lhe ull\ci l ... d conl"rol1latio n belween lhe sov ... rcign powcr and
lhe multitude. be tween lhe slrength 01' lhe 1"01"ll1 er and th e resistance a l' lhe
laller.
To understand whal indignali on we need 10 take a sle p back. This rerre-
sents Ihe real, actual gap Ihal e:Kisls bel ween Ihe po\\'er and Ihe right o f Ihe
commonweallh- Ihe so\'ereign power-and lhe power and righl of lit e mul li -
lude. Tlt ey mar 110 t correspol1 d. lhus opening lhe way 10 resistance and gen eral
indignati on:
malters whi ch amuse general indigmni on are nOl likcly to bit wilhin lhe
right 01" th e co rnmonwealdl. [1 is Wilhoul douht a natural thing for men to
conspire logelher e ilher by reason of a co mmon fea r or through d esire 10
al'e nge a comlll on i1ury. And since lhe ri ghl of Ihe com monweahh is d efin ed
by Ihe corponlle power of Ihe people. undoubt edly Ihe power of lit e com-
monweallh and ilS rigltt is lO ltal eXl elll dirninished. as il afTords reasons for
m,Hl )' cili zens lO join in a conspiraey. There are cenainl)' some things 10 fear
for a comlll onweallh. and j uSt as C\'el"}' cililen, 0 1' el'el"}' man in a St.1.IC of
nalure. as he has more rcason 10 fear, is lhe Icss in control 01" his own [ighl.
lhe s.'une is truc ofa commo nwealth. "';
COl/jliel, Puwer; (/lid Mullilrule
In an anicl e appearing a fe\\' )'ears ago, Al exandre "'blheron g::u-e ce mr::ll
importance 10 lhe illdignntio in lhe d evel opmem lhollghl between
lhe Tlrl'%git:nl-Polifim/ Tn;n/i.f' and Ihe Poli/ien/ Tren/i.p. 61 analysis
Sl;ns fro111 sectioll VI.\ of Ihe Pofiic(ll "/ill(lli$1' 0 11 lhe ori gin of SI;tes:
Since mell. as we said. are leel more bj' arreCls lhan by reaso n, il nalUrally Col-
lows Ihal a people will unile ami conselll \O be guid ed as if by one mine! nOI
:11 reason's pro mplng bUI Ihrough some COlllmo n aITeCl, such as (as we Soo "lid
in SCClio n 9, Chaptcr 3) a co mlllon hopc. or cOlllmon fear, 01' desi l"e 10
a\'c nge SOlll e cOlllmon
explicitl)' eschews contracumlist language, assening tha! men come
10 agreemenl nawrall r and with no reference 10 an original pac!. /o, l oreover.
afTecls have a d eci sive role in lhe eSlablishmenl ofa stale. Using a process lhal
expl icitly recalls Ihe mimeti c q-d es of lhe afTects d escribed in pan 111 o f lhe
E/llies. 5pin07";:\ places lhe aITecl\'e life of indi\'iduals al lhe origin of socie l)'.
Now, Malheron uses Ihi s passagc 10 underscor'c lhal Ihe origino Ihe foundati on,
Ihe constinnive moment of POlili cs are ind issolubly hound 10 conflicl, resis-
la nce, and indignati on. This i5 the rneaning oCthe reCerence 10 paragraph VI.I
in the lexI of 111 .9. we have see tl , wh is being d escribed i5 lhe process Ihal
leads frol11 fear 10 Ihe indignati on from wh eh COllmCI arises: whi ch
arOllse general indignali o ll are nOI Iikely 10 Ihll wilhin t.h e liglll of Ihe
COil1monwealtll.
W
as r.lalheron points o ut. is not onl r asad alTect (acco rding t lhe
d efinili on in Elhics 111 .22 5cholium and Ihe firsl Corollary 01' Efllies 11 1. 27): il
becomes a COllnding, constituti\"e el cmenl oCthe Jife in co mmon. The opc ning
of chaptcr' VI, lhen, shows with great cIarity how lhe original dimensi on 01' poli-
les is indissolubl r illl ertwined with conflet and resistan ce:
Thus lhe qllarrels and rebelli ons Ihal are often slirred lit> in a commonwealth
never lead 10 Ihe d issollllion ofth e comil10 nWeallh by its citizens (as is o ft en
Ihe case with o lher associa ti ons) bUl 10 a change in its fonn-lhat is, if lheir
di sputes can no! be seuled whil e still presel"ving lhe structure of the COlll mon-
wealth. Ther cfore, by lhe means requi red 10 preserve a Slate I lInderstand
lhose lha! are necess."l l")" 10 preserve Ihe fOl"ln 0 1' the state wilhout any no table
change .6!o
This i5 where refus,"ll 10 consider anylhing a \'ice or sin o f mHure
reappears. Confli ct cannol be reduced 10 a simple palhology of lhe politi cal
life, 11 is. rulh er. oll e of il s malLifeslaLons, slaning frolll th e begilllring ofth e tife
in commOll. AII lhis. once again. l"ecalls lhe insuppressibl e dynamic o f lhe
forces of th e aITects. Ihe d)"namic thal are al play in indi\iduals. Thc
life oflhe indi\i dual, ils \"<:11' essence, is conce i\'cd onl y in a compl ex network of
rdalio ns Ihal 1r.l\"erse and fOfm it. The entwinement belween polilics ami phi -
losophy is al iL' mOSI e,"ident in Ihis po int. Spin07.a is waging hi s campaign
against and an)"one who believes confli cl is a d efecc of politics C<l.tl
also consi der ch emselves to be superslicious. They are ch e ones wh o bui ld an
enlire edince OUt of 11, inl ended to slmnp OUI any sho\\' of resistan ce-in ol her
\\'ords, indi;''l1ati on-towa nl Ihe sO\'erei;,'l1 power.
Through the theme of indignalion. Ihen, Spinoza emphasizes Ihal Ihe strate-
gies of resistance alld a!lianee are nOI only such in a metaphor ic sense. He
funher affinns Ihal Ihe displace menl of connicl oUlSidc an individual hod)"
(whclher human 01" polidc) primal"ily signifi es expc!ling ilS negal\"e effecL' bUI
il does nOI rC!llove ch e co nfli cl ilself. He also asscrL' lhal Ihe co nfli cl bctween
che nwhil ude and Ihe sovereign power-similar in some ways 10 l\bch ia\'elli's
heor}' of Ihe hll!nOrs-is nOI si mply a remate hypol hesis, bUI r;Hher olle of the
main elemems through which politica! exi slence cakes form, belween Ihe IWO
extremes of consliullion and disso!ulon of Ihe co!lective bodr. As a maner of
ICl, no prhme ci lzen and onl}' he so\"erci gn has he dghl to judge if l hese
measures ha\'c bccn benefi ci al o r not lO tbe cOlllmoll\\'eallh. Onl)' he who h olds
powel', hen, is Ihe legitimalc judgc of Ihesc !llcasures; Ihc ci li;o;cns arc bOlltld
purel)' to obsel"l"e he laws. If. howc\'el", hese laws,
are such lhal Ihey cannOI be broken wilhoul al Ihe s,'l me lime weakening Ihe
commonwea!lh-lhat is. wilhoul jI the same time lllruing inl o indignalion
lhe co rnmOI1 fea l" fel! by Ihe m<ti oril}' of lhe cilizens--lhen by heir \"iola li on
lite COlllmol\wealh is d iS.'lo!\"ed and tite C011lmct come lO an end .'o
likc Machia\"clli, Ihen, posil.5 lhc riglu lO war, rcsistance, and co nmCI
al lhe hcart of polili cal disCOllrsc. The semantk Held 01" polil ics has been flllly
out by now, and il is a genuine battl eficld. The chall e nge 10 lllOde rnily
has been launched: Hr /1/0111/$, "ir $nll(l .
Chaplcr 4
jerusalem and Rome
Machiavelli and Spinoz.. bOl h beli eve thal lhe sludy 0 1' hi-Horical narrath'e is
indispensable and Ihat il o ffers a number of paradigms for underslanding how
human sodeties f\lll elioll , Maehi:l\'elli's lII;yor work,s indude a cOllllllelllal)' 011
a work b}' a historian alld a hisl or}' of his nalil'e ci ly. BUI deep, lovingrefl enion
o n of is actua!!}' infused lhroughotlt i\b chial'eHi's writings,
!-l isto!'}' is also vital for For a phil osophcr whosc lo,'ic is tradilio ll a!!)'
d escdbcd as Ihc gcolll cu ic lIlethod, il is stdking 10 say Ihe lcast 10 nolC tha
sOllle of his 1Il 0st importanl conclusions are founded on Ihe tcachings 01" his-
1011', Silllibr1y 10 ", hat has been shown regal'ding "exper ien ce
H
in 's sys-
lem, ' he \lse ofhistorical narratl'e HlS in perfeclly wil h Ihe geomelric melhod
and el'en eo ntribul es to making it more predse and specifk. History a fi en
shows how diffi cull il i5 for us 10 be guid ed b)' reason, The precepUi of ratiotlal
il }' alone are 1101 enough to ehange hu m:m t: molions, as we aH know,
more we obscrve <lnd lte beuer we are aequaillled willt lhe ways and nt all,
nen of lII cll-and il Is hcir aetions Ihal besl pl"Ol'dc his knowledge-the more
pr ude ntly we can lve among lhem, and lhe more effectil'ely we can adapl o ur
actions and conduct 10 Iheir character, as fal' as reason all ows,H"
5pin07 ... . abo d edicates a great de,tl of all enli oll. herefore. 10 Ihe of
andenl peoples. primar ily for theo relical purposes, bUl also acknowl edging lIS
practical funetion, J USI as Ihe his1.ory of ROlll C ls eenlml to i\l achiavelli's Ilteor}'.
the hislory ofthe j c\\'ish peopl e is paradig11lalic fot' 5pitloz<1 ami full ofitlsigltl'
fui infor11l <ltion, There are countl ess lh itlgs 10 be leartl ed frolll he "hislOry of
Ihe j e,,'s." he lells us, Finl of all, lhei !' SIO!} i5 of greal inte!'cst f!'olll a poltical
point of viel\' beca use il sho\\'s "what exaCll,. are the lIlost impon anl concessi ons
Ihal soyere ign powers should make lO thei!' to ensllre th e greatcr seclI-
r ily and prosper ity of he Using h ist orical nar ratiye fo r po[[ical
purposes is alli cd. !hen. with lhe theorelical j ustifi catio n of obserYing lhe paSI
10 undersland Ihe present and plan fol' lhe future, 5pino7 ... . elabora tes 011 l.bis
argulll enl by ",ay of th e lhemes of df!ojitio a!ld ill&"'lliwlI, He lllakes use of these
conct:pts lO go beyolld lhe diffi culi es aJl(1 ribridit)' of the politi cal doc trine
sllbscr ibed to by man}' thin kers of lhe sc\'entee tllh CenUlI) ', cspcdallr by the
contractlla!ists, The no don of illgelli ulII, for examplc, acts as an anti do te 10 the
abslt'actness of uniycrs..l statCll\ cnts which refe r 10 all pcopl es, at all times. ami
JerIISII/e1l/ n/ld Rnmt 65
in al1 places. ' The individual histol;" ofa people offers elel\l ents fOI" lhal.
due 10 lhel" specifici ty, al"e ignol"ed by lhe general docu-ine of conu .... ctual iSl\l.
ReaSOI1 and experience, sa)"s in ehapter 3 of th e J1utologiwl-Po/ilicnl
Trelll isf', !eaeh liS tha! 10 1ive a happ)' life-meaning, lO d efend oneself from
anaeks from animals or olher men-we !IIusllhe loge th er. Th ose who organize
a ne"" societ}' must fas lr ion la""s occupy a fixed erritor}', and 10 concentrat e
lhe strell b'1h o fall its mernbers imo one body. as it ,,"ere, a social l\Jong.
side tlr ese general relllarks, Spi no:r-"l under lines tire diffcren ccs thal distinguish
olle societ) from anothe !". Sinet' quite considerable deb'Tee of ingeniulll and
vigilanee are needcd to organise allCI presen'e a societ)'," those whi ch are
KfOllncl ed and governed mainly by men ofwisdom and vigilanee" wi[1 be 1110re
secure exposed to fort un e.
The idea of d egrees of\'ir\ll e appears once again in his con!ex\. There is no
such thing as an absolutel}' well -es.abli shed sode t}', oro on the co ntrar}'. one
whose foundati on is co mpl elel}' negalive. There are. ralher. deb'Tecs of
prudence and wisdom that men mar exhibit in th e presenmion of their soci ety.
j-!t::nce th e distinguishing lrail'l of a parti cular socie t)' can be id!' lldfkd thro ugh
lhe gel/ il/m of ls peo pl e. which is d etermined, in its turn, thl"Ough the
peopl e's hi 51011'. Neit her individuab nor peoples are born with a determinate
;'gf'l/ illlll. 5pin07.<'1 lll aintains; 1 .... lher, he}' aeqlli re i o\'er th e eo urse of lheir
uniqll e hist or". Th e n01ion of ingf.llilllll is lIsed 10 sh ifl Ihe inquir}' lO ol her top-
ics that :Ire flllldamental 10 politi es: for one, lh e conce}' , of nalion: and
secolldl )'. lha! of a nati on's laws :md CUSIOIll S. So il is 11 0. natll re lhat assi,l,, "lIs a
speci fi c iugeuiulII lO eaeh people, btH ralher lhe laws and cuswms tha! grad llally
givc shape lO il.
The cri sis of th e J ews. d eveloped in chapler 17 of lhe Theologicnf-Pofiti caf Tllm-
lisf', is intendcd to delll onstrate precisel}' thi s point. It is puerile, Spin07.:t cla ms,
to lhink thal th e crisis was dile 10 a b ek of discipline on the part of lhe J ews in
parl.iell lflr. A b ck o f discipline does nOI co me from nalllre, because natlons,
whi ch are distinguish ed b}' their di ffe rent langllages, b ws, and CUSl o ms, are nOI
crealed by nalure. In olher words. Ihe crisis of the J ews is used as all exampIe to
ill usl rate he concept of ingmiulII, which is used in its U1rn lO explain the causes
of Ihe crisi s. h also explains more gen eral mechani sllIs in\"olving the hislOry
and erises of other pcopl es. As sueh. il is a general noti oll lha[ tak.es on differenl
forms d epend ing on the panicular case ill\"ol\"ed, one wh 05e explanalOry powel-
ser\'Cs lO eluciclate th e indi\"idual hist ories of singular peo pl e and nations.
Ihe eoneep' o f dislJ(J!jifio has an even more important role from his poinl
DisJ!osilio is the meehanism by wh ich eaeh indi\'idual, wh ether single or
!1Illltiple, confroms lhe d)'nami cs of external forees. These forces are ime ri or-
zed, adapted 10, and encoul"aged when lhe}' increase lhe indi\idual"s power, or
resislcd when lhey d imill ish il. This is a slrmegi c ami acti\'e dynalllic of resis-
tane!', one which detcnnincs th e rc1ati ons tha! mllke up lhc ind i\'idual and
il5 rclati onship with other bei ngs. Dis/J().ilio is what defines the consltuti on of a
body. namely il< particul.c '"g.'no"",- h""" .ffe .... ,., rl)n.mic " hkh regula'",
tll< ,in guiar of" i",li'id".! or
in ,be co,"inuou. p"'><1U of ",I"lion . of force. bc'"ccn one humn being ami
""'e r human being>. be'",cen one >>pIe . " d OIhe< f"'OPla. one
" ali"" . " el o,her n., i",,,_ \, SpinOla expl.in. in hi. l)cfi ni.i.-., 32 of . ff"" ...
..... ,,'C ... ,ncmber" 'hing tI,,, ,"",,,,I u . .. i",,,,,,nc , intl of pk <lS" rc. by"'"
, 'e')' f, ...... " eooe, vo< (d;"p.mi .. mj 'o .egard i, as p.<>en' "long ,,'i!h , h., . amo
omOlifM' of plo .. u,e: hu, ,hi, cona",. "' "raigh,,,"Y cheed by , he .eme m
l>cAn.-.: nr ,hing. ,h. , e. eIude ,1 .. , exi"""ce nf ",id 'hing,'
I .grniu," di,po,i/;' are , he kq>, ,he.cfore, to unde ..... nd ing l/,e "r"<ic
d)'namie> b), ",hich human bcing:< .00 JOCieti", orpni,_o 'bom",!>'"" p u' up
rc.imm. " " el ch"nge ,h";, unique con"i lluion during ,hek .,":<l um",. .. i,h
",ha bnman bein!>, . "d ",her >o<ictic . '11,,,,,, '"'' ke')' <""<cpu; al,,-> ,nakc i,
f'O'!' ibl< to ""plain !h< ch"rnctcri"ja ,ha, aIT f'Cruliac 'o one ind i,klual or
."othoc . .... '0 olle f"'OPle O< anotbe<_ 11,e indi,ronal histo<yof' ho J "",.h peopk
fOO' is o;.<pl.i",,<I i" ,hi. wa)'_ The Je .... , ,xpl. " SfH"oa i" <h' p,cr 3 of
t he '[;"'Ii,... "" ... i, .... d for "" ".'e bee" u""
t h.". kept ,hem",h-es "'pa te from othe. p"ople.. !hano to !hd.
, li<t;n<,i", ri .. , ""d r='k ... The)' , ,,,,. in,,d h)' <IIher peorl,,', h., red fo<
t h<l1!. When "'ey "'crc for( .. ! 'o (on"''' in Sf><'in. ,!ley COInpktdy il1lqr"4h,d
in'., Spani. n >OC<ty, 'o ,he poin' ,ha' no lraC<1I of t hem .emainro. The OPf'O'
,i,e oc<nrrro in I' onugalo fo nding t hem",I,'e, deniro any pri"ileg"',
" ro 'o "'J"''''''1y r,,,,,, .. . ryo"e el"',
n,;, i. Spino,,,', 'm.l)'i, of na';onal identi')', ' n , c nalio1\ ;, entity !ha'
",ubli, he. ag.eom"n, by "".'ing a imagina ry ,ha, fw.c>
h -e ro .. '"le" ncighl>< .... h"l red f",. r"",ign" .. , "'1'''';'''' 1""""." a
n .. 1"'''';'''' im.si".ry, ' l"""gh!he
lar ;"R""'iu," and d;,PO'I" ol !he Jcwi>h f'Cople, becomn a <oh",i, .. for
, he "ndnran,e of,he .""e_ Thell< f.<lot'S aoo !he p.artkula, b<h .. io, of
a 1""'1'1< .... I\a' n, ,,)-' r<.,i" m08< forcefll lly. ,nd "' ha, , j,,*, a<r inCOlI\-
p<l' ;ble .. i th.
N",,'. mado !he same obse.""ion. !ha' sorne peoples a nd a,i ..
" . hi"', a panicular in,ellige" ee a,..-t de.pooil ion reculi. r 'o , heoll dne
to l/lei< (onfli ....... hi'wr)'. a"d mem0f')'. In booI< 1, <hapocr 55 o( 'Ilt<! Di""" ",.>.
fo.- cumple, M" hial-dli <ommen" on , he difficul')' of chaning fonru; ol o>'
"",men' ,he new regime i, ,"uui,ed 'o lhe "maue"-- and deg''''' of co..-
" '!"i",' of .. i"ing ""0, h i. c-x,re, n<'ly ,tiffirul'. ir nm in' I",",'i blC. W "" "p
a prinl'"lit}, whC1'c -"" grea' . " C<Juality" exi. u; md ,,' he.e ,he maUcr i. ,here-
foro . uited 'o a "public. bec:ome i, 1a<1", !he nece....,. "corruptlOtt, "
Thi. mIld,,';on is reached b,,,,,,.1 "" ,he e' p"ri.,,<c . " .1 ,he pan;',,
"r '"Il"n' u", an<l di>po. i , .. of iu; I-"-'-'Plc . '1l1erc >fe no in lU" .. "y. rl ...
b;u-onial "",l/", .nd no -gcn'k men." To >e' up' prinapality ,!tere would b<
f""'gh' ,..im diff",uhics, .. ,he imroouui'Ml of a "<hie <"' l"ilUti .. ,"
.,""uld be ,-ery """y,' The di>f>"'''D ol ,he Florentine people. e'pecially il>
.. ",km"n: m. k., i, fo< fhr enc< ". be ,,,I<:d "' .
he. Thi. i, ,I, e mca" ing (hat i'W"iu," h .. for Machi.,,,lIi. h io a .. rmc-gk eou
ce p( ,ha( on be employro (o interpre< all <he indi,-idual hi>(orie> of dilTerent
f"'OPle<. The impo<''''' ce of ,hi. <""cep' ro< Spi " 01a :u > m . cler ol M,<hi.,-d li
i> u" d.",(."dablc. ,hen, Spino u " ,"np( in .... y that ;. ,imil." '0
'o cr,cd'e a di><OUflI< ()f poI;';cal philooophy ",hich amido <h e
abstr.oeti"" and di",ngagemen( from (he hi"or;cal ceal;!)' ol 1""'1'1", ,>'p;",1 of
!h. phil""",'h.'" oll,; induding 11Qhl ....
h i. p,-.,e;lICly the nOlion> ol i nri"", and di>f>"'ilio ,ha! usher in ,he quc .. ion
of <onmet. BoIh M.ehi .. 'elli and Sp;n",,, . p proach ,he <heme <hrough the
;'"I i.-idual hi"OI)' ofa l>eOf'le. ",'hieh (hO)' eon.id oe mo,.., us .. rul , h." a"f abslC"a<1
,dkaiou' politiu. Mach;';',clli ", of" wnlli i. ine' lt,,,bly e",,,inoo
... i<h <he hiotori", ol Rome and Florcn. Hio """ of <hcO\)' aud h;.lOry io a!W-dY"
d iceeled (o ...... rd a pr.oetical i",,,r ... in eonecel" poIitic>_
O" .. of " ,""' im><>na", .,, <1 "ol,,,i01l ary COnCe?" ,j,., M.chia>dli
d",'do?",1 in hi, "oro ..... (h. clcar "dll< he _ribed (o a" d
>Ocia! eonflict.' Hi> pol;(ial philoooph)" can be read .. a ceflectio n on eonmd>,
oo, , he cri>e< 'h',. and "n I" .. i,i.'e effe". ,ha, ' '''' llh feom ,hem
11'.), of c'crei.i1\ g 1", .. "r ",. a"al,-,I i" "/'l., IJiMtrn"" J1a'ti"g from d,.
';ona! fO lT'" of gO\'crnmen', name!)'. democracy. arutocr.K}'. ,md m""arehy.'"
an indica,ion <ha' had no objec'ion (o ,",-orking wi(h <h. mod i(ional
\'<><abol>ry ol 1",li' ;eal (I i"' .. " ..... _ In OIhe, ,",unl<. h. (lid "01 i"",,, ' ''y n",",'
'em. or <.""d'egorin fet he ,""'Iimll)" trdn,fonlll thcir IICn'" ."d ""ulu(ion
i,ed !heir me.,,;ng.
Se.'cral . " dcm a u,h" ..... likc """",le a nd had ,J.Sed ,he of
,he ,II,ce fon". of g'-"'enu".". . "d lit,,;, ine."i",1>le comlp,ion '0 juslilY t he
superiori'y of. mixed con>litution ",-er ""mplc" fonru, Going beyond <he (he
01)' o( mixed gm'emm"",s a mi eoumering i" .\"'e hi .. dli , i",emion ...... (o
.1,,,,,", It < I,,";,i" ..... 1" .. of l>01;'i<>.1 e""llie, b)" . hif,;ng Ih .. arUm.", t i1l lO " " ;Iy
nel\' tcm,O!")'. In hi. !'o/m"" Ari.\olle 00<;';'1 which kad. to
ins"'bili!)' in politicrJ gimes "'hile commending (he middle el=! OIier th e
.-.. he' . 0ci.1 gr'-"'I" as . " exp,."i"" of , he g<Me n ,,,<an_ Th .-..lIe" are ""id \O
p'<scu' i",ere", t h., .re ]X<rtial >r\IIC'l u.".ly. tu , he " abilil)' uf
""l" g",emmcnt. " Hio ooIu tion eo",io .. in <he fonna(ion ol a mixoo w""m
me"t wi,h a middle d. ... pr",...il, ",'er ,he ".her pan; of !!OCie!)". Similarl)",
in 000\l VI of TIIt I "'''';'''. 1>"1) bi", u ... , h. no';"" of mi . ",t gm'ennn .. ", '"
n!ol lhe .inu"," of ,he Roma1\ Cl>n"ituuon. 1" .uperiOOI) comi. " prcei",1y in
ha,ing .ehi"""d perf"C( mix bet...-ee n t he .... rioU> compon,' " '' of tIt" s"'le, "
If A,-;"", I. l\ndc rlin", ,he in' ponanco of p"cfec( h.n,,'''')' . , ,he he.,., or l h.
''''''.'' l' ul)bi \lS mor" U" , e id.,.d 0(,10. <ontrol ,ha, ,he d ille",
pilIl> .houkl mu'ually exc rt 0I'<r cMh othcr." BoIh authon. in any ca><:, poin!
(o ,he . uperiont)' of . m;xed coo"i!mio" ",-er simple formo oC gm-ernmenL
:->ow. M.o.ch",elli i. tho<oughly familiar "ith , be .. """'-"''' "'f'<'<ially PoI-t>iu'"
.rgu meTl ', <i,,<e Iw (L<e< 0001< VI of TIv I Ji>! ....... " 11", i, i, by(h"' ''''"8 him",lf
froro the"", positio" , lb., he i. 10 cu">lru<l hi, oWn theO<)' " n <ocia! con_
flie<. Tho I'olyt>ian c""e<ption of fOfIn' of i. basoxI on lhe ruI'u .... l ,
'f'O"'anwu. cycle lhallead, from -heabh" 'o ano! from fOfm lO lhe
o,hc'." What '<j<'<ts .0<1 "'"c" "!f..i'''l b)' (", .. i"8 hi, """
"c"ion of tite cydiC".1 eonccption of regime. i. prc>ely , lt i> eharnctc",.tion of
, he .. n."" .. I, In book 1.2 of 1'" I>H"",,,,, he ,,"fi,es:
tlti. i. me eyde t1trough "'nieh .l! cu"''''OI1wo.hh, fM'S. "'helhcr tlter g""en,
tltem",],'"" or aro 8",,,,rned. Hu' mrcly do 'hey rNum lo , bo ... me fOfIn of
g,,,'em,,,<nl. fo..- ,here can h<: -"alO of .uch tita' i, e.n ,,,,rlcrgo
ofl<n ",eh cha"8e; y" ,,,,nain i" h<:i"g. \\'h., u.ually hap!>"n. i,
while in a ., .. 'e of cummoUon in ... nieh il l.cH both c<>un",] . nd .u-e nlh.
a,,,,'" h<'<Oomeo neighhouring ano! beuer org;tni7ro ..., "'. lI'ere i,
"O( ro., conmlor,,,,,.l,h ,"i81" So 011 fO!" ""'r fM'Si ll 8 ll"oogh ,h"""
men",l ,ransiuon'."
I L mak"" no> "'n .... , h"n. ,o> ,alk .00L1I poIi'kal oroe" being gooo ,.,. l>ad in
absol ule lerm'. h , m'>re uscl'UllO u"dcr".,,,1 if. resi",e is be!te, or WOI"Soe
... i tlt r"'pcct lo ,ha! of olher .""es. ';o fOfIn of g"""mmen' cut I><judg<Xl in
eompaf><Kt 'o an irlc.1 a h.ol ulOly , .. lirl mooe L Ra,hor, i, m"" h<: judg<Xl
,,- O, '"'I,,"el lo ie' ",.1. "''''''ele capadly 1" , .. ist o" a h,,,.im,, of "'"
me otltee "'""''' Ilul lhere i. a >ceOl1d demen' in Machi.'clli', .r;umenl tltal
do,"""", .pecia! menlion: tite di,"'nce ho takc> from ,he trndi,ionaJ 'hoory of
g",..,mmem. 11. .-.,,< ""'e< hacl ",i.., I"", nakce like Lycu'1!'u. ) . .,
cO"oC\rtI hao! ,"" b:n p",'\drtl by Allhoogh ,It< lirsl run".
","ere nO! !>"rfcCl. 'hey newrtltcl ... 'oo\; .ha!>" Oler lime in rc.f'O"'" 'o tite
n'<l< of a dty ,ha, had frortl ilSdf fmm monarclty ."rl g.-.dWllly crCatrtl i!S
,,,"'o 'I>ecif,c fo,-m of mix! g",,,,"o.e,,""
Maehi."lIi fepe.lco!ly .!re>=> ,he "inn"" of lile Rom"' \ e",,,unaion. whieh
eomi .. in me frietion be'wcon ,he plebo and tito nale. Starting from me "0')'
Ir" pag, >"niC! .... n me. .. ' ''''ge in lhe poIi,ical hi .. orieol
of .,.", Ji",,,,,,.,.. 0 " ,he l1 a",l. II'e nalur-41 ""Iucncc of fO!"m' of g .... em
men' 1.,.,", importancc eomparro l<l tite ,heme of connict, ... hich i. m"", ef!i-
cie,, ' in ox pl>.ining , he unfold ing of his,,, rical ""en!>. On , he othoe hand , tite
",lteme of >rc. tOn". uf g,,"en.n,em f.d .. io"" ,I,e oo<kgt"Q""d. "'1'1.<.d
by t>ipo], r d}'nomic 1><, .... " tite in lhe <onU;(,. ".mely. ,he Grnndi an,t
,he people. ThO}' I><eome lhe main hi>lorical cha ... etc" ".ho ignl'e . nd ombody
ti", conllicu",1 !ife of ,he rol'nl:>lic,
>uIitiC-AI i""" .. , .. h<:1,i"d Mach","dli', \o.>U gh, is <lea,.
posili,,, ,".'ue he a>crih<:. 10 connict 1,,00, ba,'e on a ,heorc,ical plane.
lo affirm Iti> OIm po. ilion ."rl npholo! hi. o,,,, politl""l -pan" in ,he face of
JerIISII/e1l/ a/ld Ramt ti!!
princes''U ami diffi cull limes?' 1-1 is lheor)' is aimed al showing lhe sllperi oril)' of
the peo ple over both the GI-andi :!'! and lhe Staning from lhis po.'litive
vi ew of confli ct, 1\l achia\'elli hegins lO d evelop his co ncepli on of d emocl-ac)' and
freedom, whi ch, since freedo m can ne\'er exist when the ancl lhe Gt-andi
d omin:;ne. alwa)'s go hand in hand. [n TI/ t DisrQlITSI!S 1. 5. Machial'elli asser!;s Ihal
all wise lawgil'ers have oelie\ed essentia[ 10 se l up a offreedolll . [n
re[Jubli cs, for exampl e. Ibis gtmrdianship ma)' be placed in Ihe hands o f the
nobl es. as in the casc ofSpana and Venice . 01" in th e lrands oflhe peoplc. as in
Rome. But lhe guardianship of an)'thing ShOllld be placed in the hands of lhose
who are less d esirous of appropriating il 10 t\reir own use. !-I ence, wc ask
what jI is tire nohility are afler and what il is lhe cOll1l11on peopl e are after, h will
be seen thal in th e former !.here is a greal d esire 10 do minate and in Ihe Ialter
merel)' Ihe d esire no 10 be dominal ed:' Therefore . concluel es Machiavelli. Ihe
care o f liben )' must be ell1nl sled to th e peo pl e.
2

JI.I achial'elli uses Ihe th eme ofthe guardian offreed om lO trace o ut Ihe d ifTer-
en ces belween Ihe classi cal republican 1Il0dcls: Ven ice and Spana on th e one
hand. and Ro me on lhe other hand. !-l is insistcnce at this poinl on the tumultu-
ous and co nlli ctual character of the popular r cpubli c versus the smbili ty and
peacefulness of th e ar islOcr.lli c republi cs is a central fealure. From h ere o n, Ih is
o ppositi on ChM-aCleri zes Ihe entire d eve!opment o f TlIf' Di5CQII ' V.. Entnrsting
Ihe guardianship of freedo rn to th e common peo pl e means gi\'ing lhem power,
Ihll S creatillg the conditi ollS that will a11o\\' them 10 resist and oppose the
Grandi. In Machjwe l! i's \'ie\\, il abo means accepling connict as one of the COIl-
ditiollS of politi ca! order.jusl as il \Vas in Rome . The quesli on utal he poses is
whether th e same co nditi om of stabililY lhat were creat ed in Ven ice o r Spana
could h;l\'e been se l up in [n bo th Venice and Spana, a particular COll-
stiluti o nal alTangemcnt had removed lhe causes for co nfli cl belween lhe no bles
and the peo pl e. Howe\er, &'l)"S Machial'e1li, il had al so removed what the power
ofa republi c is fOllnded on, namely, th e possibi1iy of empl o)'ing lhe people in
wa r. He t.h ereby shifts Ihe quesli on t.o lhe plane ofwar and power: onl )' by gr-anl-
ing t.lr e pl ebs an important role in th e politics ofllle cil ,. was Rome abl e 10 build
ils power. Machia\elli condudes thus:
AlI drings considered , therefore, il is cl eal lhal it was necessar)' for Ro me 's
legislalOrs 10 do one ofthe two things if Rome was 10 remain tr.mquillike the
aforesaid stales: elther to eJl1ulat e lhe Venetians and nOI empl o}' its pl e bs in
,,-a!"S, 01', like he Spart.'l ns, no! lO admit foreigners. Ro me did bOlh
Ihings, and, by doing SO, gave 10 jls pl eos ali ke slrenglh, i\lcrease and endl ess
opporlUnilies for COI1lJl1oti on. On lhe other Irand, Irad Ihe go\'ernrn e l11 of
Rome been suclr as 10 brillg grealer tnlnqui11il }', th ere lI" ould have ell sued tlr is
incon\"eni ence, thm il would have beeilll'eaker. owing 10 its h:l\'illg CUt o lTlhe
sa urce o f suppl}' whi ch e nabl ed it 10 acquirc lhe b'TeatneSs at whi ch it arri\'ed.
so that, in seeking 10 remove the causes of tunnrlts, ROllle would ha\e removed
also lhe causes of expansi on. '''"
; 0 COl/jliel, Puwer; (/lid Mullilrule
Machiavclli dr.:lws a clase co nncction bctwccn domcstic and forcign politics.
belwecn (ullmlts ami war, stating that slabilit)' is Ih e cause of peace, bUI Ihm il
is also lhe c,,-use of powe rlessness. 111e for a pcople LO consciollsly
choose 10 Hvc in peace and powerlessness is apure sUpposilion, one tha! he
cunl}' dismi sses. In reality, lhe world is in continual mo\'cmen t. \\'e h;l\'c airead),
seell h ol\' lhis tWlum1. necessaf)' dynami c afreCls human beings and Ihei!" beha\'
ior. BUI states afe also affected, wilh oflen disaslrous consequences lhal lhe
poltica! phi losop hcr cannOl ignore, hell ce,
since il is impossiblc, so I h o ld, 10 adjust lhe balance so ni cc ly as to ke cp
Ihings exactl)' to his m iddl e (oune, o ne ought. in co nstituting a repllbl ic. to
consider th e possibilit)' of ils pl ayin g a more honollrabl e role. ami so to con-
stute it that, sh ould necessity acwaH)' force it 10 expando it mar be able tO
retain possession of whm il has acq uired. Co ming back. then, 10 lhe firsl
point we mised, 1 a111 conl'inced that the ROlllan Irpe of conSlitution should
be adopted. not thal ofan)' o the r rep ublic, for 10 Hlld a middl e way bel\\'een
the IWO I d o nOI think possible. Squabbles bctween the plcbs and
Ihe scnate should, thcrcfore, be lookcd upon as an inconvenience whi cl1 it is
necessarr 10 put up with in a rder to arrlve al Ihe greatness of Ro me,"
Th e need for power m;kes lhe entire supposi li o n of consci o usly choosin g
peace ami qui et purel)' t.h eoretical. abslract. ami un reali zabl e, Th ere is no real
choice belween Ihe Roman and Veuetialllll ode ls, The lalt er leads 10 ruin. whil e
vinuolls aClio n can onl)' be directed IOwan:l the fonner. Eilher reason 01" n eces-
si l)' force human beings 10 clash lI'ith ont' another in an hor izon
marked 10 iu; core by conniCl. Thcre is no finalism in lhis conceplon and no
teleology. Hut Ihere is no t even the possibility of escaping confli Cl by choosing
peace as an end and al'oiding war by all possible Illeans.
\Ve can noll' go back 10 the queSlion o f tumulls and o urselves what real
efTe cls lhe)' have on polit ical1ife and, abol'e aH, whether aH types of llllllUlts are
lO be co nsidered positive and au adlmll"lge for Ihe st."l te. In his alt empl tO
anslI'er thi s question. Machi a\'dli ;dds more el emems for considel1nio n. The
phenomenon of IUmlllls must nOI be judged in iu;clf, blll r.:llher, in rclati o n 10
lhe Mmatt cr" of thl' cl}' whcre lhey take place , meaning, I,'hcther the politi cal
a rder is healthy 01' conup\. Al the time of the expulsi on of Ihe kings in Ro me,
fOI" exampl e, were positive, becalue by chasing out th e monarch, the
people slopped corruption from spreading \O the o th er lel'e ls of lhe dI)'. """
The fonn of gOl'ernment is nOI (hal important, then . espedall )' compared
with Ihe lllall er of the dI}' 0 1' its degree of corruplioll . The nOlion of rOll'/tlllio/l
is Ihe ne\\'. importam clemellt Ihal he introduces in Ihis chapt er. Machi:lI'el1i
defines il lhus: "for corrUptiOll o f litis kind amI ineplitude for a free mode of
life is due 10 the inequality one finds in a Statc."'-'!I Ullequivocall), and expl idtly,
then, cOlTuptio n mcans Inequnlil)' assulll es ce nt e!" stagc in lhe a!"gu-
ment amI plap a dedsivc role in 'file Di,cou/"sl!!i from thi s poi nt on. \Ve miglll
"
.00 poim out tl", lb;' nolioo is "sed by 'o ",,,,hli,h and uphokl hi.
""" poli"al ch,,;ce r" ... f'<>!)II I.r<kmocr.,c '"'''' '0<1 n TI; /)""",,-ov>
;n 1.37. I"'litirAllhcory i iftnllhrougb I,i>lori<al
De.i re ."d amb,i"" ... w. ha,'. ""en, .re lhe affec .. <hal aro m"'lIr
Me ror p,,,,ng in,,, ,o.,IIin. TII. ncid.", orlhe ,\grori ... l.>.w in t h"
time (lf tIlO Gracchi i. ;II'''''.h,,.,,d prtti,dy t1'ruugh n-prioe <>f.loi, ,heme. n,C
Roman piel. " .. hich unJ !hen had "'luabbk,1 out ofncc .... ity: I:>cgan lo qua,_
rel "Ollt of amb;,i",,: Theo< disputes aro ",h'l "",u1,ed in me Ag.-.ria" l.",,',
\\'hik M.clla", ll; prai, .. ,he im.." ,i",,, of , he G ... cchi .. "-ell .. t he
'J>rit of!he law, wh., he <loe> nOl "PP""'C of;; ,he ''''r ;, "'''' broughl .bout,
CI'<Oaling h.ued be'"..,.n lbe plcbs and , he nobles , ha, loo 10 me d"lit;,'c ruin
of ,he d')'_ Crlok. ha,.., long <11",,, ... <1 po"ih!. imO<f'relation. o ,h;' opio-
;0"," Ne"crthcl"", i, cookl be argued tha, of ,he ;\rana" La ...
doco 00' undermioe M.ehia"clli. thCQf)" of contlict. Connie', a' ,he o,-igin o
Romo', p""""" "ell .. il< crw.. i. 00' co"domn.d by M.ehi.,'.lIi beauo< o
,hi TI,e his",n,,] f. or ,". <Ti,i. doe. ,,, ... 1"" ' h. '1000<")1 i,"o
quc<tion, ""he, j , contlnru! hilo f'O"iti", ,iew o tb e IK'-'!' Ie:
Such. [hen, ,,"" b<:ginoiog, and ." .. h ,ho ood o ,he ,\g"'.";'o I.;,w. EL<e--
"1"", h,," e oh"",',, dt.' i, ,,'" e'''nl)l the SCna te the pklos uf
R""", that Iocp ' Romc frec. bcctwc t ".. ... owiog to thi. wcre madc io
f .. "",r o litx-ny. And. though "itlo this conch .. ion the rcsult o ,h. Agr. .. ;:rn
t.;, ... '''>f .... m '" he 1m,,,, <ouf"" ''' "' I >m ,,<>1 011 ,hi. <ten"""
ind",,,d 'o ch""gc ony opI1on, for. '" g.o", is the or,he great th.t
unJe .. in a city they are kcpt by ,...no,," and moa"" that dty "i1l
..-.-.n he ho-,-,,,sln 'o nlin. I "nc<. if i, ... r,, 11)I Lh,oe hu"d,-ed )".ro hefofe ,he
Ag"'''''n I..>-w Icd '" ,be senimde o Roonc. j , "oo,ld. I"'rchan. h",'c led lo
",,,itcxk mueh ","",,<r. had not the plcbo by mean> ofthi. ,,, and by <><hcr
demal\ru promp,,-<I by ,hei, apf""i ' .'O. al".,.Y' kcPI lhe ambion o the noble.
"
The ques'ion i, lahn c\'en funh.r in ,hi. ",....ge, then, "ith M.chi.,..,lIi ....,n
in g ",tla, philooophe .... " d polid.o' afte, hion ",'o"kl ",,11 ",-.n ",o,-e """,>dal_
"", tJt." ""Oc o( , he l'"''''g<:' frorn ConUie, .n<l i><>"'cr n""Mr.bi<
eombinaon, are placcd al cen'cr .lage oftne polticaJ dllcour>C, Although thi.
;" "'''Y to ... " Llnde .. tanding "f [he tlfr<'WI' 0WJlit]. tl, eory
<1"", on d iITc'cno "",,,,ee. in M.eh;",'dJ;." ,lisoour>C. lo ,,,,deT'goe.
a nOl",.blc ehangc when . JM ..... inlo h, rn",' rn.'ure "'or thc flormli.,
11",,,",,, in lnoroduion he cntici,", the gre.t hi>ton.", o , he
,.-.di ,i,,,,_ a<COIlIlU fa;tcd 00 ad"'l"a,ely rel>Ol" 00 t1,. c"nllku
tu"'tol .. took >Iac" in ,hc <;'y. he poi"" OOt , n,;; tnakes 1I,<r ' >!or;""
""crly ab>lnCt and idcali,cd. no' to menon fuJe for real poli'ico, Bclining
,h., th'-1' mgh! o/fcn<l , he hd .. of . o",e f.mi li",. n.;,he, I..,ooardi Ilruni ,, <><
-"
,- COl/jliel, Puwer; (/lid Mull/rule
I' oggi o Bracciolini th ought it appropriatc 10 spcak ahout lh e d iscords and
intr insic cn mil)''' in lhe d I,. o f Fl o rcncc. 1\b chi a\'clli has no fear of harshly criti-
cilng Ihese f.'llhers of n orentine hisl ori ography, si nee Mjf no other is
llSefllllo he citizens who go\"ern r epubli cs. il is tha! whi ch shows Ih e causes of
lhe hatreds aud divisions in lhe
Machial"clli hus pro\"ides Ihe ke)' 10 underst<lnding Ihe emire Rml!IIIi1 e J-lislo"if>5,
Once a",tan. il is his du!or)' of connict ha! occupi es ccllttr stage. Firsl of all. il
mus! be nOled Ihm lhe natun: of lhe conni cLS described in T/e is COIll-
pl clely ncgati\'c. In Tlit' Discow'SI'.5. had cmphasizcd Ihe ditTcl'cnce in
he cffeclS arising from a co nflict betweell the humon ofthe city. Usillg the hll-
guage 01' lh e hlllll ors, he had defined the heal1hy functioning 01' the social body.
1'arts amI facti ons represell1 ed lhe negatl'e de"elopmenl or conflict, similar !O
Ihe co tlseq uences of Ihe Agradan L'lw in Rome. TIle humon were idemi fi ed Wilh
lhe difTerenl pan; so as 10 qualir)" lhe POSili\'e 01" negati"e elTecI; or a confli cI.
Now. itl Tllt' Hislo/"it's, Ihi s alternati\'e loses grou11d. so lhal all conllicts are
lake11 tO th eir ex treme. ones that are harrowi ng for the city's unit)'. The ex pre .....
Si011S and are fused inlO lhe extremelr significant "humors or
the Machia"clli contilllles to de"clop his thought by I"eco nccptllalbjng
Ihe loaded catego ri es or his polilical discourse. Among o th er themes, he pich
up agai n on th e theory or mixed go"ernments and critique of Ihe111 . d e"el
oping his argumento frOIll Ihe poinl of \'ic,," of hislot"}' rather than Ihat or polili
callheory. [,lStead of ArislOl.le and Polr bilLs. we are now presented wilh Ih e real.
concr ete groups amI raclio11s that made Fl ore l1 ce's hi stol)':
Cities, all d especiall )' those not lI'ell a rde red tha t are administcrcd linde r the
llame of republic, frequentl)' change Lhe ir go"el'l1ments alld thei ]' states 1101
between li ben}" amI senitudc, as many belie,"e. hUI between sen 'i1ude and
licemc. For o nl)' Ihe name of frcedo m is exroll ed by lh e l11inist ers of li censc,
",ho are lhe men orlhe people. and b)' lhe ministers ofseITi1Ude, who are Ihe
nobles. neilher or Ih em desi r ill g 10 be subjeCl either lO lh e 1aws a l' 10 men.:W
1.11 litis manner. the possibilit}' of a "mixed gO\'en1menr
M
for lhe cit)' ofFl or e11ce
is d islllissed rOl" good. This passage in the 1-701r!/I /im: /liS/Mies is ne\'er d efiniti"c,
hOll'el"er. The intcrmi ngli ng of lhe hUlll ors and the pal"ts is a compl cx and \"ar-
icd phcnomell oll thal sOIllClmes anves abruptly ami somcL mes indccisi"cly.
Jt docs no t represent a gelluine turn of though t, some so n of epi phanr in
Mach ia\'e!1ian political th eory. as 111\1(h as il does a parti cular lendenc}': his
clHire discourse becomes more radical. lt scems 10 obfUSGIlC Ih e distinction
belween positi\'e ronns anclneb-atil"e fonns, belween a stal c :H1d a .....
eased
M
one. En: !"}' fonn tends 10 tllrn iuto ils negmil"e, ancl palhologr is lmns-
fonned imo physiolob"l. Freedom is no 10ngt'r opposed 10 license or monarehy
10 tr rann)': th en: is onl)' liccnsc ami tr rallny. This is h ow he:: goes bOllt cmpt),i ng
of meaning thc idea of a mixcd go"cI'IlIllent.
JerIISII/e1l/ n/ld Rnmt 73
Can we really condude fmm lhi s lhat crisis has defi nitiYcly taken lhe place of
power, lhough? 01' e\-en bctter, lhat it slillmakes sense to oppose cri sis lO power?
01' ralher, cr isis 10 vinlle? In np l-lis/OJ"P.s, this linear relalionship of a dialeclical
de\-elopmenl between power and cr isis no longer seems plausible, As we haye
seen, l\hchi:l.\'elli uses lhe langllage and rhelOric of medi ca! clLltu re in t hese
passages, applying it to the fi eld ofpoli li cs; e\'en Ihough he ne\'er uses Ihe lerm,
Maehia\'dli seems lO be employiTlg Ihe medi eal model of "crisis
w
here , [n
ancielll Greek medicine, a cdsis was the crucial poilll in the progress o f an
i1Iness lhal decided II' hcther a palho[og)' W,IS hcadcd IOward h caling 0 1' dC;:lIh, :!.'
This imcr preL'lion mar hclp l undersland some of lhe most powerful bUl, al
lhe !lame time, Ill ost am biglloll S pas.'I. 'ges of th e emi re work, likc lhe [ntrodllC-
lion to book n [ of Tll e ' l is/nriP.s, for exalllple, where we rcad Ihat:
The b'TIl\-e and natural enmities lhal exist belween the men of lhe people al1([
lite nobles, caused by lhe wisll ofllte lat ter to command and Ihe forme r 11 01
lO obe)', are lhe ca llse of ,,1I e"i ls that arise in eiti es. For fmlll th is di\'ersi l)" of
hUlllon all o th er things thal agitalC rcpublies mke hcir nouri shlll cnt. This
kcpt Rome disu nited, ami his, if il is pCI-missible to co mpare liule things Wilh
greal , has kepl Fl orence di\'ided, although di" erse cffecu were produced in
one cit)' and the o th er. For the between Ihe people and Ihe nobles
al Ihe beginning of Ro me Ihal were resolved 1.1)' displ rti ng were resoh'cd in
Fl orell ce by fightillg, Those in Rome ell ded wilh a \aw, those in Fl orcllce wilh
Ihe exi le ami d ealh of man)' citizens; lhose in Rome al ways increased militar)'
,'irme, Ihose in Fl orence el iminaled it altogelher: Ihose in Rome brought Ihe
di)' frolll equality in he cilizens 10 a ,'ery great inequality, th ose in Fl or-ence
rcduct'd il fmm incqualily 10 a wonderful equalit)'_ [ ... ] Ami ,,'ht' l'eas Ro me,
when iu I'irtue was conl'ertcd inlO arrogan ce, was red uced 10 such thal
il CQuld nOI lllaintain iuel f witho lll a prince, Fl orcll ce arri\'ed at th e poinl
lhal il cOll ld easil)' ha\'e been reordered in an}' form of gO\-crnmenl by a wise
lawgi\'er, :II\
The se nse o f oppositi on between Ihe 1\\'0 cities is clearly expressed. Co nni Cl
Icel Fl orenee 10 sueh a equalit}'w Ihat a wise l<lll'maker co uld ha" e
rco rdcred the cit)' inlO a ne\\' powc r. \ \'c need 10 fOCllS for a momen t, hOll'c\"cl-,
on the obscurity of he cxpression lhal Machial'el li uses, an)' fOl'm of gOl"crn-
lll en1.
w
Exaclly what forrll of gOl"erlltllenl wo uld thal be? The [eXI does nOI leJl
liS ami he q uest ion is hardly an eas)' one 10 answer. In spile Oflhis, it seems thal
in Ihis hi ghl )' signifi can! passage, as in all T/, ' f islmlts, l\l ach ia\'elli confirms
ralher than d enies lhe core of h is politi cal th eor)', and lhal al.lo' e all. al Ihe
hean of lit is core li es ehangeabilit)'. One of Maehi al"elli's prilllaq ' goal s is \O
grasp all th e possibi lities of human aetio n in a world lhat is eOllsmntl)' chang-
ing. Cenain aCliu ns thm becolllc neccss;:II-Y 10 rcsis th e pc rl'crse efrecu of
his changeabil ity. In the abscnce of resistan ce, rui n is alrnost certai n; hcnce,
re.i,"'nee-oc be("'" noceosary. And i( i. I',eci",ly (han"" (O (his
(Iow'" ,,f c""me< , ha( Mach.,..,lI, "",1 hi. re..:k,c<, , ce (o grosp (h< ... " ...
uf hi"ory. Hi>(OI)" il><lf i. conlliet, Ille .. ning, (he comience uf eri"; . The
conception uf conHiet can (hWl be conoidc red a ,,,ri,,,ble "<hC<lf)'
01 eri,"' " rmm , his <on cep(io", i( i. """. poo<ihle to..,. h",,' sri" ",,,
d""loped Io. historic-.I (h""rctical ,dlcelo,," 0" (1 01 """niet.
Spinou app,,,,,eh,,,, it prim .. rily from (,.,.0 d o.ely connC1:(ed pI""",; alTect>
and poIitico. His coneep(ion 01 huma n na'Ufe is crurial ro hi. idea uf poIitico.
"' hieh ha' a st("Q1( i"!I (l.,, ce "" lho life ofi".-li,"id"al, an(\ (he d)"ami"" of(lle;,
alTcet . " The dCllCripuon (ha( Spi"o,", offe", of ,hi, dY1\"mic i1\ porticul.r.
mari,ing ,he rel>tim"hip be"'""n our alTeeth " lire and conniet. is e'p,-,riaU)"
,"sem. In I' ro!,,,,i(io,, in pa" IV "r ,he f)h"" h ,.",,,,, (ha( in.ora, ..
..... iloo loy "rrtt .. ,ha, ... i",,,, c"" be wo-nrdry ' 0 onc . lt01hcr:"
In l'rOf'O'lition 33, bo ... .-ncr. wc rc"' -imolar a> men 1i-" u nocr , hc gui-
ance " r ,",," .. :>n, 'o l h .. onl)" do .1 ..... )'1 n""""ril)' agme in natu,e:-
... , ... '0 p,op,,"i,;'m 'kliber .. 'dy pl a,,,,' " e., 'o ".el, otlter, 00' ,lte
two oC human rel.ti"", . I' ropooitio" 3-4 "a,c. ,It., !lte more mc" . '"
.... iled by pasoiom, <he more connicttLll (!trir relouollJl .... iIl be: con,,,,,.,,ty.
m<en ore !l)' ,el .. io". ' cod "",,,rrl ha,mo"".
be, .... '''''" ,It"", ,''o poI", .re ou' th. <o"u"u.1 ."ria,i,-""
and alTecu,,, and poIi'icrJ rl11amic> of lIOCicty. Spino, .. , "",i(ion dcarty
allo. rO!' , he I""'ibili')' of pe-ace . nd ha,m""y, <hen, bf ,,,,,,orning ,he
Hie, of I"",'iom an,t "'lM--;n ,lte r.,ionallife,"
Coneord and d i.rord would lICem '0 rum:' p,,,,d. r"'pecu'oty, 'o hfe under
, he guidan oC .nd life u nde, (he "bondage- of (he p"' .. iono. His argu-
me", d"". noo. """ h,-".'e,w. Spinwi" c t hi "., ... m."y h",'c " ",,<1, ""ere
1101 d"'i"oo p u,.ty rO<" ,1, . "jllC: "o<" '.n poli,;", be unders",,,,, ... a
friendly civillife. in "hirn rcaoon domin>! .. "''Cr tho >aion . It be!too\'C> ''''
'o " ndem.and in , .. 1, p"",ti",,1 ""m., ,heno ",ha, happen. ,he limited
'race<1 <>\1, '"o be, ... ,h,-"", a_il",' loy ,lo,
IM",io1\l ,h""" guidc<l bf re."' n. Tirio i. prcei><-ty , he '!Me< d"",rilx-<t by
the re. 1 hi"OI)" of,ome peopleo. uJed bf Spin" .... (o avoid <he .... p i",o
other phi l"",,!,he .. . " d m,,,,,I.,,, had ,h. , of ... -ri ' ing "",i,. I>(,lio,'_
i,, <h3t ,!ley 'alking .1.>00, 1",1i'i<o. ,\ I'hough (1,,,,. ""0 ,h,,-,,"e,i.--. I
e. "cma in no ..... y c""aWl' , lrc role and dcocrip,ion of >o1i'ical connict in
Spinmi" , hough t, ron!Jiet m",( br IIOUgh' ou t in his,"')' ... 'hile keep;ng <he>e
polc ... "";11 "' "r c.r.",,,,,,,.
Spi" ",,, loob '0 the Jcw> to dc..:ribr the mNhani."" oC poIitic>.
h" ... .-"'er. he .bo refen (o (he Romam ' o iUu. tr.otc ""me or hio ru ndamc!\la]
Kte ... Fu rlhemlO,"", jU.'l :L' in,e"";n,,d ,he hi"",,", of tlo . I/mnan.
"j ,h ,ha( or!ti> floren<o, Spin"" WICil Ronte a"d J,rus.lem, al" " g "h
, hc Ar.r.gollO ,he . :ngli.h, 'o d ><:ws hio na.h " Hotland, Hi""l)' i. ,hu. uoed
b)' bo<h (hi nke ..... a ,001 rO!' nnde.-.unditt g ,he pceJe(l(. W" ma)' ,h,IO ,,,,, e
JerIISII/e1l/ n/ld Rnmt 75
pollical and social co nflict playa ccmr,11 role in imerprctation, jml
lhey do COI' l\lachiavclli.
The pallern Iha! Spino:f,a uses 10 d escr ibe Ihe hino r)' of the J ews is ver)' similar
w Ihe one llsed by Machbvelli W oul1ine lhe hisl orr oC Ihe Romans. The .Iews
lil"ed wilh oul any serious diffi cuhi es amI with no co nfli cls, esse n IbU)', IIp
umil a certain age. ru long as Ihe popular gOIernmerlllasled. I.her had onl)' Orl e
civil war. I,oril es Spi no7 .. a. Moreo\er. when lhe war came lO <I n end. Ihe compas-
sio n o f lhe viclOrs was strongcr thall Iheil" halred, amI lhe conquered were
completely rclnlegr;:ltcd inlO lhe po litical co mmunity. '1 This state of afTain did
not lastl ong, howcl"cr. When lhe peoplc inslituled a monarchy. Mlherc was prac-
lically no end 10 cil'il wars, and Ihe fighting reach ed such CerOdl)" as 10 surpass
0111 prel'ious The expbnali on Cor lhis. says Hes in lhe ["lCI
hal Ihe people "were Jilll e accuSlOmed 10 kings,M wh ose inlroducli on trans-
formed Ihe sodalliCe and Ihe dynami cs of co nfli cl, inlensifying Ihem. The <:Iash
belween the powers was ampli fied. unleashing an conni cl Ihal
spread WilhoUI ell d and with horrifi c consequences.
E\"el)' alwmpl LO bri llg lhis crisis LO a cl ose I'''IS dcslined \O failure. This con-
flict generatcd a nc\\' co nfli cl and ncw discord. Wilh no possi ble rcmcdy. \Vh ell
he egalitar ian principIe failed amI prophecy pUl lindel' lhe exclusive con-
trol ofhe Le\'il e Iribe, crisi s ane! connicl callscd Ihe lheocracy 10 bc ovenurned
ane! lransfon ned in 10 a rnonarch)'. This rnarked lhe beginning of lhe decline
of lhe J ewish nali o n. NOI e\"e n lil e prophels were abl e \O find a ct lre for I.lIis cor-
rupti ol1 , Mfor el'e n tll o ugh lhey removed a tyralll . th e causes of Iyrallll }'
was no end . then. 10 discord and cil'il wars:' notes Spi n 01,a .
Mbut LIl e causes which Icd 10 lhe violao n oCthe divin e lawwere ahl"lys lhe same.
and could be removed onlr al ong with lhc ",hole co nstituti on. M.3
Co nfli ct. which had bin hidden and al a lo\\' intensity until Ihat lime, sud-
denl)' expl oded, selting off Ihe irre\'ersible d)'namics of a Al poi nl
Spinoz,"l eXlends reneelion 10 lhe ROlllanS, wh05e hislOr}', in his eyes. elll bod
ies an example ofa continLl otls and irreversibl e crisis amllhe inability 10 b reak
free fro tll harrowing, deslructl\"e co nfli cl. The Romal! republic, h e wriles in
chapler 1 i of Ihe Theologiwl-Polilin/ Trt(l liJe. was always superior tO ilS em' mies,
always fearcd amI ull col1querabl e. )'el MSO oCten conquered and wretchcdly
oppressed by her OIVI1 citizens." Tacitus gil'es a good descriptio n of lhis situ;:lti OIl
during the chil war bctwcen Vcspasian and Vilc!1ius. The cxampl c of lhe
Romans prol'ides a conlirmalion of Ihe hislor)' of the J ews, all owing Spino:r.a 10
come 10 tWO imponant conclusions. The firM is lhat political confli cl is an abso-
IUlel)" negalive phenolllenOn for lhe Jife of a republi c because on ce il has been
igni led il is difficull 10 pUl a stop 10 il and ils efTecls are disaslro us, a" seen in
ancieHl Rome 01' in the J ewish monarch)'. The second is lha! att empls 10 pUl an
elld lO co nfliCl-such as tymnnicide or the li olem o\"enhrow of a regime-are
jusI as I1 cgmi\"e amI do nOlhing bUl makc lhe si tuati on worsc.
Al this poinl in work, hOWCYCI". It the heart of his argumenl WlllTC
hislOl)' and lheor}' are inex u"i cably int ertwincd, his positi on is funher compli catcd
t". ,h. addition of ' " 0110 ,h. ,i'WlliOll of Holl.lld,
socullgl)' 1"litl(' rl cOO t), < ro,.,,, ,, I.,I,,,, of 111, poll,lcal It l. k""",,, ,lo:.,
Spi"o..-.. "' .. a eI""e . u pl"'ner of ohe de \...-" , 8",,,mm<n' .,hich '"'' ",.,ile ,,,
the I"'li'ia or ohe House of Orange, oupporl<d. i" ".:oci. by ohe o.-oho<l""
CoI,' in,,, de,g)'. Spi"",,,', ,.II<clio.-., on i .. ,IO' .uc h .. ,iole", regim. change or
11i. oou,k",na,i,m of poIillo.! """lli<l are "itl,in <1i",,,";on. on CUrre'"
",-en'" oha' help 'o ""plai n !lOmo of hill theurctical .<anec .
1" hio con<lemn.u"" ofKome .nd l)'r.lflnicirle in chap,e, 18 ofthe "/'Molof:otaf.
I'o/,;Ctll ";"',,, ... , rOl" c.a'"ple, h xpllci, 1y c",,,lcmo. o f ,lIe 110\1'"
()I' r.nge ,ha' "<ore dit'od .-di",' , he de Wi u 'qime. 11,e,. a,e ,""""
Spill O"', ,,'ho migh'..,,, ,h" Romam as an ""ample p,O\;ng ohal. peop!e -can
" .. ily .. "'o'" a tyr>.n,," H"",'"'e,, ,he Kom.", ,,'cro a hle 'o ch.nge ,he foron of
g""''''''''o,'' 00' """he C-d''''' uf w ')""ml)'. l-!en"". "atl ,bey ' ","'ce<!ed
in doing ...... lO .ppoin' "",-cml ')TItno> in pl.ce of one, .nd th= . ep' ohcm
Te,cl, edl)' cmbroiled in " .. ro, fo,cig" . n<l d,il, "mil a, 1 .. , ,he gm-ernmcn'
0"' more. " ' o,,arch y wj, h ,"crol)'" ch." g< of i n E" gl.,\d:"
A I"'litic-..t changc of 'qime. "" io ,h." diK"K<Ii' ed by Spi",a. lo ilI nO!
, he fOlm of gO\-emmen' ,hat mu>' be ,emO\'ed 00,. ",oher, , he cause> of bad
8"" " " "1<"", 'opi",,1 """i,,,,;,,,, -",hi,,<I ,hi. oh."""';Oll ;mmcdi .. dy
00II,,,,, ,,, ligll! i" ,It < ,,<x, 1,,"'se, Sl'i,,01> CO"U"U'" by "')'illg ,ha,
A. fOl" oh. I;'ta" .. of HolI.nd ... for .. ,," kn"",' 111<1' n",,,, h:oci kingo. h",
" " ' "' ''. 10 ,lte ngh' uf ..... creig"' y ... or.n,ferr<.t "-' '!t e Higl,
of H"Il."d m e plain in ohe docul1le1ll I'ublillhed by tl1<m a' ohe
lime orCoum Lcice""" ohe}" ha,,, , e"",'ed 'o ohe"""h"" ohe auohoril)'
lO 'Om;"d ",id <o,,,,,. of ,hei, d 'llY, hal'e relai" .. ! ,he p"""<:f 'o
"p"'1d ,hi. '<Jlhoril)l 01' tI,eirs ano.! ,ltr r",e<!"m uf ,he (i,jle,". '" asscn ,hcir
righl> ,he eounlJ if the lall'" p,O\'e<! t)TItnnical. and 10 .cep ohem 0!1
a 'igh, ",in oha, 'he)' d" nOlhing ,h. ><nni"ion a nd
of . Fr,"n ,hi. j, foil""" oha, <OI"'r<ign righ' """ " I" .Y"
""",e<! in ,he 1';'.'0 "d i, w-.. ohill "",-c,cigni'y ohe t;", coyn' ."cmp,,,,1
'0 mmp. Tlterefo,e i, ilI by no mean. ' rue oha' , he hla'eo ,,,,'oltcd aain"
h;'n. "'1",,, in fao ,h':f '''''''''0'''-\ origin. 1 """,e;g"i, )' ,,'hich h:ocl .Imo<'
Ixen lOS!. ' n,,:;. e X""'I'I"" lhon. fullj-- conlirm our .... nion lha, el'<'ry ""te
mu", p, coc,,-c il> ""'11 fonn, and unnOlIx eh.nge<! ""ho," ineu,,"
ring , he dango< of une, ruin, "
From ,!t;" j, Ixcom", de, " hat ,, '" Spinol. i. malcing of h;",ory uf ohe
J""" .nd ohe .-eference '0 oh e con,inual eonflirt of ,he Koman . HilI e011dem=-
ti"" of ,he Orangi,u' ,ul"'e"<;,'< I"'li'ia . "d ,hd, ,uppor' of the .ri"ocra, ic
lJutch 'egime i> 'p<:It1 ou, al ,he e"d of ehaptcf "111< nCIfAu"i'y uf ><>li,i",]
eonflict aud ohe futil;ty of ,,",-cC!um;ng , he rul;ng eehalon. by ehaning ohe
f",m of go'o'cmmcnlare ohe argumell,. ,..ed ' o "'ppor' h;, P",ucula,
JerIISII /e1l/ n/ld Rnmt n
fauion in the Holland ofhisdar. This is not to say, obviollsly, tha t his theory is
entirely dctemlined br the eonlingelH pol itical situation. Ncvertheless, iUi
im port;:lll ce to the for mulatiol1 's positi on, sll ch as his attitude toward
political conni ct, is nOI [O be undereSlimated.
The Thto{ogioll-Po/ilim{ Tre/llisr prol'ides fllnher infortllalion for llnderstand-
ing his 1'05ili on. Indeed. a few obsen'ations ca n aI read)' be made regarding Ihe
J ewish peopl ... . fu we have seen. defines Ihe J ews as and
calls J cr usal em a "ch)' o f rebcls. Far too often. this assessment has bcen taken
as an entircl y negativ.::j udgment on his pan.
t7
In realil)", h is preciscl}' th e lack
of discipline of Ihe J ews thal rep resenUi he ir love of freed om and l'esisance al
any con, el'en death, OI'er sllbmission. Love of liben)' and hatred for ene mies
and are inlertwined, th en, wi[h lhe undisci plined characl er of lhe
J ews, suggesling a 1110re nuanced acco unl of Iheir hi slOry bUI also of l.he rela
tioll ship belwee ll politics aud con ni cI aud lhe hisl.ory of lhe Romans.-I
The TlUQ{ogi((I{Po/iliw/ Tre(llisf'. it can be noted. also prol'ides some impo nanl
obse nmi olls 0 11 concord and conniCl in a poltical commtmily. Tht' subj ecl of
he The%giw/Polilict/{ Tut/lise, lI'ith iUi condemnati on of an}' alll'mpl to changc
he political l'cgimc, scems to uphold con eonl as (he sole l-alue ofa po lti cal
comnmnily. 's commenUi in th e '/hmlisF.go lar heyond
assumpli oll , however. In a polem ical discussion on Hobbes, Spin07 ... alisens
tllat Ollr Jife is much more pred ous and complel e than l.h e mere circulation of
bl ood or simple biological SllfvI-a1.-I\I
Fro m Ihis il fol1ow5 lhal IOtal ;:Hld uncondilional obedience 10 tlle sOIereib'll.
as Hobbes presellled l. can nol be justifi ed il1 absolult: terms or in an abstracl
fashi on. Morcol'cl", lhis son of obedience requires absolllte concord in th e stale.
What we are talking: abom is a state of concord thal mUSI be irnposed from o n
hi gh, arising from a co mplet e absence of confli cl, explained and jllslified in lhe
final analysis by [he gual'3ntee prolided by Ihe sOI'e rei gn power 10 preserve bio-
logical slIn'I-aI. Now 5pinoz,. rejecUi lhis posili on. making wa)" for an in[eresting
analysis of polilical COn nicl and a difTerenl nOlion of concorel . In section '1,
chap ter 5 he obsen 'es I]at
A cOlllmonwcalth wllose subjecUi are del t' rn:d from laking L1p arms onl}"
through fear should be s.. id to be nOI at ,,'al' ralhC"1' han 10 be peace.
For pcace is nOl juSI lhe absence of war, bUI a virtue whi ch comes fl'o m
srength of mind; fol' obcdi ence (Section 19, Chapter 2) is Ihe steadfas.1 will
to carry OUI orden enj o ined by lhe general decree of Ihe commonwealth.
All}Wa)', a commo nweallh ",hose peace de pends o n Ihe sluggish spi ri[ of its
sLl bjens \\"ho are led like sh eep 1.0 leant simply to be slaws can more properlr
be cal1ed a desen than a
The eon cepti on of conOiel al1(l poli ties at th e CfUX oflhe theor}' thal 5pin07.a
deals with here is decisIe. As we have said, 5pi I1 07.<I neve!" ope nly bases himse1f
78 COl/jliel, Puwer; (/lid Mullilrule
o n /o.bchiavc lli 's co nfl icumlisl th COl)' of pa titi eso In additioll, lhe histo!), of Ihe
Ro mans is olTcrcd as an e xamptc o f a pere nnial crisis, impossiblc to escape
[rom. Yel based 0 11 hese pas!lages, il ( annal he denied Ihar co n ce p-
li on of poli ri cs eXl ends well beyond these obsen'ations. In fael, peace cannOI be
reduced la an absence of war. Sib'11ificamly, Spinoza uses rh e lanb'l.lage ofwar la
describe iIHcrnal pa tities. The mcaning s cl car. n e\'cnhetess: can corel s no! an
absence of conniCl. says Spinoza. bUI rmher a I'inue ha! s born from strength
of mind. Subjecls who 0111)' kll o'l' hol\' 10 sen 'e are shccp. 110 1 cilizt"lIs. Learni ng
lO a be}' d ocs n o ! in an)' way mean lcarni ng h o,," lO serve. O bcdicncc b CCOlll CS
the active exercise 01' the ""i rtue Ihal is bom fmm slrength of How can
obeelience bejllstified al any COSl? Ha\\' can concord be exp1ained I.hrollgh an
of conf1ia?
Spinoza's orib';nal1ine ofreasoning in lhese passages 1.'lkes a di fferenl 1\Irn
fr0111 whal he mail11ained in Ihe Theo{ogiCl/{"Politiral Trea/iJe. Concord remains
al he hean of lhe argument. Tit e propositi olls in pan [V of Ihe E/llies are nOI
repudiated and il remains u'ue lhal leading LO the commonweal th of
meno III caning, lhose which cause men 10 live in agrecmcn!, are lIseful." Slill.
Spin01 .. a"s trcatmen! of civil pcaee in Ihe Poliliwl '/',-efl/e is 11I0I"e c011lplex,
Iludging th e reacler toward a dilTerent underst..-mding of eoneord and the
role of poltical eonfl iel. I f peaee and eoneord are obed ienee at an)' CaSI, I.h en
whal we are lal king aboul is a If, on Ihe con lrar}'. we unclerstand con"
corel 10 be a "\;rllle lhal arises from slrenglh of mind" lhen we are obli ged \0
renect 011 tit e forms and ways this vi!'tue is exer cised in pOlen tiall r cOllflictual
sillla tio ns.
ES5elllially. is politics withoUl confli ct co ncei \'able? AIso, in the case of COIl"
mel, mUSI we Ihink Ihal crisis all d ruin are Ihe ine\"i table, Gi!astroph ic dcsliny
awaiting all peoples? These al"e lhe queSli ons that tcxt pl"o mpts us to
ask. An inleresting answer had been arrived at thro ugh OU1" in\'eSligmi on of Ihe
concepti o ll of human Ilalure with respecl 10 th e passions. \Ve are
b)' aITecls. and 10 rhi nk ofrhem as abso lul el)' rolional \\'Quld be noth"
ing bUI an illusol1' ficlion. For this ver)' reasoll . politics must be constilllled by
knowledge and au ion in the world as we reall }' are, and 11 01 how we should be
or h o\\' philosop hers would like us lO be. TIle rclalion belween politi cs ami con"
niel muS! be Ihoughl of in lhe S<1I11e way. Not onlr cl oes confl ict (whi ch, inci den"
tally. is largdy depcndent on our afl'cclive natll l'e and no t cxclusi\-dy o n our
rati onalil)') necessaril y Ira\"erse potit ies, Ihe idea of conce iving 01' pol iti es as an
absence of confl icl would he nOlhing but an illusory fiClioll. Th e \wo arg1l11l enlS
lLnfol d in parallel fashi on" revealing a formlllati on thal is solidl)' based on
real ism.
TIl e Imnsfer of natural right.'O--allhough co mpl elcl}' difTerem f1"Om the lib';d.
abslmct imerpretatioll b';\'en \O it by the conml ctlmlisL'i--takes place ami is just i"
fi ed preeiscly by vinue of the inemdieablc conmC\ Ihm exislS betwcen human
bcings. Conf]C\ is nOI a palhology of lhe politicalmcchanism: it is an incradicabl e
element of ib ph)"si oJog)'. Spino7.a goes o n \O sar that
i, i. ,hefo.-e ",'idOl\l ,ha, an o",ir< ln"hilndo "ill n",'oc ,,,,,,,fe< i .. righ' ,,,
f,w men o< ". ",l<, ""n ir ,hey ... ' gre.:, ,,en, ."",ng ,he"".:I,', .. "1,,1
if do uot all"", thc ' luan,,1> "hiel, are a commo" featu'c uf 1ugc cOLln
dI> 'o roach ,he point uf d,il "rife. So a mul,ilude f",ely .... ".ren 'o king
""Iy [ha[ ",'hieh i. "eyo,><l il' ""f"'d[y '0 p"""''''. lha, i a radlily rO!'
"'tlliog di'p",e; fo< m,lj"g r.pio.l d<:<:i,;o" .. "
1" addi,ion lO deocnbing tl,. l he"rotical limi .. o ""'o,",,ign f""''''' ('he f""'''''
'o reoolve d i'I'''I'' and 'lukk d,..,;,;"".). thi, I"'-''''S' .1.\0 1ha'
agr""mellt in O"cI)" >i'ua,io" and a, all time> i> " ph)'iologic.l . ,,""'n' impoo-
>ibilit),. No,,', rOl Spin", ... the <on' .... and the trn,W'"," of righl> do not 'rdn ..
fo.m O\l' n,mc . CO,,[1iCl .n' di"",,,-d do " '" di"'pr<>r li ko "gic, 1ho",ro.-e,
af'er ""'ercig" I><:e" in"i'''l<.<I, COl\nict "ill al"")" 1><: f"'n 01'
,iC!!. one tha' c;m n",,,r 1><: dimina'ro. On the con .... O). ""other front of con-
flict ",m 1>< openod up in "PpositiOl' 'o lhe ",,'orcigl\. w,""" f""'''' m,," 1><
.coi'dy 'Pl""')\'o<l a' .,el, i""ano b\' 'h .. ej, i",,, " order 'o "" pr< ..
Uu' t hc "rgu",ent 1><: !alcen <"'en further. We ""'" ,h.t .. hc" rdemug
'o ,he Dutch >itUalion and!he O""'gi" .'tack on the <k Wi" .rulO"" CY in the
1iro1,,,, "'gime change ..... in ,d.<i"" ,,, lhcJ",,;,h
Roma" hi>'U<e. u( an.J ,"", roundly 11, ,he I,",ilval
'JiroJ;",,1IOffiC di.umc< from currrnt alfai.-. m takm ",hen ,10m 'opie i> d><:U>scd.
Rcgime change. ahhough remaining a crilical phcnomenon for a .odo')', 00.,.
"01 imM' ,,,,,,,1 uf roii, io.:allife, l11<k",-l. Sri""'" "'Ii, .. , ha,
the '1"",r", l. and ,el><llion. ,hal a", uf'e n .lirroo up in
load 1<) ,lo" ,Iiw'",ion o( , he co",mon"".hh b\' i .. dli",m (a., i.
ortcn , he "'ith other "",-,<;",;on,) bu, "-' a in il> fonn_d,at m. if
thcir dmpu'CI cannO! 1>< "itile >1m p",,,,,,ing the .tructure of tIle
commo.-."e.l lh."
QJarrcl. ,-"l><:llion>-in wOld. conflict"""",rc ne, .. " , he fAc'or> ,h.t !cad lO
,ho diosolution uf t he d'i"""y. They ere.le a djn,mic thal i.
oflen . nd ",'i , h lt:>.gic dr"" .. , hUI i, would 1>< ao itl""'I)" r.cuon lO ,,-;,h
for , h<i, elimi" ",iol\ f'orn ,he p<>I;'i<a1 hor,m, '111 ... i" the
1'oIi/;"1II T",o/"pu.Jly IlII in a more complex .nd nUdncoo image of conni.
Th. picture ,hoy 'ra"" Out in """,e paf" uf,he ,e", ac'ually >cem. 'o 1>< como
plOtely op>osit<' ,,, ,"'h., apP"aro c., li n i\],hough SI,;n"", "'Hr ' ''''''',
'" "OC>, u...t conllict i. tlle f.e'oc th., mdkc. ,he political life of a
republie heal'h y, he doe. go 00 far "" to declare il> "Ppo>ite. namel}". ,ha, "i,1<-
0'"' >"Hict. ,1,. h<al ,h uf . ,,,,,e """ be "'''''''', 1" ... ",ion 14. ch.p'cr 9 01' 110 .
J'oIiI ;" ui 'J""';" lo < ",'Ii ,es
'h ... ,,;,10 eaeh dly in'en' on i" ,,,,'n imore ... and jealo.,. of othon. 'hey
"ill fr"'-lu,noly "" a, odd, "'i ,h ""e . ","1"" ,"""e ,im" i" d i'p",e;, For if
"'hile , he Rom.n. deha'e. S:agutllum i. lo .... on ,he o,her hand all
,le"i.io,," ",ad. by f"",' onlr ,l!e",,,'I\"c; 'o pie .... , fr.:e-
dom ."d , he emnmon goo,j loo'. fM' ;" ,ha' men', voi .. "", '00 OOtu>c
'o go' "rdigh' 'o tite he.n of "'''''y qu",ot,. but b)' discu>.i ng, 'o
othc .... <leoo,io g. ,h.ie "",,, are .ha'l"'"ed, and by e. pl ..... ing .,-e-
o:.1i",,,,-er """,,",i"g ,ho' "'<:<:"
with gener.1 appr"",.l and no one hao:! p"",iowl)l'hough' or."
Freedo.-n ,1,. <<>I11mon good d""dol' O", uf a<l:.ing ju,- and li>leni"g 'o
"Pi"ioru, lO di!l<u"ing with e_eh othcr. bu, .1", ou' of ,he cuntlict and
diocOITl tha'lRJppono.-. of authoritartm ded.ionism are onlr '00 h .. t) 'o con
demn, pr..,;..,ly in ,he name "f concOITl . " d ,h. <:<><nmon good. The ,),..-.,,,,ieol
lJu):,< uf Ad,,,,,. hi. "-..y imo """"er in uf uni')" 'IId
concord. Ile cllne. "'y> bmnd;"hing ,he ".ndard. of fedom .nd
uni'y in order '0 pu, an end 'o ,he ",,,lIk, a nd <liocorru , h .. pl.gued t he d')'of
FloccII<". h, ,,,.Ii'y. "'h,,, 1' 0 ""'gil( w;L< 'o ."bjuIP,e ,j, " ci'r 0,)(1 1'''' on e"d 'o
The ",me i. exprC'M! by Spinono: .t..cna: of ronllict mOl a'
t imeo be tho >}'mp'om ola .it ""tion ,ha' " muoh " .""", than tite conll", i""lr.
h may he ,he hegin ning of ,he 1""" of fo.- in".n_
1" thio p""'.g<. , hc of co"lIi ;" COIme<.1"o:! 1o ot..c", .. i",os 01' U",clo
f>OIi'ico. In i",tif)ing hi. a'tack on an eli';'" au,horitArian concep'ion of poltico
, ha! legi'imi, .. 1""lf. fo.- eumple. , hrough , he goal of elimina!lng poIitical
c""flie,. conlin"o< by .... "g ,h'"
if anyone re'ort> ,ha! the ,tare of HolI.nd ha> nO! endurro "irnOlll
a coum o.- O dep"')" o , ake hi. place. le, him takc ,hl, fOO" ply. The I)",ch
",ough' th., to ",.intai" fronlol11 it vr.J.S ror ,he,," '0 .b<o."d""
tltcir <Dun' and 'o rut off tite from tite bodyof'he .tate, Tho 'hough'
ofrcocganl>ing 1, in a <lm"e", form has ne"ce emered ,hci, ",Ind.; th")' ha,,,
H, all jI> li,"I:o>,.. 'h")' had -", th.' HoIland has ('<;",ai,,,,I .
cou"t) " 'i thou' a co"n'. 1ik" o hc<KI l= t>oo:ly. ti,e .ta'e witlto,,' a namc."
The ])",d, .;,,,.,io,, """n'" he u-led. ,h.". 'o j ""if)' ,he .", hon, o"'" ollad.
o( ,hose ,,'ho "'''''' I"'li'i<> "i thout ", nie,. w;,hou' di><""I. ano:! "i,lo'><H
t umul". 1, i. 'rue tha' .... ftilc tite Rom"" . ,kb;,'e. S:agun<um " 1"",,- bu' , ul'"
pr",-,ing the ,ime and methoci. of <tebatc. ",' hieh are al,o "ce .... ,,!y ron""'u.l.
Ie.d. to 'n .'"n ,i,uali"". Spi"wa', us<: of ,he "hoadl",,<
in ,hi, i, .1>0 ,;gnificnL 11,c "'111" figur<" "',,, uocd by Machi.",lIi ""he"
o"""ing ma! ,,-hen ,ho Rom.m ccmOlro ,h< . m<:)' ""Ppcd the corrul'"
,"', froln .pn".-ting rrom 'o ,he "''Sl of ,I' e 0<><;;'1 botly_ The -"",,,<,'
lo;,,] bttn ... ,'<'<1 f""n pcn" .. ne"t <orrup'ion.'" As We h.,'o "''''' . .. 'i,\ the
<umple of tite EnglWt. in ,he T/troiot;i<a/-PoIiml Trroli" Spino,," cejcc'ed the
JerrlSII/e1l/ n/ld Rnmt 81
shortcut that r-bchia,"clli claimed had sal'cd Rome. !<1 Yet, 10 support his a rgu-
mem condemning the Ol"angist reacti on, restates and confirms the
same ilnage of the headl ess body llSed by L\lachial'el1i. [11 secti on 14, chapl er 9,
he comments
so it is nOI surprisi ng Ihal most ofi ls subj ecIs lWl'e nOI known wh ere ils sOl'er-
eigm,. lar And el'e]) ifthis were [101 so. Ihose who in fact held the so\"ereignil}'
were fa r toO fe\\" 10 be capabl e ofgo\'eming the pco pl e and supprcssing thcir
powerful op poncn15. As a resull, the lalte l" han' often been abl e 10 pl o t against
them with impunity and finall)' ha\"e succeeded in ol'enhrowing them. Thel" e-
rore the sudden Ol'enhrol\' of this salll e republi c resultee! 110t from wast e 01"
time in deliberati ons bUl fl"011l th e d efeClhe cOl1 stiuni ol1 oflhat state
and lhe fewn ess of ils
The subj eCl 01" corrupl maner ami th e to pOS o f th e headl ess body appear
on ce ab<ain iu cor'tiunelion ,,ilb Ihe needs 01" DUlch politi es. then. MosI il11por-
[amI)'. in Ihi s conjuncti on Spino1.a s negalil'c opini o n 1Tb<arding po liti cal
confliCl is signifi cantl y rc\ised: Ihe lime spent in d cliber.ni o ns was 1101 wasled .
On Ihe COnll<lI;'. ir there had been a larger llumber of rul ers. ane! Iherefore,
greater and confrontati on. Ihe sluati on would ha\-e been bener.
[n li gh I of Ihe e' en LS in Holbnd, bUI also of Machial'elli 's conniclua!i sl Ih eorr,
Spin07 __'-"s condem nati 011 of connicl has been no tably soflened . E\en Ihe hisl ory
of Rorne and lhe enlirel)' negali\'e \i ew Iha! he had expressed aoolH il are par-
liaH)' rel'ised in the Polil;m! T""ul ist. Th e Romal1s kn ew no!hing OUI connict.
SpillO:tll had d aimed. Unco nquer.lble by external ene mies, the}' lI'ere d efc ,ll ed
by thci r own citil.ens. No\\', as we kno\\", in Machial'dli's \'iel\' il was 11 01 co n ni cl
thal led lO the d ownb.ll 01" Rome. but a multipl e, compl ex sed es of circum-
stan ces. Ol1e of th ese is d escribed I'er)" clead)" b)' L\l achia\'el1i as l.h e po lilical
inlen enti o n of Ihe armi es. whi ch were fi rSI llsed as inslruments of pressure and
hen as weaponr)' 10 take power. One oflhe ractors lha!. mosl conlribllte<l to Ihis
lI egati\'e Olll COll1 e accordi ng 10 Mach ia\-elli was lhe prolOl1gali oll of militar}'
cOlllmands b';l'en lO indil'iduals wh o were consequently abl e 10 make lIse ofthe
troops as their He lhus explaills Ihal Ihe prolungati o n of
milita!)' commands madc Romc a ser\'il c
The resulting alllhorimrian and pcrsonalized mililal'}' cOllll1land \Vas an el e-
menl 01" cOlTllpti on Iha1 fa,. OUldid the il1 effects of an}' co nflict, inclllding those
ensuing from lhe Agrariall _'l.\\". Whi le in lhe Tll eologicul-Politicnl TI"f'flli.fI' Ihe
hist or)' of Rome was dislingui sh ed precise\y by il s insurmounmbl y connic lUal
charaCl er. Ihe (IUeSli oll i5 revisit ed in lhe Politim/ Trf'{lfisf'. Rome is II sed once
ab<ain 10 lalk aboul Holland, where lhe mil itari sl Ihreal was a seri oll s issue o f the
da)'. William of Orange was also Ihe head of the arlll )' ane! a mililal")' hero
because his fam il}' "'a s lt'aditi onally recognized fOI" ha\'ing led the r<,,\' oll a:piml

C. tholic Sf"'in !ha, bmughl ,he country 'o indel"'ndence l'u"ing lh"",
'oge'h"", Sl'iUO/Al . in <omp",e .w"""'''', L ";\10 Machi.wlli', cri 6'l""
oftk "p rol"n8,Hion' of mili"")' C<Hnmanm. 11,< hi''''r)' uf Rome in ,he I'ol;w.i
Tmll",i. no longer ,cad acrording 10 ,he rigid ",horno of. negal;'-. conniCl
ha' . preacl, cndlC><!y ""'tho", ,cm"'!l'_ The d"""fall of fOO" Spi " o,," ..
"cll, ""aS ,,,,,",,d p,;'dy by i" milita!)' t'OlI\""I1<I" U"ring a time uf lleno".
en,i., the ci,.c", lu m ,,,. m"" ....... hu lI ",no"mro for hill ';00"", '11<" oc, him
f, .... r,om ,he l." ... [hey " .. end hi. comman<!---;, '''''1 b:>d p,ecedem": tJl. lI
0.""'1)1 "h.\ 1<<1 RO!ne '" ;1.< ruin."
Spill"''' gocs bad un l, i, >le>, tl, Cl' , ,,,,,numillg !J\. "':8ati", opin;ol1 he
h.d cxprcsscd of Roman hi"orJ as one of etemal conflku. Othor domen'"
[ha, are c"""ccl<'(! ,n , he mm"dial< poIi,i .... lI "uo< of ,he da)' in I !ollanrl .re
011< .... '<1 lO ex?lai" ,h,' do""f.U <lf ,he "'publi<. TI,e"" ekm"",, .. al ... "'"""
from Machi.,,,Ui', r=ding or 11,)'. bu, tite mOOl im><>rtan' 'hing 'o mM i. ,ha'
, he e",,,ing concep'iOl' of con me, j. profoul1dly differel1l. Ol1ce '8"in. in tite
f:u:t' of thi. P""'''''' .ill1>o'io" "'hieh "", 1".tI 'o one man b<'"g """""ooJ "j,),
,he or the '''' 'e, Spillo,," ,e.pulldo a ",.tI1 'o 'c>i."'na "lid co"llie,.
IJi. eall i. explici' and ele.,-. pr<xceding f,om ,he arguments tita! Machia,'ell
had p,n fonoarrl Indc',.-t. Spin",,,, COIl,inll'" in """ion 10, ehap' '''' 10 ma in-
, ha,
al tlt ough ,,-jd"'p,ead panic Icoad. to sorne eonfusloo in ,he eommOl,,,'e.llh,
no OOe "ill be lO <_k ,11,' o"d al'l"';n, 'Uf'''''''''' ilkg:dly 'o a mili-
tal)' command "itltOIlI a' ,,"ce tite oppooi,;on uf OIhcr
To """le ",ch. dJlpule;1 ... i ll r",ally be found nec<=U)' ID ha,,, ,eeoll"" 'o
,he ""n .. illnion ,Il .. ","", nnCe oro.lned . " d apl'", ... ,,1 by all and lO ",-rler Ih"
... of '''''e in .o,dl1\e< "i,h exi,ulIg
Thc l.", .nd , he con.ti,"';on, if ... 'ell fo.-m" la,cd, be ahl. lO re.oh" tite
,lisl'U'C, I\"<'''nhol ... , :.ri_"" from <"nHie,. It i. 0.-,1)' Ihrough couflin
tha' tite lIegitima'e U.Urp<T uf _e" .. hieh William uf Or.nge cenainlr ""',
ca n be oppooed,
\\'e.,.., jll"ir .. d io ..,,,ing. ,hen, in Ihe f"'''''l!e from
" """';"10 , he 'ImdiY,heT<O "'" nowbk in ,he w.y eontlin ,,'"
concm'C<!. From a ""und eOl1dcmn.l;on (exemplifted br Ihe hi""'l' uf Romc
hlll br the Spin",,, P"'"'" lO more wmplex .nrl "pini""
tlt., c",neo ct ..... r 'o .. pooi,iol\s, Conllie, ol\ ,h. char.e,er uf
a ph),. iologiGtl r.,hcr t hall a pathologirul domen' uf poli' ies for 8]>i","-".
"''Or. tite .bsence of eonnict i. '''1)' or'el! the 'J'mplom o f a much WD"'" .itu.>-
, ioo ,ha, i. pceltJrle ' o ,h., 1"", of inrlcl"'tld<t\<O .",1 freedom uf a
Cllllie, al"'l",rf'-"'llI. :.ooi'; ... , f01' (lio", ,hell, '-", ,he fat' ti,", eO,"
cDi j . not tite .... tie absence <lf""T, bu, a vinue tita' come> a h,.., in OUT action.
' hfOlIgh .e.manee .. well as tIt,ollg h conllkL
Chaplcr 5
fus tili a et A '/'fl!i
As we have the rigor a lle! cOl1sistency o f l,b.chia\"elli 's co nfli ct-based con-
ccpli on of polil k s lends it alllhc chara Clcrisl ics of a fully dc\'el opcd Ihco l"}", It
is Ihi s conmclUali st dl co r)' ofpolit ks thal c011Stitutcs thc Machiavcllian rc \'olu-
l on il1 Ihc hislOr)" of pol itical Ihougl ll, pro\idce!, h o\\'cver, Ihat Ihe tCI"I1l
luti Ol t is lt sed in a ver)' precise 1\".1)', If..-hal we mean by il i5 somelhing Ihal has
been fu lly defincd ami acco mplished (e\'en in Ihe face of strong resistance . li ke
a ne\\" paradigm imposcd on preccd ing Iheod es by Ihe ,,'cighl of ils e\"id ence,
like Ihe Galil ean r c\"oluti on in physi cs 0 1' Ihe Oal'winian in anlhropolog)") Ihen
Mach iavelli's conlribulion cnnot be consiclered a re\"ollUi on, O\'el" lhe cenlU-
des Ihat foll owed, th e best minds in phil oso phy se l aboul negaling h is Ih o nghl
or opposing it direcl lr (rcason of stale), eill lel" Ihro ugh silence 01" wi11ful o bli\"-
ion (Hobbes more Ihan an}"one else ) or by recas\ill g il il11 0 all insipid rep ubl -
canisl1l of "irtues and mcrits (Gui cciardi ni ami HatTillglOn ), 01" cisc by IlI"i sling
lhe conmClualisl stancc 10 Ihe demands of Ihe nell" d omimml classes, in Ihe
fmmcwork ofa liberalisl righl 10 resistall Ct' (Locke) , Inslead, ",hal ,,'C should
d o is 1'1.111)" embrace lhe (lO use a pla)' on wonJ..) 01'
Machia\"c11i's co nlli ctuali st co nccplon: his banlc 10 I'C\'eallhe mechanisms 01"
polili cs a nd i[s hidden face,
This I"eali sm is shared by Spino l.'l , whose geomelric method ( more similar 10
Galil eo's (han [O l'lobbes's 01' Desearl es') eannol cOI'er up !.he dark side of poli -
lies 01' all y ilse1f \\'ilh Ihe edifying and consolalOry narral\'e 011 conni el pro-
dueed by phi losophy: lIu: primili\"e appearanee of eo nni el ane! ils \"i o lem
difTusioll, foll O\\'cd by ilJl submissi on \O lhe Sup(' ri or fOl'ce of reason whi eh kecps
il oUlside Ihe confines ofpoliti eallife; and lhen Ihe instiuni o n oflhe law, which
s,,'Hl Cli ons o ut" viCI O!'}' o\"er our feral ori gins, These re lhe s:l.lll e Ol'igins Ihal
never ceasc, howc\'el", 10 Ih realen our peacefn1 existe nec in th e !Ol,f, under-
M,ood as a rati onal crealion, The obli galOl"y nalllre of Ihc la\\' and punishmenls
for transgressors are juslifi ed-just as so\'e l"eignt y is-by [he \'e r)' fael th \ Ihe)'
aet as barri ers mld basli o ns abr:lillst lhe Ih reat ofa potenlial1apse in\O b:l.rb<l. -
ri sm ami a Slale ofnalure, SpinO:fA"l does nOI bu)" ill.l o lhi s ll1ythi cal narnlli\"c and
he d ocs nOI conlribUle \O ill\"enting Ihis lradili on, By his refusal \O parli eipate,
he openl}' allies himsc1f Wilh Ihe wickcd, {u;1Ili.niIllIIJ Florclltine Ihinkcr,
,-,
COl/jliel, Puwer; (/lid Mullilrule
rcsc rving an ino nlinatc amo unl o fhis lime. according LO Ihe cx pcctations of
his CId, \O co nfliu as a p h c no menon thal i5 an in eradicabl e pan o fpo liti cs.
No\\', a ne migh! think [ha1 his au.enti on placed 011 Ihe more realiSlic aspects
o f polilics. ane! specifically on co nmCI, 1\'0\11<1 lead 10 a lack of nleres! in Ihe
jurdical ami inslitut ional aspects oC lhe civil li fe. BUI Ihis i5 110\ Ihe case fOI"
Machiavel1i 01" for Spinoz<l. Although crili es have preferred 10 focus 011 lheir
poltica[ phil osophy ntther han lher legal philosoph)', bOlh writ t rs dedicated
a clcal orthei r attcn tioll to issues of lal\'. Th eir r cflc c ti o n 011 hese subjecLS
l'CI"Cals funhcr p o inl5 of cOlll lll o nality bc twecll Ihe two thinkcrs, making it p o .....
sib!e \O trace out th e origins ofa genui ne current of cri tica! leg:.:11 theor)' al Ihe
dawning of Ihe early lII oder n periodo
In the firM seclion of this chapter, we will attempt to reconstruct th e reb.ti on-
sh ip between law and co nl1i ct de\"eloped primarily in TI" Disomrses. but pi cked
up agaill and ref01"lnukued bOlh in Tlle Pril/ CPand in l\b chia\"elli"s mosl "con-
work" Ihe Florel//il/ e His/ories" What we will sllow in panicular is the
recll rsive SlrUCl ure of lhe relat ionship belween law and confli cto and ha\\'" for
l\Iachiavelli" lhis rclaLolI ship scn "cs 10 kt"CP thc ciLzcns " awarcncss of vi!"tuc
latH ami alivc" \Ve will lhen go o n \O analFe Ihc dislnction between posit ivl'
and l1 egali\"e fOnJls of conllict in order 10 gl"asp whether his dicholOlny is
esse n lial to l\"l achia\"elli 's fon nulati on of a conf1ictualiSI lheor}' of the law" In lhe
second seclion, we will examine Spinoz"'I's conceplion of r ighl as power" This
queslion leaels Spinoz.'l 10 refortnulate Ir;,ditional lheories of natural law Iha l.
through lhe works ofGrotius ami then Hobbes. bebr;lll 10 lake rool in Western
legal lhoughl. We will also see ho\\' Spinoza"s j lls sillf' JJo/el/ /ia, al ong Wilh lhe
noti ons of l"Olw/us-"csislance and imfiglltl/io, hclp to creat e a se manti c ficld in
which he issue of conlli cl occupi es a signifi cant spacc, echoing th emes and
problcllls that stem dircctly from a rcading 0 1" l\Iachia\"clli.
In both lhinkers, the cOlllbinati on of lIs/iti/! e/ lI7l/i, or la", a nd confli ct, finds
concrete expression in lhe rt::ieclion of mercenary armi es and in lhe idea lhat
cit izen armies are superior" As lhe immanent, self-organi1A"'lion of a political
comm Ullil)'. lhese are \"iewed as an expression of popular vinue or mul/i/wfillis
JJo/fu/ill whose task is 10 seek peace bUI also 10 defend lhe la\\'" \ "ihoUI anned
dcfellse. lhe la\\" r Ulls lhe cOl\li n ual risk ofbeing trantpled 011 alld bcing red uced
10 mcre ill k stai ns on papcr. An amI)' of citizc ns, h o\\"c\"CI", fully ach ieves Ihe son
o f rcc ul"sive rclati onship betwecn laws and confli ct ",hich, by figllling, all ows
them 10 prescrve lheir frcedom and independence.
"You have very littlejustice, and of arms, none al aH": Lawand
Conllict in Macruavelli
Machia,"clli"s rcncction on thc la\\' stal"lcd \"CI) ' carl}' on. beginning in the pe ri od
hc sc n"cd as Sccreta l)" 10 th e Chanccl)', duri ng Ihe clamor of C\"CnlS hat lcd 10
IIISlilia el Armi 85
lhe fal1 orthe republi c and the loss ofhis positi on. lt was precisely during lhese
rears, in 1506 to be eX;Cl, while working on lhe creati on or the Fl orentinc mili-
lia, thal i\bchiayelli enc;psul;ted whal co uld be consicl ered o ne orthe co rn er-
stones of his lho ught: Ihe inclissoluble uni on be tween righ1. ami power, laws ami
force. In his new mililia orclinanee, lhe C(lgio/l edelrOrdill(/m.lI, Maehia\'el1i ree-
ognizes-and tries to cOllvi1Lee hi s super iors-thal lhe mOSl importal11 under-
takillg that a republi c should engage in is to nOI passi\"ely submit to lhe inevi labl e
changcs of the Gil tll(' comrary, as fa r as possiblc, political upheamls
should be indcpendentl y dominmed and contl"O\l cd. Ob\10usl)', :. good poli ti-
cal is essential to ;ccomplish Ihis aim. Now, sa)'s i\lachb.\"elli,
regardl css of lhe form of go\'ernmenl, stabilily and po1ilical force are founded
on IWO elemenlS: good j ustice and good And th ey are necessaril y d e\el
oped in lande11l . he wriles in Ihe CflgiQ/!f,
e\"er)"o ne knows that anyone who speaks of empire. kingdom, princi pal e,
[or] republi e-anyo ne who speaks of merr ,,'ho cornmand. beb';rming a L lhe
lOp ami going all lhe ,,"ay d own lO the capl ain of a br"g;:lIltlne--speaks o fj us-
tice ami anns. Vou have \"er1' IiLtl e justice, ami o f arms, none aL a\l; and Lhe
way 10 reacquire bOlh i5 simply lO onl er up an army by me;ns ofa publi c ded-
sion and a good order, and Lhen maintain il. Oon't be fooled by lhe pasl one
hunclred }"ears when rOl! II'ecl di lTerenll y and yOIl presetTed )"ourse h'es,
beca use ir }"Oll carefull )' eo nsider Ihe difTerence between )"our present t imes
ami those of lhe [lasl, )"OH \\'ill see thal yo ur freedom GH11l01 possibl)' be
prese r\"ed in the S<lme \\"a)'.1
Thcsc pas!k"lgcs dedicaled cnt.ircl)' to politics, )"e l clcarl)' informed by profo und
lhcoretical considerati ons, emerge as Oll e of lhe mOSI importan! ker'llcls of
Machiavelli 's Lhoughl, Ol1e thm wi11 rUIl lhroughoul hi s eruire opus. This indis-
soluble uni on belweenjuslice ilnd arms meil llS Ihal internal and ex ternal poli
tieso la1\" and war,jusice ilnd violente, musl be conce ived on Ihe s.."l 11le planeo
Au)' lheorel.ieal or abslrael di \; sion belween thern musl be immediat el)' dis-
manll ed in order to open Lhe war up 10 a realisrn based on a conni Clualisl COrl-
ception oftlle la\\". This imperati\'e will be mOSl full)' \\" orked Out in 771l! DiJCOlllltJ,
,,'here he nesh cs Out the idea of a close connec ti on bet"' een the law and
conflict.
In lhe firsl chapter 0 1" Tlrr /)COIU3f.$, i\b chia\"elli disclI sses Iilws in re\ati o n LO
lhe formal ion of polili cill sodeies, 0 1" "the origin of dlies." The fa cton Ibill
converge in deciding 0 11 lhe building of ; dly are lI1an)' and \1U'iOIl S, bUI Ihe
nmin oll es are lhe \;rlUe o f Ihe "builder" and Ihe forllme bof whal is bl.lih.-!
BOlh thes!:: faclors poirn 10 anollier pair of concepls that ilrt: mOled in the COll-
cepti on of nalure: necessity and Machial'el!i explains llrat II'h(' 11 n cces-
sity is at work, the- sclcction lI'ill be more \'irtUOllS, whcrcas whcll mel1 aet "by
lhe marb'ns for erTor are wid er. The qllcstion thus ar'ises 1\"helher it is
be" .. ,o -a """"n place ., .!lO !h .. men "",uld ha, .. KI be indu .. riow
a no.! l ... gi"ell 'o .. nd so "vuld toe m ..... U" i' ffl l",o:-.. ",<, ..... ; "g 'u ,h"
poor- , i'U.tiOll, , here """Id b" le <>:<""ion Jo.- di>cord: ...- -"el)" f<rti!e place.-
oITering the eomfon, of lifo. We ha,.., ",en !ha' M.ehia,,,,1Ii clearly , .. ,,'" hio
fo< ,he ,",CO<1d Of'liOll, pc<:<i.dy !><:e.,,,,,, ''''' il\g 'o. re"il. place,
t h<;o" m.y toe -' o dek "d ."d -" .. ,,'loo ,,,,,,d in
''''y of <h e dt)", grcatnoo,'"
1101 !hi. io "he.-e we come 'o !he m",,( inter",( ing "'pe<t of!ho 'lu""ion_ The
OO'''''''''ge. of. 1.10 muS( toe " 'eighed .. gai"" and <X>!"id .. ,..,.1 ,os .. loer
",ith !he >OIIiti,,, elfo, '!> oh b<trre" one. bild drce!> of the .. pro-
d ueed by me fruitfuln"", ofa land m",t be <omba ,ed by ror-cing !he men (o be
"",i,'e a"d imposing ,'inue on 1'h;, i. ,,-h oro come in'o ,he di""lS-
,iu", ,i"ce ,heir fU!\<h"" i, nOl ' o prOlee, meJO '" 'o en'ure c;,,1 rda.
tio", in mdr >hared life but , a mean. of r",;,"ing (he <orruplion brough(
on 1' idlone .. , Th. "",k of ,he la",' i. (o force men ' o be ,inuo,," ",'hene,,,,
" .tu," i , 'o I><rfonn ,hi, f""<ti"" on ie< 0'-' \. ;'w ca., be !hOllgl" of
"" ""ilicial nccno;,y cOInf'<'''''' ' d foc"n unf,," omblc n,,(un,J .i(= (;o,,:
f"' radrno: icall)' oo . inee a .ite of thio .Orl is aclO.U)' '00 -fru i(ful- (b. nl<> (o ilJl
ame n;'i", aod " nfof(' _ 1\0 .,-, if,C;al mi"" a ".,)><I)ing pla", a n.-J
, he "n"".i, j",, - imroo",1 by ,he 1", "'o uk\ ,lo", appe"r 'o be I)c;( meollOd
rOl' inducing men 'o be ,i rluow. The primal)' mean;ng of !he law ;o nOl 'o
d ofend lIOtlIe a bo" ... ct righ,. ,hen. bu( 'o <f'-"'te a n obj<'<';''' hared ,i(u>ti""
, ha, >r<:>"""' """ rro," 1j';l\ S i n
Ho,",en,.. (he \aw abo lo ., , hc ru"ehO" of g<l"cming .nd pro' ccting ,he eivil
community, Fmm !hio f>OIn' of vi""" the la", h", a d od>i,'e role in -'egula'i ng-
, he poli'c.l ,h. , ;. eI"n more impo"ano ,han , he rorm ofgo"emm"", _ lo
'0 .. 1, l. d'"p,er 58 of r", I )iwu ... aruc:! r", lile ' ''pcr;ori(y of,he
people """ a princc, In ",her >rord., he belie,,,,,!ha,!hc prcmppooition of
, hos< ""ho be lio,'e , hat a priodf"'lit), io mo<e . ",bl" ,han a republie .nd , ha, !he
g,>I'ernrne", of a p r;n<e i, "nd m",e -.",ble- "c,,,ocra,icall)'
"'lfAni,.ed by !he opi " io" hekl by ,he majority __ " urou" ded.
1'0 oxp rc .. thio Klea. M.ehia,'olli emba, k. on a d i,m .. ion of (he l ...... tating
, ha(
jWIl" princcly formo of ha"e endurO<! foe. ,,,O)' long time, "'.
(00, hal" repul>lic:m ronn. or go'o"mm",,' : .00 , ha, in both """'. i, has becn
". ",,,,iol rOl" ,Io"m 'o be .-e8ul. ",1 by 1' ''',_ FO<" a I .. i ""," ""hodoes "ho' h. ..
i. a lu"a,ie, a"d pcople ",hich does i, hl<.c. i, un",i"". Ir, !herofore. it be
a q ues' ion ofa pli n . u""" ';,,n( 'o !he l."" a mi ofa people ch.ined up b)'
l.",,," ,inue .. ; 11 be fo""d in , he peor1e ,h.o in ,1, . pri,, : and ir i( be
quCiti",] of cit!'er 1""",-,1 fro," cornrol by (he "'w, !here ,,'ill 1>< foou, \
re"", erro.-. in ,he pcopk in (he nd (h""" of 1.,.. momen( and
mud, ea.,ier '0 pUl righ', '
lusu,i. el Mmi
The ruperiocity o/" , he people ,,,'ec ,he prince is .",,,,d ... principie ... en in
,he e"" 0/"" g<>"e,ur".", ' l""",,' fNl" tI' . n,, ,"'",age. ,),", P""I,I<
<"dn eau>< ", 11 in "\Ir e .... be fe"", d,." wh., " princc , '''p'' ble 0/". TIle ",,,,, are
p reeis<1y ,,' ha, pemide a mirror mage o/" the eollecti,,, , democratie KD,,,rn
menL fI pofIul.r g,,,"ernmcn< 'Ioooed f,om 1' ,he ,."' he inenml""
rably be""," , han any miro t' prim'". Criu h,,'" rigl"i)' "",,,,, .. 1 , ha,
rrnm", 0/" i,,,.tion in ",hieh a prin", -can d o ... h., he lik" .- ;" a
<"<lndemnation of ,he 1'1.'onic uu'pia o/" lhe I' hilooop her King.' Tho l'la,,,,,ie
elre.m "' .. '0 be r...,. o/" ' hc fe',e .. or r 1 poliliu .Ioog ,,,h il< elillicul,i.,. .",1
obotructioll' '" a. '0 bes, eKd!e ,he mtio" a] 1""" i, .. ithin lit" ""le re<Kh o/"
p hilooophec. , he kn""", of ,he Good, For a peBOn can do
he lih , i , nor a -m." o/" wiodom : Noc<$'Oi!)" ""' ppe'''' a,. morir. i",ffi.
d uc<:<J 1' Mach;""clh in op;usi'ion 10 ,Ile o'opiau choicc lita, , he
'",Ilonie a"mece. Alld lIti. nec""i')". onee "gai n. i, arrind a' 'hrough ,he la ... ,
takes , he ela>sic "rule o/" la .. ' rgu men' in an o<igin.1 d i,,,,,.ioll 1'
to<'l(lill g i, ' ..... ."1 , h< r<j"",ioll uf. '\lpenOl", '",-'''.;''10<1,,,,,,, l(. to<
p];" h 1 tllrough I"'li'ia_.ome' hing lita' c<""ini)' 11 0< """,,,pe Spin"",',
n<>lke. La .. do no' represent an imperfect approximaon o/" a ouperio< Good
, hO)' a nec .... i,y , h., imf">"" ,inL!e on men'
11,. (00"""';"'" !x,,,,,",, n<"""i ty .nd la" tl,at Mad,i.,dli """bli.h", 1". .. <1. 10
a eonccpon-and oomti ,u' "" a gmeology-of lite nooon o( la,. ,ha, , entirci)'
1l000el. Af<ec d",,-",ibi ng tl,. role o/" lite I.w huilding ,he ro,.., d,;"" Machi.ulli
rxpl.i", ti ... """."" ,h .. a,_ in ,h.,... f,,,,, 'nl<
')pi,"i)' r. oc"roi", Olmc'",e ti,., plap ' L! eh a" in' I"'r1lUl' role in ,he relaon'hip
oc',.,.COtl la"' a nd poU'ia in Maehia,,, lI i'. 'hough' > formula,ed here ror ,he ro ... ,
,ime. On ,he one hand, ,he la .. eO<1,ri"",o" 'o , he building of """ic,i.,. 'hrough
,hc a"i!l(i3l c,.. ... of ...... ditio", of "ccessity lita, ",ay be IodtinK in lite
.,"'ing. On the other hand, poIi'ical life in lite eitico crea' "" ne ... la", lIterel'
helpi ng 'o.." up lIt, recuro"" rela,ion th>! loacl> 'o ,irme.'
In b"", 1, d'. p,,'r 2, M. c),ia,,<lli or' ,he rda,iou'hip l ... ,.
i""i'utio", 01\ ,he 01" lIand, "ud lbe of a"' ''''' I"'liedl fo,m
on ,he ot her hand. Afr d iotinguuhing !xtween "" .. , -ha,,, !xCI\ .ub-
je<, 'o a n",her f"""''''c' a"d , lit> " h kh h .. " heen "r.c rcm""<-d fmm a,,)' kinrl
of ex'ernal >c,",';u.o<i<. - Mad,i., 'el li t'On",,,,,r., c< hi. atlcntiou ,," tl,e laller, 11<
,hu ugga". l>road d hi . ion bc'",cen l.",. bd><d O<l thek ori gins, obo<:-"ing
,h ..
'o ",me [rep ublia] I"w> ha' " bcc" gi,'c!! by OOntc ooe per.ol'l " t .... me "ne
time.:LO ... ""e 'I",n 10 ,he SpanaIH 1' I.)"urgus: "'he,,, .. o llte<> ha,e
acq L! irerl hy c hallee ' 1\d al dilfer"", ' ;n' .... ,, .. ion aro><:'
A, ti ... ITiOdi ng. i, would occm !ha' prcfeITnce i. gi.m 10 "'I"'blia wcre
gi>"n "a, so",e olle ,ime." nd eed, d, de r""une he< in ha,'ing cnroumer<-d'

-. man so prudcft!' "'TI<IOe lega l ... isdom .11"""",1 ,hom ' " -Ji,-. ""cur"'y' ro< many
.. Or, ,he <"''''-.ry. j , , fa, ,,,,,,'c ,lin"",l, rOl" a r<public ,h., -1"" ,,,
"'lfJ.lli,. il><lf: Al time>. lile a'K"rncllt ,11., ,\!achi",'dli ;. 'mcing out >ecm,
almos! diameuically opf>O""d '0 h;" rejcction of a f,nal end and a hlgher good
l hal are al ,he..-.le ,e.ch oh 11alooic I,,,-,nak,,,_.,-,fo,,,,,. Inde.d. he acld> [ha,
"o( ."eh lha,;" m<>re ... 'hid, i. lhe more '",,,ole from
onkr: and th .. " (he m"", mnolc from ""le, ",h""", imtitu lion. ha'.., m;,.ro
altogether ,he ,,"";ght roa<! lcad. t' '" .. p",r"" and true ""d:" Spana
wo"ld t.. a mood in ,hi. 1"eS1"'"U 1><:""",. j , " .... se, ,he p",h ,,,,"',ro ,r .. "
cnd' 1')' rne legal wi><lorn of Lycurgu . lhe op!""'itc ro.- Rom whkh, al
le .. ' [mm thi. J>Oinl ofvicw. apf><"' lo be inferior be",,,,,, ;, did nOl h .. "
[h. fo.-mn< of ,ueh a lawm,Ilc,.
Am! lhe colllplcldy dilre,crIl tum. Sp.na . ,,,1 .11 "'p"l>-
lico "'al had good la". "al.omc O!1C timc" are pUl .. idc lo room ro<."
ol Rome. a more imcre .. ing l<>pie fo< M. ehia,clli becau", "'O eil)"
;oc l1i ,,,'<:<.1 <"Ve" "", a bellCf ra le i" Oflhe fae< lhal
il 1.d,C'd a lawsi'u Machlli"elli inle .. "i",," "'i. di>CUSlIion 011 la"" wi'" OIlC o.,
formo oC S""crnmenL ope"'Y Jiding ... 1""'1 in ,h.oc fono' lin", of 1M Vil",,,,,,,.
,,- ,it lh" Roman lOod ol "r. mix",1 ",,,i,,,, i,,,,."
It i'"l "'i. jJOim , l, a, l1 e intro<l""", lhe "'0>1 den",1y charoo argu",cnl iTl
, he cn!ire "'e perfcclion oC "'i , mixoo con"ilUbon w.u nol dllc 10 "'.
errora ol a ,,oe la,,' m. k. t>tJ, ralh. thanu lo , he p" enornclloll ol eOl, nioL"
Al; .. ,. han, ",ell. M. <'l li.,dli en"' in"",,,ly C"P,,,,,,,,,. hi, el""r fu"
conlliauali>l collccption of I"'lili<3. ' n,e 1"""- of lhe Roman ,cpuWic mme
from social fric!io,,: "' i. I"'",ntial!y hold> true foe aJl "'puhlic:s "'al deoide ,o
organi,,,, 'h"",,,,I,",,.. Thi, i. nOl co"[,,,.' ,o) pUr< (;oc,,,.li,), 01" '0 I"'lili
<",derSlood as ]>o"'cr: il abo lx. rS on .'MI ungi" .. le ""nul .. a"d
olaoh .. Ixl"ecn noblco and pleho .el",,11y broughl a!>ou l go<.1 dTITU fo, fre.,.
dom, n"mo!y. good
ill .'''1)' "'pub]ic , he,. "rc ,,," dilre,.nl humour:>, tI' "1 of thc peopk "nd lhal
ollhe "gr.uuli" ."d .. . 11 legi.h'ion r.\Qur.tWe lo lilxrt), Os brough' aboUl
"'e el",," he""..,n ,hcm, . , ca"nO!, ,,,,,,dore. ,cgam !tICh ",mOJI" ..
hartnll."or . w:h a 'cp"blit '" tli,-,kd. "",ing lh.l d Urill g ",-, long perio<l
i, no' "" u<ounl of i1> di>>r<b ><:00 in'o more "'an eighl oc len
ci<i,,,,n. , 1"" ,'eO)' fe", lo de,,,h. and d,d not on many impooe r, n ... Nor can a
"public ,.. stig,"",imt in .ny '" di.o"k""t in ,"'hieh ' l, .re
oceur . uch "ri lcing ex"m]>l .. of ";rtuc ince good 0"""'1"1", pro<ecd from
ood od uation, good edu""oll from good and good from "'OIIe
'''1)' ""m, l" ",a,,)'!IO i"con,i<,k.-a'.i)' o""lcmn"
The -good """mple," f,om "good procccd rrom"good la",,: ",hich
" Itima!)' "';gina,e p'<'Cise!)' from ,"'ha, l><>Ii' ical f' hiloo<>plty ha. ."''''Y' rorUJed
Insti,i. el Mmi
,o aekllOl<ledge no< only as the baoi. 01 poIitiCl hUI al", '" at1
of <)Ur :!OCi,,1 lif.: "an,.ly. ,,,,",llie'_ Fru", "'i"<)(<lia,,i'n' 'o
n",mi. m. <ontinuill !! !hrough !he myth of \'cnicc '\ld Sp<lrt! .. >ocicti", , 1>;"
""ere .hle to elimin." connict_!h.nu .p<rine.lly 'o ,hci, good o<de,_!he
idea of Iw",ceful roliu"" f<'3ch"'-! ,h. Rena"",ncc .llrl ...... 1""1"',ua, <:<I "',, h ,h"
"""cm,,,,, of!he <oou ... ct by ,he 11 .." . 1 l.,. ,he""" ... , or courx, ,It" .. ".
nOla continu"", curren' of !hougtu w;,h linear d",,,lojHllCTlt thronghout !he
,,,,rio,," cen' urie OO 'hinkers; G"i,e ,he eon'O'"M)'. ,t Jl ,he<etico.l
n'xk .pl""a";"8 ,n mlll,ilM f<", "d in wllural 000'''''''. 11,,,,,,,,,,.
i, mero 'o !he final end "nd higher ooo:1 ,ht !he poIi'icAI commull i!}' i.
eXj><'Ctod 'o . ehi",-e.
1':", ro..- ,"".."..", ,,'h.-..., n.m,i,-c ,>tl orig,n, i. nOl i",..,.,<:<I ,"'i,h
,he my'!\i,,,I. wnwl.'or)" <har.w,-r , ha' i, W()uld cor,ti""e 'o ha\"< in lI,c na''''
",1 la", of!he modem periodo Macha.dli i. ",&lone" in ,bi, ,copect .. ",ell,"
"'a ll.e he alone Jl ,,'ilI in!! U) rome 'o ,erm, "i,h ,he ,;010'" dimonsim\ of pooIi _
,ies, ,hc COl,l1ioual ch.",oer uf ,1", 1"", . .. i,I>"'I' dl'a"ing. "ei' O"" i" mOl"e
"ud ''''gic ""pe':'" \\'hell talkillg "p,imiti.<: p<>Ii'i .. .J ""--umul.ti,,,,:
Al ,h"""r ,hu. m.in",ined !ha' M:tcha.-.Ili w<:rl !he language 01 [",-ce .nd no'
ofla .. '_ " .... ,..,"I)' oo. But in ",.Iil}' "" f,od h<"h !h.,..., in Machia.dl;".
w",u. illu,nc.l>Iy ooulld t<>gC1hcr "nd =ursi,'<1)I """",i.,,,,1 w;,h ead, ",her
in a tragie .pi",1 th at i. dCVO<I of peaccful ><>I"lion.,
The p',..ihilit), of "f,xing" , he mOl'emem ofhJl'ory ioto.n
,ional oxtI"r i, 110\ by Machi."ell' " priori ..... hal" -en. Ly<\lf\l'
and Ol hcr "'Jlc -1""'Ki"" .. " him did m;m.g< 'o do..,. Hy ordenug ><><:i.I}'
baoed on !ha' are .uilablo ro< the social and p-olitical .truClure of a gi\'<"ll
, hey .. 'ore aMe 'o hl"ck 'he pr<>g'eu of he .. "')' ."d CI'Cfl , he f>O"'irnl,I}'
for dC\'clo,mc"". Froun ,n vinuOll' .,range",ell'. a soci<'y i. '''p''bk uf
",",ling changeo our ,hc couro<: of lime. if not e!Cm.lly, a' le .. , ro<. "Cf)' long
periodo In ,he of Rome. and d iffer. m ""iers p,oce<:<l<:<l hand in h.nrl
,"' i,h lI' e l, i<tory .",1 d""" lol'mern uf ,,. .,,(\ .. ",.1 [o"'"", .11 ,,( " hi eh
"'crc nec", ... rily <onnict,",1 in n.'ure. I"' ....... c migl" .. y re !he ,cl)" u prco-
>ion of ,he ehans es !ha' takc place.' , he hea" oh lOCel}'. Sineo Romo did ,,,"
"e\\COU'Her- ",", 1>",naker . , Lhe ,ime of i" found'ng. i, ..... rore1 'f> aep'
,ho challeuge 01 hiSlOl")" .ud to 1,.-.,< i,sdf Op<n 'o <I' .nge and COllflin, Had il
nOl. it would ha"c immedalCly bccn dc>'w)cd ., !hc ou,brc>x of contliru,
,,' hich .re !he na,,,, ... 1 anrl expre .. iO<\ 01 the hum",""
La ... "rld 00011,<1 ,,,stain .aeh ",,,. 1 .... 10 'o ,he <rea,ion "r t he
Olhe, .,-j,), no ..,lu, i"" of corni" uil}', Hu' i. ,b"",. ,,-.,. 'o <u,b the de'trucli,'c
offeets of lIOCial eo" flic'? Wh., do .. e h.,,, !ha, tumults ",m no, coro
,up' , he .'e')' ""10 . ",II ... , ha, make ;oouit.le' The ",,""'r 'o
,hi, que.ti"" i, ,,,'oI"old. On ,he "',,, I",,,d. Op<uin8 up b .... "lid in"i!Oti",,,
'o hi>tOl")" prc<:looc> a pe<iedul, definiti,'e >Oiulion '0 th e problem ,ha' would
P'Ol<'<' .. >cioty rmm !he r,. of eorruption. Thi . Iong "i,h , he nece .. i,y
90 COl/jlie/. (wr! Mulli/lu/e
fOI" a societ)' to acth'cly d c fc nd itsclf ami comba! these ncg;:uivc c fTcCl.\, r cmain
lhe mark orall Imly r epublican ideas. 011 the othe r hand. lhe issuc ofgood and
bad tulllult.S plays an impon:1Il1 role in MachiaveJl i's Ihollglll.
Nol all connicts. as we kn o\\', h:we p05iti\'e efTecls on Ihe SlaLe. Clashes ,hal
Icad \O Lhe creation o f parts and fa clions in parti cular are lhe mosll'iolenl and
deSlrtlCli\'c fOf Ihe politi callife of lhe CIY. This was Ihe case during Ihe period
of Ihl:: Agraria]) La\\' in Rome nd for mau)' ce nlUries in lhe eil}' of Floren ce.
No\\', the r ecursh'c relationship betwccn laws nd tumults can be
prcciscly frolll ihis TUlllllllS pro\"idc aj ustifi cati oll for lhe crcalion
orlaws bUI in order fOI" th cm no! 10 be d enructi\"c, a law that regulatcs lhem,
and, lI'ithin certain limitations, a1\ows and e,"en encourages thelll 10 take place,
mus! be presupposed. [n this way, Ihe recursivilY never resohed imo a.n all-
e ncompassing dia[ eclic. For a connicl 10 be virtllOUS lhere mUSl necess..ri.1y be
SOllle kind of preexisting virtll e lhat takes concret e form, for example. in nOl
excluding lh e defealed panies or, more gcueral1)', in a shared public e th ics.
T his perpetual recursi\"il)" belween laws and co nniCl is the tIl 0St conl"incing
key 10 interprcting all aspecls of r..-lachi'l\"clli's reneClions o n th c law. Funhcr-
more, it is und('niable Lhat Lhe same binar)" pallern whi ch Machia,"clli sets IIp
bel\\"een positive and negative forms of co nfli ct appears in Ihe firsl par! 01" '/1l fe
J)COW'$P"f. However, it will now be argued Lhal thi s binar,. oppositi o n nOI
esscntial 10 exp1aining th e recursi \'e rebtionship between \aws and co nni ct.
TIt e binar; st ruclllre . in pani cular, scems 1.0 point 10 a dualistic, linear l11ode1 of
Ihe relationship between crisis 'lnd co nni cl lhat, whil e presen t iTl the firsl par!
o f The DiswlIrses. !;uer fades away and is abscm frolll T/ r Pril1t:P and cspccially
frolll Ihe Horelllille / fislories. In chapter 37, book I of 'l7' fe DiscollrJes. afle r d escr ib-
ing Ihe negali \'e conseq uenccs of lhe Agradan La\\', Machiavclli expli citly statcs
that this in no way in\'alidal es th e pI"e,"io us1y descr ibed co nfli clllalisl theOl1' of
politics and bw.
l rl
h is more aCCll nll e LO s.'y, Lhen, IhaL a certain dynamic charactel"1.es Lh is
republi can ' sion of lhe relalionship between lawaml polilics thal I'irwousl)"
pre\cnlS lh e r ecursi'e relal ionsh ip belwec nlaw5 and conni clS frolll being pcr-
manenll )' bl ocked. hill(l eri ng the natuml exprcssion o f the political hutll ors.
Nt' ither o f th e tWO ter ms. then . can be considered the fotlnding el emem 0 1" act
as a stabl e origino On Ihe contrar)", il is pI"ccise1y instability ami disequilibrilllll
that consllute Ihe drhing forces and keep Ihe relalionship bClween laws and
co nfli CI ave and productle. Once again, thi s seenl S 10 poinL t.o a no nlin ear
co nceplion of th e re1ati on belween crisis amI power (o ne that is recursive, ho\\"-
e' "er, lO lh e limil o f I11lJllJal permeation) which Machiavelli expresses more
forceft tll y in the pagcs of his later works, TlII' Prinrl'and th e Hm"l' lIlilll' /-lisl or ie.s.
Chi ron th e centaur in Thr P,illCl'. one of lhe most powerful meta phors in al1 of
r.. lachial"ellis works, 1Il 0St strongl), erokes Ihi s idea of rccursil"il)' and llIutllal
pe rmea tion:
rou sho llld kn ow, th en, lhat Ihere two ways of co ntendin g: o ne by llsing
1aws, the otlter, force. The lirsl is appropriat e for men, lit e secono for
I"s';,i. el /\rmi
. nim.1<: bU! becaUlle , he fon ne r i. of",n inefferth'e. '>ne mUS! ha, ',
,,, n,. Tl' el'.f",'e. a rlMr n"", k"",",' """11 1"-,,,, ,,, i, ni",,< h .. os ",','11
.. empl<rying p'opcrly hu m"n mC"d<11 Thi. 1<>IlQ(\ "" mghl 'u ru1<", di",
gorically bof andent ",Ti,.,...: they ,di how Achill .. ol\d many o<her ancient
n \le", ""ere . n'ru" .... 110 Chiron ,he c"",aur. \0 lo: F.li..,..J co,efully bof him
1 j,,'i"g a ",entor ",'loo "'''' "nd hal(" "" sig"iflc< ,h", a rukr nced .
'o U>< both n. turnI. a nd ,h" o ne ",imo." ,he o<her i . no< efferth'C."
Thc ,heme of ,...,,'m '0 prindpl ... ,ti,o<'ly as.<o<;a,.<t ";, h ,Ila' of
.b" 'ppe.'" lo .upport ,h;' id...-d. To "",in",in order in "''' rdigiou.
i" "ilutiO!!. i, mUlll be ,educed lO i" principie . .. Mac ha,'elli. " Once agai n,
lhe play .n importanl mle in ,hi ....,n5<. heQ .... ", h""" r<puhli"'J """ 10:1-
,er oon>""ed . nd h,,'< lif" "' hooc in"i,u';"". mate f'<quenl ,e"",
,,,tioo> pouible." Thi. "'n be brough' '!>oul bof ",me -",,'em,1 ,,",'en'" or IJ)' - j "
"""' im,in';c prudence. prefefl ,he se<ooo opti"" . inee.jusI '"
for lit ",i,. j, i. more 1'0""'''' alM! ",fl'r 10 hal'< 1).", "," o I.id oo'
",im mi im 'o bope for. " "encou,n", wi ,h ",om" good lO" ",'ho . ri"",
in ,heir mKb, .nd bof hi. e ... mple and h;' ,;nu"". deed. produce. lhe ... me
effee! .. <l o". lhe c.o",,,innio,,: Nooe!holo ... :'-' "" . h .. '. ""en. exatnpleo
used ,,, ill.",,.. ,c ()' e ""um '" pnneiplco i"'ol'. ,he "",!( Onlill'ry tne,hod
of o/Tering ,inuo,," men the "ec ... ion 'o act in me in"'",,' of me republic IJ)'
mean. of
ror M.d,;.wlli, ,he o.k uf la",' d"", nO( for",.,... tI'e climi"'''on of hum'"
"e,ion ;n , h;, ruS< ei,b.,.. , lo nO! repl.ce >copie: "dma. ",,",i .. e"'lr wim
a eonnictrnJist eoncepuon of me b.",.. meyal l",,' >copie 'o art in a ,;nuo", man-
(lor_ lU,he, ,b.n Io:ing elitnit\ 3":<I, as ",'C h .. 'o """n. f".r i. , impl)' lF.l, ,,fem:<l
. hifted. SO '" """,, Olll cr '[1,< discquilibri " n! i, , ';",li,.:o.1
r.ther ,ban dimin;'hcd ,nd ;. ",,'ored to , be original 1",,,1 of ten';"" lhat ro"",
g,no life 'o me .""e. The mOl! ';gnifica", f"'-'>"go ilh",,,,ting mis poi", of,;ew
in M;",hi.,'rlli', na, .. ni\"( of Ihe Olher u, ,,,,,e,,, ,h., 1"'''-
pe'ua'". t he "",,,,u.l,,,,, "ature of ,he ",u. ou,hip bet",'cen la,", >nllicL . " d
,iolen""_<:on"",,,. me murd eB eornmined bof RO!nuh ... In chapl", 9. book
t of );sr .. ,,,,, ,\ I""hi .. -elli ",rilt!<'
many peTCh.ncc will , hink i, a t..d pr<'Ccdenl , hal the founde, ofa c" ic ."'e,
.ueh .. Romuha. ,hOlll<l ro .... hal" killed hi. brother n<l lh"" ha,."
"",.<1 in ' he dea'), of Ti"" T.,i,.... 'he &'t>;ne, ",'ho", he )".:1 chO<Crl "" hi.
in ,he l<ill gdom. 11, ey ,,; 11 urge ma', ir ."eh ""tion, bco
ambi,;"", citi,c" . ",'ho are eage< lo g""cm, wi ll foil"",,' ,be cumple of thei,
p rit' ce . " ,1 .,," ';olenco .gain" lhose ",'ho a"" OPf>O""rl '0 l!odr ",,,horilY_
A ,; "," ,h., "'111 hol<l good p ....... idco.1 "" !c-4"C ,,'" o( ron.i<lel"u"" ,he
",h ich Romulu. ha<! in commilting th eoe mume .. ,"
11,< cnd , ha, i. f<f<'rI'i"g 'o i. ' he i""i lUu"" of . u .. .. 'o" n" nl>
,he ",,,,bli>hme'" of . le,;-.l orde,. :md me beginning uf. ""'" politiCllI "r .
COl/jliel, Puwer; (/lid Mul/ilru/e
AII ofwhi ehjustifi es Romulus's vi olent aets and reminds us once again of the
neeess .. :u )', recllrsive relationship bet",een la", and confli cl. Speaking gen e r.l.lI)'
abOUI anyon e ",ho organizes a $late, Machi::l\'eili aclUally says Kreprehensible
auions may be just ifi ed by Iheir eITeets, and Ihat when Ihe eITect is good, as it
was in Ihe case of Romlllus, il alwaysj lls.ifies he aCli on, For it is lhe man who
uses violence \O spoillhings. 1101 Ihe man wh o uses il to mend lhem, thal is
The rul e of law does nOI e"elude. bUl rmh er, aCluallr pro\ides
for, calls for, nd enco uragcs lIre aClS and \'inucs of men; whereas \'inll e neces-
saril)' stand s in rclauon 10 a conmclual di mcnsion in polilical acuon.
Through lhe example of Romulus, Machiavelli also seems 10 deny dml Il ega-
tive and posili l'e fOl'lns of conlli et eorrespond 10 the distinction between lIlod-
e raj e versus "iolenl As a form of vi olen ce lhal the fr:u rici de
"'ould suppon .bis suppositioll, This lIlurder posils the exisrenee of eXt reme
lensioll al tit e origill of lhe la", and at th e Ihat j\'!aehial'elli tal ked
aho ul ofa Stale, In oth er words, the relatiOllship belwee n law and co nnict 11l1lS1
nOl be underslOod as a cominuolls, linear de\'oid of sudden nans,
relrealS, crises, nd lfagic devdopmenlS, l IS recllrsi\'e nature is lhe expression,
ralher, of lhe lIlulUal pertnealion of cr isis and power lhal dislinguishes all of
Machiawlli's poli tical th ought.
An olher example serves 10 support Ihis concl usi oll, Thi s o ne comes fl' o lll lhe
HOI'I'I/I;,1' /-l is/m';"s, during Ihe period of lhe Re\'oh of Ihe Ciompi, biller limes
when connict belween lhe polilical humon was perl wps al lIS worsl. Mach i:welli
is about 10 describe the most extreme and deStrUelin' aspeets of lhis COll mel
through the words of lhe anon)'lll ous onuor, The spread of violenee has sur-
passed alll imils, Once almosl as if hi s ill lelllion is 10 underline Ihe recur-
si\'ity between bll's and conlli ct, Machiavelli introduces lhis excc pti onal speech,
clearly olldining ",ha! moti\'atcs lhe 10 take up arlll S, ' Ve lhus dis-
cover that the Ciompi are wi11ing to fighl, 01' Kblaze and burn,K in order to
obtain co ncessions on legislative mallen, specifically, for polit.i cal representa-
lion, Machia\'el li \ITit es:
BUI in lhe ordering of lhe guild corpormi ons, many of lhose occupatio ns in
whi ch lhe lesser pcople ami lhe lowesl plebs lI' ere engaged lI'ere left wichum
guild corporalons of lheir own, bUI lI' ere sllbordinaled under \'a!'ious guilds
appropriate 10 lhe chal'actcr of lheir occupalion, In consequcn ce, when lhe)'
"'ere ehh er nOI satisfied for lheir labor 01' in some lllOde oppressed by lhe;r
masten, lhe)' had no other place of refuge than Lhe magistraey of th e gllild
that governed them, fl' 0111 whieh il did not appear to lhem Iha! they gOl lhe
justiee lheyjudged was suitable, :!\l
The Ciompi fight 10 assen lheir legal status, lhe power of lheir bbor in lhe
Republic, This in no lI'a)' diminishcs lhe radi cal nalll rc of lheil' sll'uggle , On lhe
conll.Iry, il drivcs the pl ebs 10 lake lhei!' co nfli ct, e\'e n by eXIl'Cllle, \101e llt
IUSlilia el Armi
means, 10 the hean" of lhe probl em, 10 lhe economic, polilica!. and pro-
ductil'e system of f.l orence , Th is pro\'ides a fU!'lher contirmati on of the r ecur-
sil'e relationship and ine)(n'icabl e enlwin emenl between and in
Machial'elli's I'isi on,
As we hal'e nOl ed before. Ihis is nOllO S. 1}' lhallhis recursh'e lisi on repre sel11s
a final oUllel 01' a linear out come ofhis lensi on. There is no dial ecti cal soluti on
for lhis clash in Machial'elli's thougln; there i5 no s)'nlhesis bt: lwcen laws aud
cOllfli cl. 011 lhe cOlllmry, olle might even sa)' thallaws are the 01'
expressi on o f confli ct that all ows the humors 10 express thcllIscll'es, in thcir
turn, in a conlli ctual bUl nondcstructive fashi oll , This d ocs not mean th al a
publi c e lhies 0 1' pl'ee)( isting I'i!'lue is asserted along Wilh the claim fo l' juslice ol'
that this fa et mar be considered Ihe synth csis of th e I'arious that are
inl'oll'ed in lhe confli ct. On lhe conlrary, lhe mark o fan inceplil'e I'iel ory 0 1' l. he
U";"Ke of a primal fralri cide is always, necess.'lril )' 10 be found in lhe law, In Ihi s
sense. IIOIIIOS alwars comes aftcr hJbl'is; il is easy for force to acquire a title,
blH nOl for a litl e to acquirc force,-:!2 From lhi s poil1l of "ie\\'. conflicl al\\'ays
precedes Ihe hM in lhis recursI'c rclationship, Mutual pel'mealon is al its
hcighl, in this sensc, BU! unlike in olher Ihinkel'S, it d oes not serve 10 1ll 0 rally
d enounce th e dark sidc of politi cs and 10 uphold some son of abstraCl Rgood
Jife. -,. On lhe cont,rary, il serves 10 high light with extreme realism thal justice is
;1 fa clion;ll claim, lhal lhe c01l11110n good d oes 11 01 exist as a superi or, lranscen-
d ent end but, nuher. as lhe conni clllal Olll co me in lhe hisl ori cal d )'namic.
Machia\'elli had sho\\' ed lhe panialnalUre of lhe laws through lhe questi o ll of
tll e rnlfl slo, I-I owe\'er. he o penl}' d epicts the scandal of lhe \'iolenl ane! con fl ic-
tual orib>lIlS of lhe la\\' in a Illlmber of places in lhe Fla/lmli/u: /Iislo/l f'.J, The 11I0Sl
signil1calll one. perhaps, is o ncc again lhe specch of lhe anonymous Ill clllbcr of
the pl ebs, wh o cxplains th e Ill echanisllls behind the claims ofjustiee, Mordantly
lucid ane! outspoken, lhe worker's words seem to be Ihose of Machi al'elli
himsclf:
BUI if r otl observe lhe mode ofproceedi ng o fln en, rou will see lhat all th ose
\\'ho come to grelll ri ches ami greal po\\' er llave obtaincd lhem eilhe r by
fmud o r b)' force; ami afwrwards. lO hi de Ihe ugliness of acquisilion, lit e)'
make it d ecent by applying the false titlc 01' earnings lO lhings lhe)' hal'e
lIsHr ped by d eceil 01' by vi olence, And those who, OHI of either littl e prudence
0 1' too Illll eh foolishness, Shllll th ese modes alwa)'s sulfoeatc ill sen itude and
pOl'erty, Fol' faithful sen"anls are al\\'ays sen ':lnts and good men are always
pOOl' ; nor do lhey ever rise out of serl'iluc!e unl ess lhe)' are unfailhful and
boldo nor Out of pOl'en )' unl ess Ihey are rapacioll s ami fraudul elll , For God
ami ualure hal'e pUl all the fortunes of men ill lheir midst. wh ere lhey are
exposed more \O rapine Ihan to illduslr)' <lnd more \O wi cked lhan to good
al'ts, fmm which il arises lhal Illcn de\'oul' one anolher ami those who ca n d o
less are lhe worst off," '
COl/jliel, Puwer; (/lid Mul/ilru/e
The intenlon is l chal1cnge lhe Grandi's prelence of superioril)',
bOlh in pl-aclical and Iheorelical lerms: superior'il)' is had by usurping Ihe riches
o f one's enemy. It is wea1th and nOI tilles Ihat grants slIperiori(y, do rninion , and
power. And no ol her Iype ofsuperi orilY exisls-lhis Is lhe discoverY-lhan rhal
o f po\\'er based 011 riches. In Ihe "mode of of al1 meno in Ihe
hislori cal real il )', lhe!'e i5 nOlhing bUI dches amI sen'ilude, domimllion and
exploil<llioll. Machia\'el1i's concePlion of rights and la"'s takes on Ihis nI'\\'
awareness, and in Ihe process profoundlr Iransfonns Ihe ver}' idea ofla", iLself.
Thc words h e pll ts il1lo lhe anonrmous or,lIor"s mOlllh prO\id{' a e!irecl analysis
of lhe mechanisllls of domination ane! exploitalion lhal illusu-ale lhe necessaril)'
reeursive relationship between laws and eo nfliCl. This does not mean Ihal
W;S foreed lO recasl himself as a plebeian in order to presenl his
polilical slanee. The Ci om pi 's speeeh is nOllhe poli ri calmanifesto of lhe author
o f he HOfl'Jaine ' -l is/ofies. panl)' beeause al lhe time il \\'rillen. a reVOhll ioll -
ary "plebeian" bid for po"'er would hal'e been hislrieal1y unfeasibl e, Al! lhe
more reason, lhen. to cal1 allention 10 lhe fan lhat Machia\'el1i ehose lO pUl
sllch a rcalistic ane! profound anal)'sis oCthe hislOrical realil)' i!HO the llIouth of
lhe Ciompi orat or, 1I goes withoul sa)'ing Ihat amI is hardl )' Machi-
al'elli's pol itical progl-am, lhe conce plon amI d escri pti on of politicaltife
Ihat the orat or Imces OUI in such \'iolellt ane! r;d ical terms is
cer!:Ji nl )' shared by lite atl1hor of T/ P ' -'is/afies.
Th e d oclrine tha! fraud or force are the means by whidl power is obtai n ed is
lhe s.."lll1e as in Thr Prinu, 11Jat lhillgs usurped by d eceit 01' violence are lIJen
passed ofTas honest earnings amI become la", had aIread)' been demonslrated
tim.:s by MachiaveHi, Thal men-if sucll a lhing has ever
existed-succumb to lh.: fo rce of lhe amI to th e \;olcnce o f potities is
another oft-smted lrulh. The scandal represented b), Ihe Ciompi orator is an
even morc direc! aud fonhrighl acknowledgmenl t,hat politics is prinl; r il)' a
\'iolenl ;Ssertioll of force, Jt is Ihe discover}' Ihat force can onl)' be asserted
Ihrough \'iolence, whieh then gives form 10 th e law, It is Ihe reCOb'llilioll lhal
),. 'l'cat riches ami greal power are realized by means of Ihis force amI through
fraud. I1 is lhe reco),.'11ition that el'er}" is lile fr ui! of decei!, violenee
and lhe t1surping oflhings thal lhose \\'ho come lO power later "make dece n! by
applying th e false till e of This is lhe Ol-igin oflaw, I! is lhe recogniti on
lhal is no such lhing as hones! eamings, ifwhat we are to understand by
lhis tcml issomet.hing th;t excludes the use offorce and fr.lI1d, Thi s i5 the pre-
\"LI iling realil )' of pol ilics ;\ld histor)', \Vas not whal Luigi Guicciardini alld his
f; cti on later passed off as "honesl tom and usurped from the no bilil)'
wit.h lhe s."l me force and lhe sallle violence no\\' preaehed by lhe
111is is lhe ori),.';n of la\\' ami juslice as tole! b)' Maehia\'elli : the recognili on
lhat COllfli CI sen'es primaril)' for the aCCllm ulation o f l-iehes aild lhat violen ce is
an integral pan of it. This is the eS5ence of "honesl carnings, M The \\'ords of lhe
anonymous Ol-atol' seelll to be Machial'e lli 's intllilion o f whal A!thllSScr caled
"primitive politi cal accumulalon,"'-"; They ;re \'iolenl origi ns that Ihe ri Olers
IUSlilia el Armi 95
endure ami d enounce, bUI which Ihc)' then lurn back 011 their oppressors,
using Ihl' very sa.llll' ,iolcll ce.
Yel,;1.\ Ihl' end o f this longdigreuion by Machia'e[li on Ihe hislOry ofjuslke.
Ol" ralh er, on lhl' ol"igin of he law, one wonden if il mighl nOl be possi bl e
LO cOll ce i\'e of mechanisms for I"esisting Ihe degeneralion and fOI" Fighting
lhe eorruplioll \O whieh po[ilies is always exposed , On lhe one hand, we are
all'are of Ihe necessarily recursil'e rel ati onship belween la\\' alld l:Ollni CI. 011 he
olher hand, 11'1' know thal Ihis dcvc10pment is nOl linear ami Ihal il d oclI 1101
[cad \O an)' sort of rcconci[iali on, srnlhcsis, 01' dialectic bctwcen lhcse clelllcnts,
Law and confli ct always mOIc on the plane, intertwining and intcl"pcll c-
lrating each othl'r in continualion. Thi s makcs il impossibl e 10 co ncel,"e of
a stabilizing, peaceful o llt come lO political life or o f a Ill }'Ihical. pcaee,making
origin ofjusl icl'. renlOl'ed fmm connicl , from force, or from I'iolence,
These eonc1usions lead M; chi;I'elli 10 pro pose a fe\\' strategies of resisranee
ami surl'iml, wilho ul fallillg i!HO an empt)' ideolog}' of a shared publie e lhics or
of a republi can ism based 011 Ihe co mmon good or on civi l' "inues. Machiavc1 li 's
su<uegy melds rcpu blican praxis, Ihe polilil:al culture he acquircd in lhe sen'ice
of he lirst Fl orcnti nc repub1i c, and Ihe theory worked out IJOslll!S imo
one COl1lpaCI block. h has nOlhing 10 do with sllrpassing or dial ccticaHy spuhe-
sizing th e circle Ihal unites just.ice Wi lh co nfli ct, hut rather, adopting it ;tnd
;Idapting it to '; l"IlIe. This is possible, according 10 l\-!ach bveHi, b)' arranging
lhese two elements--justice alld lhe co mbinali on Ihal we chose
10 opel1 t!li s chapt er with, n<lllLe1)'. 1!l e l1 ecessary uni on between illslililt alld
(mil i, o r Ihe Iheme orthe people's anny.
\Ve have airead)' Seell ho\\' Ihe expression used by Machiavel1i in Ihe
del/'Ordillflw .. a cncapsulates lhe main nodes in the co ncept of la\\'. name1y, the
recursivc rebti onship bctwcen bws and conf1i cl. 1t is wel1 knowl1 Ihat both in his
writings alld during his po1itical work as Chancell or--drawing 011 argtl11lell\s
from Ihe repub1ican Iradition-i\lachi ;l\'elli arglled that a musl have ils own
anny, a citizen mi1iti lhat is loral ami efficient, in order to stand tlp agail1sl
ex ternal allacks and 10 do who llt lllllruslwonhy mercenar)' U"oops, uPresenl-
da)' princes amI modern republi cs wh ich have 11 01 lheir own trOOps for ofrence
<llld dercnce, - &I)'S l\b chi al'dli in Tite lJJcullrses. Mo ughl lO be ashallled of Ihelll'
sell'es.
MC
'1The histories are rul1 of exalllpl es lhm prall' ho\\' usel ess and dangeroll s
mer ccnal'y traops are. 111e emire !lrl of IIIar is d edi caled to demonstralillg this
poim, along with Ihl' lll ost ,irtuous wa)' lO organi7.1' a citizen a\"ln}" of o ne's 0\\'11 .
Machiavel1i pro,ides a good summary of this poinl Ihrough th e ligurl' of
David in chapter XII I of Thl' Pli/lrl', "\\'hel1 David oITered himselfto S,.lIIllO go
fonh al1d Fight Go1i alh lhe Phi1i sline ehampi ol1, Saul lO ell co urage him anned
him Wilh hi s 011'11 anl1our, II'hieh David, so 50011 as h e had pUl it on, rejcctcd,
saying thal Wilh lhese umri ed anns he cOllld not nd that he eh ose
ralher lO llleCI his enclll y wilh on lr hi s sling and his sword. In a word, lhe armo ur
of othen is too wid c, 01" too strail fOl" llS; it ful1s off li S, 01' it lI'eighs liS
Machial'cl]j's apology for ci tizen al'mies and hi s condclllnati on of mercc nal")'
96 COl/jliel, Puwer; (/lid Mullilrule
troops docs no t st ClIl from his Ill c mbc rship in a cult 1h3t rc"crcs mililias 0 1" \\".Ir
as m eh . Ir contli ct is lhe eDr e of po litics, Ihis doe s n01 mean tha! wal" is 15 e nd.
On lhe ( ont1"3r)'. cl izen anlli es are Ihe of a healthy ch","clopme ll t of
1ha1 recursil"c belwee n 1aws ancl conni C! we poimed !O earlier.
MachiavelH assen s his by emphasi zing th;u he end o ra \'i nuoILs army is 10 Figlll
for its 0 \\'11 glol")' alld no! fOf Ihe ambition of o thers. Thus, his auachmem 10
republi can d oes nt fun its coul"se in some cmpt}' rhewric bUI in he
resistan ce lO oppressi oll alId he pursuit of frccdulll . This is a1so shown in Ihe
c xampl c o f lhe Roman armies. which to bcing li ctod o us under
lhe consuls, undel' lhe Decellniri ... always lost."'->o) Machia\"elli adds lha!
this shows, among o ther th ings, t.he reason why mercenary lroops are useless,
for lhey hal"e no cause t.o stand fjrm wh en aUacked, apan from lhe smal l par
whi ch rOl! gil'e lhem. Amllhis reaso n is nOI ami C;l1l not be sufficie11l lO make
lhem lopl, or !O make lhem so much ro ur fti ellds lhat lhey should wallt !O
di e fo!" yo u. Fo!" in anlli es in whi ch lhere is no aITecti on for him whom lhey
fighting such as would make th em his panis;:ms. it will be impossibl e for
them e\'e l" lO haY!' 11rtue enough !O withstall d el'e n a model"aldy I-:.Ilo rous foe.
Since neither lhe I"equisile love nOl' lhe requisitc enthusiasll1 can be aro used
excepl in )"our o\\'n sllbj eCls, il is if o ne d esires 10 re lain a form of
sta te, Le. d esires 10 uphold eilher a republi c or a kingdo m. lO arm on eself
wit.h ol1e 's own subjeelS. as il is manifesl .hal all hal"e d Oll e wh o by means of
anllies hal'e reaped great profit. :oJ
Onl )' o nc's own subj ecl'l, 1l.lned alld preparcd for I"irtue and patri otism, can
dcfend the state from Ihe pel" ils Ofl,-al". wh ich translaU' inlO other pel"ils: th ose
associaled with lhe corrupLoll politi cs is co ntinuallr exposed 10, ami Wilh the
confli ct thal is intrinsic 10 al1 human phenomena. One's own subj ecl'l wil1 be far
superi or 10 merce nary soldiers, who are faithful to olhen and paiel 10 fight.
31
No\\' Ihe theme of cilizen armies d oes nOI penain excJusil'el)' la lhe plane of
military effi cienc)' and war: il also has a direet bearing on polities. The peopl e's
arm)' is notjust all ann to be used olller enel11 )' anni es: in Machia\"elli's
mind, it is al so. uncquil"ocall r, <In insu'ument of frecdom. I.ndecd, lhe Ma cha
,'ellian conception of th e an ny s strongly d emocr.uic and dstinguishes itsclf
for this reason fl"Om man,. othel" cont empOl-ary refol"m First 01" al! , the
force oran anny is not based on 11Ione)' bUI OH the I'irtue ofthe Cili7.en-so!c1 iers:
mOUl11ain, 1"'1'1,' Jake, el'er)' inaccessi ble faSlness, beeomes as a p lain,
\\'11en slrong defenders are lacking. Money, lOO, nOI onl)' aITords yOll no pro lec-
li on, bul makes )"011 lhe 500ner fall a prey. Nor can :l1ly opini on be 11I 0re false
than thal whi ch asserts thal mone)' is the sinews The polili cal and mi li-
tal}' culture of th e li me sho\\' alllhe signs of cornlption. el"en in lhe cOl1l'icL on
thal lI"aJ"S am! armies can be bo ught fOI" Ihe weight BUI Ihis s nOI thc
o nl ,. I"cason. Machial'e11i 's al'crsion 10 an aristoCl. ui c concepl of war is ab o clcar
IIISlilia el Armi
from lhe preference he gh'es to infamr,. oyer moutlled lroopS. The cayalr)'
required exU"emcly high COS1..'l for lhe period ane! was based 011 lhe pred omi-
nance and control of lhe Gt-andi ane! lhe nobl es. on lhe cOllu-ary,
belie\es lhat th e infalllry are Ihe "sinews" ofa I'iel orious anll F
Among lhe sins commined b)' !tItlian princes who have made hal}' the s\aye of
the foreigner. there is Tl on e more b'TIt\'e than thal of ha\'ing h eld this arm of
smaH acco um ami of ha\'ing d Cl'oted all th eir <ltl ell1i Oll to moull1ed Iroops.
This mism<lnagelllent is due to the per\"crsit)" of captains and to th e igno-
of those ",ho hold ofli ee. For the Italan militia ha\"ing lost aH oftielal
SlalllS during he lasl twent)"-fiYe years had becolll e 1ike soldicl"S of fonunc.
[1 occurred to Ihe mi1itia Ihal th eir repulati on \\'ould bc made flhe)" had lhe
armed for ces while Ihe rul ers had none. "
This conclusi on has a direct consequence on the politi cal sphere . Chaple!" 6.
book [ of TJl' Discoursl's lackles lhe qucsti on of what form of govcrnmcTlt could
havc been set up in Rome so as to 'remo\c" Ihc h osti!ity bc tween the peopl c
alld the sena le. The exampl{' thal Machavclli us{'s is tha! of republi cs Wilh oul
eonlroversies, lhose which have been free from such animositi es and 1U1llults
and yel have e11ioyed a long spell of freedo m." Machia\elli no les:
" 'e have j usI been discussin g Ihe eITects produced by Ihe conlro' c !"si es
bClwee n lhe people and lhe se mne. Now. since lhesc cOlllroversi es wen l 0 11
lII11illhe time of lhe Gracchi WhCll the)' became lhe causes wh ich led 10 he
d cstructi on of libeny, it mar occur to so me lO asl< whcther Rome could have
do ne the great lhings she did withoul th e existence of mch animositics.
!-Iencc it sccms lO me lI"onh whil e lO inquire wh ethcr illl"o uld ha,-c beell po:\-
sibl e 10 se t in Ronl e a f01"l11 ofgoven1ment whi ch would ha\e l)1"e\ellled th ese
cOIHro' ersi es. In order 10 di scuss quesli on il is lO consider
Ihose republi cs wh ieh have been free from such animosili es amI lum 11115 and
ret have enj ored a long spell ofl ibert)", 10 look al Iheir go\ernmell ts. mIel \O
ask wh eth er lhey could ha' e heell inlroduccd imo Rome. Among an ciem
stal es Sparla i5 a case in po im, ami amo ng modcl"ll Slates Ve ni ce. as I ha\'e
airead} po intcd
This pas<;,'ge compares contrasling tr pes of stale mod e\s and consliluuonal
Ihe peaceful hi story of Spana ami Veniee versus Ihe M IUI11 one
of Rome. The link belween laws and conmcl, 011 Ihe one hand, ;md lIImult.s and
mililias, 011 Ihe olil er hand, i5 lraced OUt in Ihi s hi slorieal framework. The sixth
chapter of th e fi rsl book of 71/e DiscQrlfSts goes on 10 describe how Spar!.. '} ami
Ven ice were able 10 creat e imemal fri endship. In th e lagoon cit)", eXI>lains
whcn lhere were enough citizcns lo go\ern th e eh)', lhe n cwly
arrivcd were 11 0t all owcd 10 fil1 administr.ttive pOS1..'l. The newcomers were called
98 COl/jliel, Puwer; (/lid Mullilrule
comlll o nc rs whilc lh e citizcllS from lhe "anden! statc,M ", h o had lh e right
lO (.,kc par! in lhe govcmment, were call ed gentl crolk. These Illcasurc s e limi-
mued any possibl e causes 01" conni ct. The do rnini on of Ihe Grandi IIncha!-
lenged and lheir superi oril)' was no! based on rh e wi elding of power, bUI 011
a shared agreemenl. Furtherl11 ore, lhe n urnber of newcomers alwa)'s rema ined
lo\\', eq ti a] to 0 1" fewer (han l h e num ber of gCllllefolk.
This is a brief omline 01' lhe orib<in ofVeni ce 's consilUli onal history. Machia-
velli greatly simplifics lhe stor)' 10 be abl c to se! up his argulIlcllI, firsl, cnce rn-
ing h ... rcaso n f OI" lhe abscll cc of tumult!;o I-I e Imows \ "CI} well, and he cl carly
d escribes it in lhe pages 011 ROlll C tha! foll o\\', lha! Illcn do nO{ rcbel onl)" when
ing has been taken away frolll th elll . The 1l1 el:han iSllls of mnbion and
d esire tha! spark off l:onflkt are O\'er in this instanl:e. Furthermore, lhe
politk al difTerenl:e between gentl efolk and l: ommo ners d oes notl: orresp ond.
al leasl in lhis d esoiplion. 10 an economi c difference o fan)' kind. ' eopl e were
considered commoners simpl)' because lhey arrived afl er lhe stale had airead)"
beell established ."
The eco nomic arglllll elll d oes appear. howc\"el", in his d escriplion of Spal"ta 's
o rigins. Just as fOI" Ven ice, lhe smal! nllmber of in habitallls made il possiblc for
the dly 10 presen e il.'l unily. He explicill y Slales lhal il was possibl e 10 keep
el:onomi c inegualiti es wilhin strkt lim il.'l Ihanks 10 th e bws 01" Lycurgus:
Th e reason was lhal t.he laws of L)"c llrgus prescribed egllalit}' of propert )' and
insisl ed less on egualit}' of rank. Poven y was shared by all alike, and the plebe.
ians had less ambili on. since offi ces in the eil}' were open bln 10 few (itizens
ami fro lll lhem he pl ebs were kepl OUI ; nor did it desire \O have lhem since
lhe nobles never illlreal ed lhe pl ebs. [T]he pl ebs nether feared .1l1Iholity
nor d esired 10 ha\"{' it, and, sinl:c Ihey neilher fea red il nor d esi red il, there
was no dlanl: e 01" rivalr)" belween lhenl and Ihe nobilit)", nor any gro und fo r
disturb;l\l l:es. and th ey could II'e llnited for a long lime. "
Thll s Spana ami Ven ice bodl fOlllld a way to eliminate di scord fro m Iheir
midst and 10 CUl out ri\'alri es bel\\'ee n Ihe plebs ami lhe nobl es. Machia\'elli
no\\' comes 10 lhe theoreucal <l ll d political co re of his argument, stating lhal
Rome l:ould 11 0! and sho uld nOl ha\"e Sel up conslitUli ons similar 10 lho se of
Sparta or Venil:e, simpl), because lhey are weak.'" They are weak beGllIse lhey
are slliled for a republil: whose sol e goal is 10 keep lrangllilily and 10 last for a
long time ralher Ihan 10 found a great empire . Rome chose a difTerenl palh.
On the one lIand, Rome used its plebs in \\'ar. whil e o n Ihe olher hand. il
o pened IIp '"Ihe to foreib'll ers. Ihus going againsl bOlh Ihe Spartan lid
Venetian cOnStilulons al lhe s.1In e lime. Th is is \\'11)' Rome \O lhe pl ebs
ali ke strenglh. increase and endless opportuniti es for (01l111101io l1."-'" No mido
di e way is possible. !Ia}"s J\-lachia\'clli. FOI" lhe I'el")' same reason, Rome ,.';.\s bOlh a
great power and a republi c ful1 of Ilullull.'l. Rcmo\'ing lhe G\uses 01" co n mCI
IIISlilia el Armi
would havc al the S<UllC ti mc taken away lhc causcs of its greal11css aud powcr.
along wilh thc of il s frccdom amI lhc rul e of bw as it is concc\'cd
by Machi a\c!1i . in olhe!" words, Ihrough confli cl. Anyo nc who wants lO sc! up a
stable re publi c should. in Iheo ry. keep Sparta and Ven ice in mind. BUI can Ihis
reall y be don e? Can a Slal e ch oose I.ranquilil}" as ils end ? 111e answer to be
found in thi s passage, in an)' case. is a sOllnd
if this balance co uld be maintained. lhere would be gelluine puliti callife alld
rcal tr.lll qui llily in suth a Sincc howcver. aH human alTairs an:: eVel" in a
stalc of flux and cannOl stand stiH, cither thcrc wiH bc imprOyelll cnt or
decli nc. and nccessity wiHl ead rou lO do man)" things wh ich reason does nOI
recommencl. ]-I encc if a commonweahh he consliwl ecl wilh a \'iew to ils main-
laining Ihe j/(llus 'fIlO, btll nOI wilh a view 1.0 ex pansi ono and by necessil}' il be
led 10 expando i1S basic principi es will be sub\'erted ami il will soo n be [aced
Wilh ruin, So. 100. sho uld h eaven. on 1he other hand. be so ki nd 10 i1 lhal it
has no need 10 go 10 war. i1 willlhell come abou1 1ha1 idleness \,'iH eithe]" ren-
der i1 elTcmi nalc or give I"se 10 facti ons; and 1hcsc twO things, cl lhcr in con-
junclion 0 1' separ;tcl j', will bdng abOlll its
The ROlllan co nst.inllio n was 1hus diame lrically opposecl 10 [he pcacefu! one
ofVenice or Spana: no micldl e war is possibl c ancl Iherefore is Ihe onl y
choice a\'ailable. FreedOIll and power. ord er and cOllfi icl , law and llImult s
are all illl ercollnecled in th is theorelical kem el of Mac!ti avelli's lhoughl. O nce
again. Ihese elellH::nts add lheir weight 10 Ihe idea that Clisis amI po"'er are
supcrintposed 0 11 cach o[her, negalill g an)" illusio n lh,H Ihcre are eas)'. li ncar
soludons 10 lhe problc m of conni ct or, morc ge nerall)'. 10 Ihe tragic aspccts
ofOll r life in commo n. These aspects in parti cll];r provide a good introdllcti on
10 Spi1l07.3'S trca.[lllenl of the qucSti Oll of lhc ];w.
Anima lmperii or Charta et Atramentllm: Spinoza and
the Fight for Rights
The subj ect 01' fl'ced om is dc\"cloped by throllgh h is cr itiquc of frec
will. Thcsc phi losoph ical were used for direcll)' poltical pllrposes as
pan of Ihc l'rOleslanl Reformation and he socia! and polilical llpheava ls lhal
foll owed during Ihe sixt.ee nlh ami sevenleenrh ce nwri es. For Ihi s rcason. Ihey
referred lO lhe freedom to illlerpret sacred exts ancllhe \'alue th ese texs had
as la\\". 11le IOpi c of free ",ill was lhus explored b)' Ihe [mtioE" philosophers
alld lheolob.-jans uf th e lime and ,,"as thoroughl)" deve lopcd by Spin oza as weH.
The Iheological-politica! arena ofi"e rs a good point of depanurc, hen. 10
cxpl ore thc V::Iri OllS lll can ings givcn 10 freedolll , l"ights, thc la\\", obcdience, ami
lI<J.nsgrcssion.
100 COl/jliel, Puwer; (/lid Mull/rule
In chapter"" o f Ihe Tlle%gical-Polilim/ 7hmli.lt'. Spinor11 lisIs lhe vari o us mean-
ings o rlhe tcrm Thc la\\', undc rstood in an sc nsc as lh e way in
which "each indil"idllalthing-eilhcr all in general or dtose o f lhe s,.'1l1 e ki nd-
:let in one ami Ihe s.'me fix ed :llld de termined manner,M d epenel s on naturc's
necessily 0 1" on human decisi on. This oppositi on mar see m 10 comradi ct Ihe
stmemellt thal all Ihinb'S of mnure co me undel" lhe laws of lI alural lI ecessil y,
illc\uding. therefon:, humans ami Ihei!" d ecisions. Ne\'enheless--this is Sp illG-
1 .. "'S explanali on-we kll'e to dislinguish between a la'" wh ich foll ull's fW1I1 1hc
ver)' definirio n of Ihe thing, and a rule of life which man prescr ibes fO I" himsclf
0 1" o the n. "
No\\' al[ thi ngs, I\'ith no exce pon, are d etermin cd lO cxi sl and act acco'ding
to a certain reason. BUI man is precisely a pan of Ih is nalllre and il;s pOl\'er. 50
we may stal e Ihal man's laW$ foll ol\' fr011l his pOl\'er insomuch as he constitu1.es
a par! oflh e power of nalllre, Al Ihe s.'lme lime, I\'e mar not e thal u1h e eltacting
o f lhese maJlmade laws lila)' quile legilimalel )' be s..'li d LO d epeml on human
wil!. for il d epends espedall r on the power of lhe hUlllan r unhe!"
lIl ore, 5pinoza adds, it is truc lhal c\'cl)'thing happens becausc ofan intelTon
nccdon of natural causcs. HOl\'e\'c r, since I\'C do not knol\' I\'hat lhis
int er co nnccdon is, Mfor Pl<l.cti cal pul'])OSCS it is beuer, indced , it is cssentbl, lO
consider as contingent." This, according lO 5pin01.a, call sh ol\' how c\'ery'
Ihing Ihat exists is ruled by divine "laws" in an absolul e, necessary sense. and
ho\\' Ihis n ecessi l}' can be reconci led Wilh what we norma11), ct11 la\\', A singl e
necessity is cxpressed in nature, bUI Ih is can be consider ed uuder \<l.ri ous
aspecLS. in the same war lhe singl e subslance cau be considered accordi ng LO ilS
auribules.
Indeed, Slrcsscs what is cOllllll onl)' Ill callt b}' law are lhe precepls
hat Illcn est.ablish lo r lhe purpose of1i\' ing in COllllll o n. Ho\\'c\'cl', the I\'eakness
o f human natUl'e, necessarily lt<l.\'en ed by thc stops man fmtll pe r cei\'.
ing he lIsefulness of life in COIlHllOll. Thlls, hlwmaken established an end
diITerent f1'01l1 Iha! ",hiell is necessnril y entail ed by Ihe nalllre oflaw. Fa !' th ose
",ho llp lt old Ihe law tlt er promised what mosl appeals \O lhe masses. ",hile
hrealening u<l. ll swessors with dire relribulion ... M" TIl e essential mechanism
eTlsuring obedi ence 10 Ihe laws is associaled here Wilh th reats and promises.
This questi on breaks down fllrth(' 1' according lO the lWO poi nlS of "iew in\'ol\'ed:
o ne cd \O lhe alreclS of fea r and hope, amI lhe othe .. lO those of r ewarel and
punishmcnt. It can be nOled a! a more gcncral le\'cJ thal all these faeton are
connecled ",ilh he co nsitwi on of h uman nalure and ilS aITect.s, whi ch 11lake
up an eq ual n1l11lber of properties of human nalure, Man, lhis finile mod e, ca11s
for neither pmise nor blame. Ihen, bUI simpl)' an lInderslandi ng of hol\' he
functiollS, This is lhe fu1crum ofSpinoza's inquiry,
That the distinctio ll belll' een di\'ine lall's and human laws cannot creme a
separ.u c d omini on fol' th(' laws of !llan. /(/lIIqll(1II1 illlPerillll1 ill illlWrifl, can easil)'
be d educed from a nUlllber of COllllll enlS scallcred lhrougho ul Spino:r.a's
IIISlilia el Armi 101
lcttcn, Se\'el'al years bcforc th c publi cati on of the Theologiml,Poliliml Tn!lllise,
wrOle LO Bl ycmberg, ror example, that:
Scriplure, being parti cularl )' adaptcd 10 lhe needs or lhe comlTl on people,
cominua1lr speaks in merel}' human fashi on, ror lhe cOlTlmon peopl e are
incapabl e of underslall ding high er things. 11Jat is why [ lhink that a1l lhal
God has revealecl 10 Ihe Prophets as necessary for sah'<lli on is sel d OWTl in Ihe
fonu ofla",. and ll this war thc Prophcts made up a ",hole parabl e d epkting
God as a kiug aud lawgivcr, becausc he had rc\'calcd the mcans that Ic:ad LO
and pcrditi on. ami was the cause thereor. Thesc IIl cans, which are
simply causes, the}' call ed laws. ane! wrote t.h em clown in the fOl"ln 01' laws; sal,
vati on and pcnliti on, wh k h are simpl)' necessarily reslJlting from t hese
means. lhey represenl ed as reward and punishmen1. AH lheir \\' ords were
adjusled 10 lhe rmmework of lhi s pambl e mlher lhan lO lrullt, The}' con-
stand}' depi cled God in human rorm, somelimes allgr)', sometimes merciful.
now looking lO what is tO come, nowj eal o us and slIspi eiolls, ami even d ecei\'ed
by the Dc\il. 50 phil oso phersand likcwise aH who have risen LO a levd bc)'o nd
law, that is, all who pursuc ,irtue not as a la\\' but becausc lhe)" lo\"e it as so lIl e-
thing "cI1' preci ous, should nOl ti ud such words a stumbling-bl ock. "
What immedialely strikes Ihe ere is Ihe difrerence wilh regard lO lhe \;tw
belween a pltil osopher ami an ib,"norant person o Bec;wse lhe ignoralll are
llnabl e lO undersland lhe Irue elld or lhe la\\', Ihe)' require 1aws in Ihe ronn or
d ecrees or prccepls, However. ir e\'eryo ne underslOod its (fue end, !ll ere wo uld
be 110 lleed for laws, 01' st.atcs, or sancuons. But as long as humans exist, as \Ve
kno\\', lher c will be afTccts. and not e\'elTonc can be a phil osophcr. Bccause
ph il osophers undcrstand !ll C tme necessity of nature, lhey are abo\'e the laws,
in the narrow sense tha t lhey are beyond anlhropomorph ic images of God , lhe
thal d epict l-l im prc)' t afTects, and lhe rites thal are pl'escl'ibed,
exaclI}' in lhe same wa)' as la"'s, as \-l is commands. MoreOI'el', for 5pin07A'l , lhe
difTerence between the wise and lhe ib'1lOral11 cl oes nOl in an)' \\';1)' suppon lhe
idea oran orknowl edge. On lhe conu1H1', an uneduC:tl ed pe rson
who sincere1}' loves knowl edge is wiser lhan a theologian \\'ho. no maller how
lcarned, fo11o,,'s lhe preccpts out of dUl)' and lives as a \ictim of supcrsliti o n,
Now lhe Nhi cal path u'aced o ut by 5pino:r; 1 is ajourncy tward wisdom and
freedom. In this sense, th e necessily of presenting dil'in e laws as human pl'e-
cepls and lhe necessity of lhe laws Ihemsel\'es are t be understood in Ihe con-
leXl o f Ihis pU1'SUi l or elhical per fecli on. 5pin07A"l d oes nOl beli e\'e in lhe
possibilil}' or li\'ng wilhoUI polilics and Ihe sta le, 01' wilhoUl lal" S ami punish-
ments, an)' more lhan h e d oes in th e possiuility of rorever eliminating alTects
fmm human nature, 5til\, since an)'o ne can undertake the journey tward ",is-
d om ami libcmli on, an)'body caTl be a phil oso pher and st.and auo\'e lhe laws.
How that might come about in practi cal lcrms is shwn by 5pin0711, oncc a gain,
Copyrighted Material
102 ConJlict, Plutr, and M-ulltul.e
l hrough me arTecLS or fear and hopeo Obedience can be o btained lh rough fear
of a punis hmCI1l. 01" Lhe hope ora rcwa,'d. This way. lhe comrnon pcople.
a hor,)c \Vilh a curb," are madc lO rcs pccllhc law.
45
"fhc critique casl in arl anti-
republican hue which J-I obbes aimed ala cen ain 1l 0UOO offreedom and mle of
la,,,, \\IiII be I'ccallcd in 1. his regaro.
4f1
Spilloz...1. respollds 10 iL by lhal
me la' ... ''w"a.S mainly regarded as rules of conducl imposcd on men through !he
supremacy of Olher.'io, and who obey Lhe law are said (O live
undcr !.h e Jaw and appear lO be in bondage. And in lrtllh he "'ho 'endel lO
cach h is own lhro ugh fCi:lr of t he gallov.'S is cOI1!iolraincd in h is i:lCUOIl by i:l.noth
er's cornmand and lhreal of punishment, and cannol be caUed aj usl mano
l3ul he who renders lO each his own lhl'ough mvareness of Ihe lrue pri ncipIe
of law and ilS nccessi ty, is aCLi ng sleadfustly and al his own not 3nOlher's
and so hc is rightly lcnncd aj ust man Y
Fear\'ersus knowlcdge: ajust man is he who acts knowing lil e lrue ,"cason for
aws and thcir ncccssi ly.41J Il is (fue, Spi nol.O.'l sccms lO answcr Hobbcs. lhal wn t
ing '" FREEDOM" on the doors and basLians of a city is nOl enough. Jl is also true
thal people obey OU1, of fear in monarchies ju8l as lhey do in rlemocracics. BUl.
Spinoza adds. fear and supersti Lion are in no way necessary condi tions for obe
dicnce. This is lhe rneaning ofjustice, Fear, as an arfeCllhal induces rC.'ipCCl fOf
lhe Jaw. does nOl render men just, rcgardless of iu usefulnes.....; in slopping lhe
ignoranl. from cndangcring lhe pcacc. This doc"S notmcan, as Ilobbes
asscrlcd, lhal fcaf is a passion thal impcls rncn lO pcace. 0 11 tll C conlr.uy. lhe
beSl effcclS are l a be expecled fram ho peo Indeed, l he law'S "should be so
dcviscd Ihal meo ma)' be illfl uenced 001 so much by rear as by hope or somc
good lhat tJ1C)' urgemly desire."'t9 This noti on of hope suggesls lhe idea of per-
fecli ng oneself lhrough an clhical journe)' lo, ..... ud rcason and lhe ll nderst..l.nd
ing or free neccssit}'. In I.his proces.'i, lhe l haL charncler izes lhe
law'S isgrndually peJ'ccived e\'cr rnore accu((Ilel ,"'hi le preceplS and commands.
in lh e fonn of laws Or decrees, incrcasingJr lose I.heir imponancc. Thc law is
perceh'ed more and more fram the philosopher's painl and is sll mmed
IIp in I.he k.n owl ec1gc ofCod's esscncc:
Lh is, t.hCIl , is me sum of our suprcme good and bl essedncss, lO Wi l, Lhe knowl-
edge and lo,,"e ofCod. So lhe mea ns reqll ired 10 aeh ieve this end ofal! human
aClion- lhal is. Cod insofar as his idea ex.isls in us--may be lenllcd Goo's
commands, for lhcy are ordained for us by God himsclf, as it were, in.sofar as
he exisLS in our minds. So lhe rules for Ih.i ng a Jife mal has. regard la l his end
can noy be callOO lhe Divine La", .... So the sum of t he Divi ne L.,.. '1W and ils
chief command is lO lo\'e Cod as lhe supremc good; that IS. as \\l e have said.
nOl froln fcar of sOlne punishmclll or penally Il or frorn lave of sorne athcf
lhing from which "le desire LO dcf'ive plea.'mre.!oI
IIISlilia el Armi 103
The implicalions this d octrine ma)' have on lhe theological plan e as well as Ihe
social and political consequences are made cl car by the accll!k'ui ons of atheism
and impiet)', among others, thal were hurl ed al from he time lhe 1'111
logir.nl-/'oliliml Trm16f. fi rsl carne out. But is il really accurale \O !k'r Ihat Spinoz..
wa s an alheisl ? If whal we mean by ;.heism is lhe n: ieClion of Ihe God o f Ihe
lheol0b'ians, conceived of as a monarch ami lawgi\'er, th en Spinoza was cer-
mini )' an alheist. \Vould il be CO tH:Ct to stal e Ihat was an anti republican
sub\'ersive, then? If what we mean by a subversi\'e is S0111e0l1e ",ho rejects o bedi-
ence as fearrul , unquesti oning submission lO human laws, lhen he was that, 100,
Knowledge of na1Ure and lhe necessity of its laws is preached br as a
vinue of Ihe will, as an aClion ralh er Ihan The not on of obedience
Ihal from it. like Ihe coneepl ofCod. co mes OUI radicaHy Iransformed.
To lake an olher example. when d efining Ihe foundati ons of lhe Slale in lhe
/'o/iliw/ T'-I'I/Iise, seIS Ihe d efillili on of lransgression lI eXI 10 Ihal of obe-
di cnee, name\ )', eo nstant wiU 10 do whal by la\\' is b'0od and whal lhe com-
ili on d ecree I'equires 10 be A fe\\' pages lal er. in a dilTen:llI COlll eXl, \Ve
read that the absencc ofwar d oes nOI signifr peace aud thal, in an)' case, p eace
requires citi7;ens 10 be acti"ely walChful against abuses of
The tensi on implicil in this concepli on of obedi ence is illlereSling lO nOle . If
in secl on 11. 19, referred to in Ihis cilali o n. obedi ence defin ed as " lO d o
wl1;l1 br law and cOllllll on decree requircs lo be done: in Ihi s contexl, cOlllmon
d ecree cOI'en Ihe e1l1ire meaning. lea"ing 0111 whm was eSlablished b)' lhe law.
The l'il"1ue and co nSt<lm wil1 of lhe citizens lead 10 a d istincti oll between a situa-
li on in whi ch dccree amI law functi on lOgether I'ersus a situati on in wlti ch
d ecree is opposed lO la",. If obedi ence is alwars and in an)' case respcct for lhe
la\\', a lInidirecti onalmo\'ell1ent lhat rllns froll1 up 10 cl own, then, willt obyi ous
reference 10 Taci lus, lhe desert is call ed peace.
Lel us go back now to th e opening quesli on, regarding th e \<l.ri olls meanings
ofla\\' and, spedfic<lll)', "whe lhe\" by Ihe nawral1igh 1 of reason we can cOllceh'e
Cod as lawgi\'er o \" rul er, ordaining laws for men The real dilTerence belwee n
human ami dil'inc law d epends 011 Ihe answer to Ih is qllesli on. as d o Ihe wa)'s
lhal lhe la\\' can be lntnsgrcsscd. maintains lhat God's wil1 is nOI dis-
linCl frolll His imellen. Therefore, (lb ,el el"l/Q, \Vital Cod understands is nccessar-
il )' whm Cod wills, ancl this is th e only way il can possibly be, Then: fol"e, whell
lhe la\\" ofCod is gi\"en asa commandment, il is o nl r due 10 a lack ofknowl edge
regarcling this identily belween IInderslanding alld will. whi ch is why lhe Oeca-
logue was gi\'cn lO Ihe J ews in lhe fo rm oflaw. Asa co nseqll ence, lhe existence
orGod 1'<l.S per cei\'cd by Ihem as a law and nOI as an c lernallrulh, The onl)' war
lita! Cad can be co ncei\'ed o f as a king and la" 'b,;,'er is due 10 a lack of
kn owl edge,
From a th eolob';cal poin! of \'icw, the sub\'ersi"e character of this donrine
is ob\'io us. Velthu)'sen, the Cartcsian, fOI" cxample, is qui ck 10 lInderslancllhe
possible implicati ons ofSpin osm. From lhe ineluctabl e neccssily with whi ch
COPl/fighted Material
10'1 ConJlicl, fu"", l,,1 MuUiI"dt
everything '-emanal cs" from Cod, he deduces lhaL lhe 1l 00iollS of la\\l", reward,
and punishmcllL lose lheir 0"", U1C wcakncss of lhe igllol'anL is
what ncccssitatcs ho pc and fcar in order to impcl thcm lO be virluous. ll1C idea
of vi n ue bein g a re\'I3rd in itselr does n OL convi nce Vel lb uysen, who denoull ces
Spinozism as extremely dangerous 1.0 civil response confi rms
and-if mal were possible-evcn sU'cngtJ, ens his pOSitiOfl. lleforc dc\'cloping
i l, lhough, Spinoza cannOl pass up o n thc o ppOJ1.Uni ly lo expose Lhe "wi llIul
servilude" ofhis learned After crilicizing l he superstious and
ChUl'aCLCr of his 41d"Cl"SRlj'. he pick.s up his argumenlagai n from lhe
poi nt fvicw 01' rC\.....-drds and punishmcnl.'io:
lhs nev lable necessily of lhings does 110l do away wi fh ei t hcr divine or
human laws. For moral precepls, whclher or nOllhey receive l he fonn ofla\\'
from God h imsclf. are suB di\ri. nc and salutary. And whemer me gDod mal
foIlO\'I''S froln vi rLUe and love of Cod is beslO\'o'cd o n us by Cod as j udge. or
whelher il ernanalCS (rom lhe necessiLY orllle divine naWI'e, il will nOl n lhal
accoun t be morc or Icss dcsir..i.ble, j ust as on lhe olhcr hand Lhc evils !hat fol-
low from cvil deeds are not les.s LO bc feared because lhc)' necessarily fo Lio\\'
froll1 them. Aod fi nally, whelher "'e do whaL ,,,rc do neccssarily 01' freely. we
are stiLl led by hope Or by fear. Therefore he is in sayi ng lhat " 1 assert
th.n no room is IcfL for precepts and commandrnents," Dr, as he gocs on 1.0
say, -there is no expeclation of reward or when al! is allribllled
10 fale, or when it is assel'ted thal all l l ngs cmamlle fr orn Cod byan inevjw-
blc
Spi noza does nol. believe il is possi bl e 1.0 do Wilholl l preceplS, or WilhoUl
re\Vards and punishlncn lS. However, Vel lhuyscn is nOI complctel)' misguidcd in
pointing out the dangcrs of lhis doctrine. From [he poin t ofvi cw of Spinoz..'l's
phi losophy. lhese argumenL'i hold no pedls. QuiLe Lh e opposiLe , lhe)' are lhe
rOUle lO 'eaching lhe kind of <lTld sleadfast \Y"ill tll at. are needed lO be a
free mano From lhe point 01' vicw of the supcr.sutious lhcologian, howc"cr, il is
impossible fo r lhese concepts Lo ha\e tJl e same meaning. He lhi nks, righlly.
LhaL he is bri nging l he quesljon 1.0 .. he core of lhe pl'oblem, namcly. me mcall-
ing of lhe law, obedience and u-ansgressioll , and their rclati ollship WiLh tJ1 C law.
And he can onl)' staLC lhe problcm in moral LCrms, which are cxactly the lcrms
Spi noza had ddiculed and rejeclcd. In Lhis sc nse, t. he law is more Iike a "sign:
nleaning an cJTecl, taken separalcly from ilS callse; or il is U1C callse ilselfwhose
real naLurc is mi.511ndcrsLOod and which has 11 0 relation wilh its. efl"ccLS.
S8
Cod, for example. reveals LO Adam me law of me decomposilion ofhis b<x.ly if
he calS from lhe lree of knowlcdge, ",hi ch is why thc fruil is called forbiddeo."
BUI Adam, ,\'hose intclleel is " ;(,"ak , does nm understand the necessity of this law,
which he inLcrprcrs ralhcr as a "sign," or a moral preccpL. This is ho"," morali cy
acts lO hinder l he ignornm (Adam mosl.certalnly crune and ignoranl, in this
IIISlilia el Armi 105
sense ) from undcn land ing lhe signifi cance of lhe law. h is fOl' lhis reason
lhal lhe word is so compromised lhal il would be bener nOI lO use il
al al1.
09
Amo ng COnlempOrary cr ili es, Gill es DelellZe is rh e one who has mOSl srressed
thal lhe moral I'isi on of lhe worl d \\'as olle of Ihe main large Ls of Spin07.a' s
phil osophical-polili cal balde. This batde was waged in Ihe fi eld of la\\'. To full}'
understand ilS conseq uences. Ihen. we musl noV>' expl ore one of Ihe 1110 S1
signifi calll e1emenlS of Spinuzism: Ihe rdalon o f idellllr between right alld
power. Ahhough this idemil)' arises out of llletaphrsics, I has highl r original
conseqllenccs and is cnormousl)' import alll for a compal'so lI wlh Machb.vcl1i,
especially wilh reg:mllO poltical and legal phil osophy.
[n his introducton to Ihe polil ic;1 thoughl of SpinorA'I . Elienne Balibar gin:s
a maslerflll descripli on ofh e sib'11ifi cance oflhe ident.i t)' betweell ri ght and power
ami its efTecIs 0 11 Ihe juridical co nccplon of rig11lS alld Ihe la\\'. !-l is read ing. ho\\'-
el'er. lea\'es some room open for int erpretati on when co mparing SpinorA'I's
dlOught with lhat of l\Iachia\'clli. The maill fll ll Cti on a fSpin07.a's d efiniti o n of
the identity between righl and power, set o ut in chapter XVI of the Thw logiml
/'oliliml '1hmlJf and wa rked OUI full)' in the Polilia/{ '1hm/f, FiO is to establsh the
pri orit}, of lhe na l on 0 1' power Ol'er lhat 01'right.
6 1
This does no t mean tha l the
la\\' "emanates" from power or Ihat it is 011 pawer, Spinor .. '1 's object\'e
in placitlgju.J and IIOlt llfill in a relali on of idenlil)' is nOI lojuslfy Ihe law as s uch,
bUI to affirlll lhal lit e righ t and power of an ndi\'idmll (no l necessarily a hll\lIall
beillg) are coext ellsi\'e. NOlhing ril are ami nOlhing less. Balibar's expositi on
continues by showing lhat based on lhi s concepli on, firsl, lhe idea of abstracl
righlS ascribed to eaeh indi\;dual as such (lhose who are human and rati o nal,
for examplc ) has no scnse \,'hatsoe\'cr; and secondl )', that lhe nOlon 01' righl
a!ways refers 10 an aClUalily, meaning, an activit)'. This concepti on excl ude s lhe
idea of a lranscendental j urdi cal arder, of di\'ine origin, for exal11 pi e, and the
idea of a righl as lhe manfestui o n of lhe free will of a ratonal, hUlllan
i nd i I'id ti a!. fi2
On Ihe basis ofj ,u .Jh" I,u/Plllia, Spinoza is abl e 10 cOll cei\'e ora 1I 0 1. 01I of rigltl
lhal is complelely difTerem fmm lhe o ll e d e\'e1oped by lhinkers cOlIsiden :d \O
be absolllti slS like I-I obbes, 0 1' liberals likc Locke, 01' el'en phil asophel'S in lhe
d elll ocrmic u-..Idition like ROllsseau. The noti on 0 1' r igh t. Balibar cOlllinll es, is
no! in a mutual 01' specubr relalon to dut)' in Spin07.a. The limits 01' th e law, in
lhis sense, are no t eXlerna! and lranscenden1. 'l.I, !ike a lheoretical counler-
", eight; Ihe)' are effecli\'e , reallimits, immanent to th e strllclUre and th e net-
wa rk of powers and righls Ihal make up nalllre itself. lhe Substance in its
emirel}'. Tite idea ofa lillli l 10 t.lt e conce pl a fia\\' will be sOl1ght, ratller. in I.he
possibilily 01' an indivi d ual being Jui juris 01' nI/mus Balibar stresses that
0111)' God is su j w'iJ in <I n absolute, total I'ashion. wh ereas all indi\'idua ls 01'
natllre-both human and nonhulllan-a]"e a!ways in a rclalon 01' mUtlta!,
changing d cpelldence ,
lO COl/jliel, Puwer; (/lid Mul/ilru/e
By definiti on, then, the eategor)' of the la", refen 10 r'elations of fo rce and,
ultimately, 10 conrti ct. This offen an inleresting approach for bringing 's
refl ecti ol1s 011 legal lO bear o n th e historical-politi cal Ihoughl or
Machiavelli, also dense wilh phil osophical impli cations. Once again, in re fl ecl-
ing 011 lhe idea o f cQlwlus-resislance , lhe ull cond ili onal affirmali ol1 of Ihe
Axi om in pan rv orl he E/Mes makes ils effeos felt: is in Nawre n o indio
I'iduallhing Ihal is nOI surpassed in slrenglh and power by some 01111::1' th ing,
\Vhal'ioever hing tllere is, there is anothcr more powcrful by which Ihe said
Ihing can be
Now in the liglll ol'these consi der:ui ons, Batibar reaches Ihe condusion Ihal
the definiti o n 01' jru ,fue l}(jlelllin canno t he inlerpreted exdusil'cly Ihrough Ihe
cat egor)' or conflict. Although no ca tego ry can prol'ide-in an exdusil'e rash-
ion""-lhe key 10 int er pret.ing Sll ch an importan! ami d ensel)' packed concepl,
the idea o r connicl d oes appear to offer some usefut points or depanure, espe-
ciaH), rOl' comparing Spin07.a wilh Machial'elli, Balibar's imel'prelali oil is lOO
qui ck lO dismiss Ihe idea ora relationship belween la\\' amI co nnict ill Spino7.a's
wor k, And he does so , curi o usl y enough, nOI through Ihe categor)' orjrLf, wh ose
alld tllCOl'e lical power he full)' acknowledges, bUl hmugh that or
confli ct. Conflict is releg::llCd 10 Ihe stat e 01' nalure, \\'hi ch ",il1 be IIsed as a heo-
retical 1001 by Ihe nalural tal\' for th e ver,. purpose of condemning alld
;I\'erting political conflict by aH mean s.'" I-I owever, lhis Balib;lr
1.0 reconcil e Spinoza 's lhollghl \\'ilh that or lhe contractllalisl s. implicitl )' de l'alll -
ing a theo reti cal comribmion lhat a reading of mighl pro \"ide.
Machial'eHi's conni ctuatisl cOTl cepli on or politi cs and the law suggeslS a fe\\' et e-
IIl cnl'i thal highlight Spin07 .. a 's with respecI 1.0 the contractllalisLS nd
theori sl'i, as wdl as 1.0 he abstracl amI rigid concellli on of he la\\'
the)" engendcred. Consider o nce ag:tin lhe signifi cance of the way Spil107.a
explicilly distances himself from I-I obbes in Lelter :)0. 111e stat e or natllre, fo r
Spinoz.., is nOl somelhing abs(ract. .J USI. as fo r Mach ial'elli, polil ical co n mcl
has repercllssi ons on (he d efinition or lhe la\\' amI lhe emire lebral apparalll s
of a Slltc alld ca!lno t be represent cd as th e COllmcl hat character izes the
I-Iobbesian Slat e ofmuure.
Balibar's reading diminishes th e phenomeTl on of confli ct \O an extreme situ
Ili on, a pahology that he la\\' is cxpcClcd to o\"er come . This is support cd by an
ol'erly mechanislic visi on, pel'haps, of Ihe intel<lctio n betwccn individual' ighl'i
and powers hat Ba.libar d escribes. Spin07.a, in his \'iew, was supposedly con-
cerned lI'ilh reaching an equilibr ium based o n the Slll11 of a11(1 a juridi cal
system that is compl etel)' d evoid of conni Cl,fiII BUl thi s idea or Ihe sum on Olle
sid e alld th e sllbt.ractioll 011 Ihe other (coITesponding. respecti\'el)', 10 a \'irtu
o us silUatiol1 alld a confli ctual oll e) recalls so me of th e rigid slances oflhe c1as-
sical contractualist rhe tori c. It also pushes illto the backb'TOllnd an}" innll en ce
o n this sllbj cc t hal l\b chial'c11i ma)' hal'e hado On the co ntrary, wc sce the
of he conlliclllatist concepli on slcmming fmm Spin07 .. a's rcading of
IIISlilia el Armi 107
lhe aculissimus Fl orenline in lile lheory of lhe j us Jive po/el/lia as well as in lhe
doctrine of cOImlu,Hesistance and th e constitutive functi on oC lhe indigmtio. 61
To go hack now to th e meaning and r ole of Ihe law in states, we can pi ck up
a!.rain 011 Ihe idea d ewloped b)' Del euze of th e Opposili on helween an ethical
visioll and a moral l'isiol1 of lhe \\'orld. In Ihe elhical \'ision, connicl is deall \\'ilh
square lr, illtegral ed and mainlained at Ihe eore of poli lics ami lhe sta le, which
is lhe 0111)' possi bilily for 1101Iurning it il1lO an impmulII ill imperill. In Dcl e uzc 's
treatmcnt ofthe l;m' in Spinoza, he startS from the Spinozist negati on of Cood
and EI'i1. abstracl co nccpts tba! rcfcr 10 SUPCriOl', tl<lllsccndental trutbs, Co n se-
qucntly, Bl yemberg is eominced in bis le1tcrs that abad man is Icd \O co mml
el'i\ and thal , 011 the co ntrary, 10 foll o\\' th e \al\' Wilholll u<l nsgressing and 10
obe}' a superio r's order is a good in it. .. elf. No\\', Spin07A"s argumenl, according
to Deleuze, is 11 01 thal Good is super ior lO E\'il 01' I'lee Iers.'l . bUI lhal ill absolul e
lerms. and el'en more in (he lerms suggesled by Blremberg. tltere is no sueh
lhing as Good 01" Evil."" These are moml conce pLS thal describe how lall'S func-
lion as perce i\"ed by lhe ib"lOnul1. Whal Spin07 .. a oITers is "rat ionalisl amoral
ism -: a tr pe of rali onalislll, ill othcr \\" ords, thal d cni es an}' moral significanec
(co mmand, prohibili on, l1<l1lsccndcn ee ) \O the concepl oflaw, Rather lhan lhe
ab.m"3ct noti ons oC Good and Evil, whi ch co nsidcrs \O be co mplelely
d emid of d escriptive power, he prefers lhe coneept.s of good and bao as lhe}"
relate 10 single indh'iduals and concrete dynamics detennined by th e eom posi-
lion of lhe modes.
ffl
In thi s se llse, adds Ddeuze, Spiu07 .. as of lhe bodr is fUlldamell-
talll'ilh respect to a lmditi on lhal held it as iuferi or 10 lhe soul. The Quid corpr/.S
/JOssil l/el'lO Jwcl/Sque del el1l/llf/ui/ bccomes a genuine "lI'ar cry, -10 a K,7I'gSe7*,ii l'UlIg
in lhe Nci t7.schean scnse of lhe ,,"ord. Etbi es, Undel"SlOOd as a phil oso ph y of
i1l1mancnee, replaces mOl"3lil)', undcrslOod as l"alues-i1l1posed by a transeen-
d ent COll11l1and-which are superordinate 10 Ihe real d)"nanl ie of lhe e1e tn enLS
Iha! make up lhe of indil'iduals, namel)', I>od)' ami mind. This is
nOI 10 impl y thal Ol1 e eo mmands Ihe olher, 01' lhal ofl e aets whil e th e other is
acted upo n, 01' vice versa, wh ich would be absurdo The mind does not direct the
body from 011 high.
An}' eminence oC the so ul is thus n:jected as well as an}" moml purpose and
lranseendent image ofGod as able lO rul e lhe 1I'0rld like a monarch, by means
of laws. But lhe idea of lhe lal\' as a superior, lranscc ndcll1 rul e 10 be passi l'c\Y
foll Ol\'ed is al so swept away. \Vhat other meaning are we lO ascr ibe lO Spino:r;a's
brillianl proposili on lhal is th e I'el"}' meaning ofth e \\'ord la\\": lhe lal\' of
nalure is nel'er a rule of dUI)', btlt lhe norm o f a po\\" er
H
?" No pretence of a
domini o n tmnscending Ihe concrete d)'nam ies of eo mpositi on and int emction
belween men-including conniCl-call ever be claimed by lhe lall's. This d oes
1101 mean lha l laws of eomposili on do not cxist or thal lhe decisions of me n or
cIt n Hink stains on papel
M
do 1I 0t llave lheir' role in lhese lll ceha nisms of com-
position. [l simply mcans lhal thc laws, as slIeh, simpl ), d o nOl have lhe /HJlf.!i/II.!'
108 COl/jliel, Puwer; (/lid Mull/rule
in th c mscil"cs--bccausc lhe}' bck lh e 1)(IlIm/in and, th c l"c fo rc , lhe right-to
direct lh e a u io ns o f lIJ e n; an)' more han he mind has Ih e POlfJ/IIS, lhe polnl/in
ando th erefore. he rigln l O direcl he bod)'. ofwhich il is he idea.
B1H beyo nd lhe hHerpretations ofTered by Balibar and Deleuze. Ihis co n ce p-
ion suggesls lhe idea ora rebionship belween la\\' alld connicl thal recalls Ihe
Machiavell ian doctr ine. \"he ll Spinoza suggests 111al righ ls, he jura COllllllllllill.
al"e he soul of lhe mnl' . i1 is precisel )' \O emphasize thal rights do nOI dirt:cl
politics [mm 011 high. On lhe COnt l'I!")'. like an)' otbe!" right, lhe)' are a p ower
Iha1 is compo scd o f o tbe !" rights ami other powcrs. in a reticular fash io n lha! is
Iso ncccssa.rily conflinual. The elTecli\"encss of Ihc laws, Spino:r stales cxplic-
tI)' in Ihe s.ame pass.agc, d epends on conflkt ami strllggl e to d efend hCIll,
o th erwisc th ey remain nothing bllt ink stains on papel":
state can be everlasting. it must be one wh ose conslitllti on. being once
correctl )' eswblished. remains in\'iobte, For the constitutiotl is hc soul o f thc
state; if this is preserved, lhe stale is preserved. But a constituli on canno t Sta)'
intan unlcss it is uphc1d both by I"cason amI by the COllllll on sentiment ofthe
people; o th elwise, if fOl' instance laws are d ependent sol el)' on the suppo n of
the 1'eason, lhe)' are likc1r 10 be weak amI easily overthrown. :;<;>
In o rder 10 gain an adequal e undersland ing 01" la\\'s. Iherel"ore, we mus nOI
onl )' understand th eir identil)' with rights and. by d efilliti on. witlt power, bUI
<lIso Iheir relalionsltip with cOllfli cl: fi rsl. beca use confli ct is a par! of he
process that produces these laws: alld secoll dl}', because without confli ct, laws
would vanish, turning oncc again imo mcre ink stains o r of
po\,'c1'l essness.
No\\', adds Dcl eu7.e. this concepli on of th e 1'c1alionship belween right, la\\',
alld powe r is inherit ed direcdy frOIl1 I-I obbes. wh ose dilTerence fro lll Spino:r
appa1'enll)' places him on an oth er pl ane , In howevel". Deleu7.e vi ews
Spinoza as inc1ebled 10 Ihe English phil osopher for lhe bases oflhe mechani cal.
dynamic 1l10deJ of lhe bod)' on whi ch h e built hi s refonnulmed theory o f lhe
An)' imeJleClual d ebl Spi noza ma)' have \O J-I obbes should not make us
forgel th e importance of Spinoz.a 's reading of Machia\'clli. howevcr, especiall)'
wlh respecl 10 his conflictualist concepti on ofpoliti cs and lhe law. Fo1' his rca-
son. rUlher lhan noting lheir proximily, il seellls appropdale 10 d1'aw altenti on
10 th e distan ce thal separates Spno:r.a's concepli oll fl'o m that of J-l obbes.7< This
is based on Ihe idea 01" a \'olunlary act at he foundati on of the la\\' Iha! 1'emo\'es
man fr01l1 lhe natural (al1(l confli ctual ) world so 10 him inl o a ci \'i1
stal e where peace has been imposed , Spino1A1s Lel.t er 50. once abrain. is Ihe lexl
\O refer \O 011 Ihis po im. "
The law, Iherefon:, in accordance Wilh the oliginal concepti on of jI/s sive Im/fll -
Jiu, similarl)' 10 Machia\'elli. is d osel)' linkcd 10 co nflict: asan incmdicabl c d)' ml111ic
in its own right (in lhe lerms, fOl' exampl c, thal l-I obbcsian contractualislll d aims
IIISlilia el Armi 109
to do awa)' wil h il) bUI also co nflicl in dcfense oflhe lawaml frecdom. Spino7.a
observes lhal
as long as human natural right is delennined by Ihe powe!" o f each single
indil'idual and i5 pos5essed by each alon e, 1 is of no account ami is notional
[-:lther Ihan factua!. since lhere is no assurance il can be made good . ...
Fun hell1lOre. il is scarcdy possibl e for men 10 suppon life and Ihei r
minds wilhom IIHl1ual assistance. \Ve lherefore conclude Ihal lhe natural
righl speci fic to human bcinj,,'S can scarccl)' be concci vcd CXCCpl where men
have lheir in co mmon ami can togelher sllccessfully defcnd Ih e lerri-
tories whi ch lhe)' can inhabil and cultivale, prol ecl IhelBselves. repel alllo rce,
and Ih'e in accorclance Wilh Ihej udgemelH o fl he entire comuHulily. f
The language of lhe illdigllfllio makes an unequivocabl e reappeanlJl ce h ere.
This is Ihe meaning ami signifi cance of a Slale of nalure for Spin07.a. Natural
righl is concei\"abl e o nl)" when men have jum eOIl/II/ II /1ill. namely, tltat which
all ows lhem 10 defend thclIIsc1\"es from atlacks a nd r cpc1 thcm; to live. in a
,,"ord . . wijllr and independently "in accordance with thej lldgelllent of Ihe
entire COnl1TIllnily."
" le can no\\' go bao:k lO one o f lhe determining feawres o f lhe relationship
bet ween law ami eo nmet for l\lachiavel1i : he reeursivil}' suggesled by the I:"l el
tl];J1 good rules come out of confliel whil e, al lhe same lime, Iher allo\\' COn me!
10 exist ami serve 10 regulme il; 01' in Ol.h er words. Lit e idea lhal laws- alld
"good anns" always go hand in hand. A ver)' similar idea emerges from Spino7 .. as
writings. from lh e scmantie fi eld d elincated by Ihe concepts of i llf/igllfllifl. WIIfI -
11I.f- pO,,'cr, aud jI/m COlI/lI/llllirl. Na uu:II righl. as we have sce n. is inconeei ' -': Ibl e
"cxeepl where men bave Lheir rights in eo mmon " which alioli' thcm lO pmlect
thelllsdV/?$ and 11'/11:1 I/f{ fflru, Ihe .. eby asserting lhe ir independenee and illl egril)'.
No\\', Ihis means Ihal, 011 he one hand, .. igh! i1.self in some W;\y lhe
idea of con me!; and conflic to 011 the o lher halld. direct ly creales lhe elTec !s of
freedom amI independen ce in a co ntlllUtlil)'. bOlh in ils eXlernal rel alons
and wilhin i15e1f. [ n lhe real ami immanelll mo\'emenl of polilics. la", ami
eonflict r ecursi\'ely engage. cngendcr, and express eaeh other. As lI' e have seen.
lhe more a poli ti eal co mmll nily is the producl of a democl-':ILie 11I 0\"e l11 e111
involving th e largesl possible llu mbcr of citizens, the grealcl' i15 degree of
ratio nalily. 77
BUllhi s mOl'emen! is not imaginabl e purely in le rlll S of eOOpel-:llion amI an
"algebl-:lic sum H of righ I-powers. nI is "'ould reqllire Ih e presllppos; li o n o f an
eXlrinsie raliona!il), aIread)' opemti,c frolll on high , tmnscende1l11)', from lhe
outside. The onlr possiblc coll ecl I'e ralonalil)'. rmher. is one fon ned in ternall )',
lhrough litis dellloen.llic mo\'emem and lhrough Ihe experien ce of con fli cl.
jusI as for Machial"elli. Democl-.:lcy. says l....a ure111 BOl"e onee again. is similar in
en"' l"}' way to wisdo m. Not a \'aluc or an external. super ior cll d , 01' "a panicular
11 0 COl/jliel, Puwer; (/lid Mull/rule
SWtc. [bm ralher] lhe real mo"cmcm through which a socicty COnUllll.lll"
reseues a s[.'uc of bo ndagc, moving LOward grcaler pe rrection. "711 This
Ill oyernent orliberati o n and this from honclage whi ch corre-
sponds lO Ihe process o f becoming a body politic passes lhrough (onrlict.
711
h is in Ihis scnse, similar!y t.o l\'b chia\'cl1i. Ih::1I Ihe conflicto resistance, and
c1aiming of righLS thal Spinoza tatks aboUl haye rea l. concrete cITec!s 011 Ihe
instiuHions aud laws of a society. The \'inuous elfecl cremed by lhe recursi\'e
relationshi p bctwecn law and connict manifcsts itselfwilhin, ami by means of,
Ihis sclf-pcrfccting 1Il 0 YClll c nt of lhe mll/film/il/M pu/en/in, Ri ght. as wc haye secn.
L,kcs prcccdcnce over la\V. 1'he ju.'J silM po/el/tia comes before la\Vs and institu-
tions. This \Vh)' rights can at the same time be lhe $Oul of lhe state
( tlnimfl imlJl'f"l) but also mere dWJ"/n e/ fllnw/P.II/um. Thi s am bi\'a.lence is resoh'ed
br a cOll cepti o n that is similar 10 Ihe recursivil}' bell\'een lal\' and conni cl in
Freed olll and lhe lal\' are d efended ami achie\'ed lhro ugh coopera-
lion. bu t also lhrough resismnce and confli cl. 1'his 1I1 0vemem leads 10 lhe
imll1al1enl emergen ce of Ihe nnionalit), of the inSlituuons . .wJ
L.aurent Iim'c poinLS out lhat lhesc issues had aIread)' been bro ught 10 light by
Antoni o Negri in The SflImge 1\/101/1(11)', \Vhose interpreladon, howcver, W;:LS bascd
exclusivel)' on Ihe pri ority amI preceden ce of pOlentin ol'er IJotes/n.l, and of consti-
tmil'e power over t.he rormalism of Ihe BO\'e stresses lhal we need 10 ext end
our undersranding Mbeyond Negri's interpret..""u ion H lhat Ihe law is ilself Ihe "nec-
ess-"ry In edialion of Ihe po,,"cr of Ihe mulli lude as il asserLS it.self. as wel1 as Ihe
spnptom of its presenl No\V, the idea of recursi\'il y benveen la\\' ami COll -
flict, simil ar 10 Macltiavdlis. supporLS lhi s idea of th e amI M S)'ll1p_
tom" of the multitudc. Indccd. what mcdialion sibo"Jlifies is not at al1 d ialccdc.
sublimati on. 01" but ralher, "real mo\"emetH,">13 whil e lhe s)'mptom
is the degree ofrati ona1icy of the "present lhal is, lhe degree lO which the
insti(uliollS and la\Vs are open to criticislll , alnendlnent, and change: in a word,
lile ex tent 10 which (hey are ",ble to tolerale cOllfli ct and rellder il prodll ctile.
This expositi on o n lhe phil osophy of lall' and Ihe relal.iomhip belween 1aws
ami confli cl can be brought tO a close by stressing thal Spin07A1 also fo l1 ows
Machi:lI'el1i in tite fi nal outcome of this relali onsh ip, namely, lhe ilulili,/!'! (mili
combinalio n and lhe lheme of th e peo ple's arm}". A condclllnali on of mer cc-
na!)' militi;LS and an apol06')' fOl' a national citizcns' army are shared b)' bOlh
lhinkers and can be considered the OUlcome of lheir respective concepti o ns 01'
lhe law. A IlIltnber 01' di fferent argumenl'l co nverge in SpinolA"s suppor t or a
people's army. The ones relaling to (he polical situalion of his time are enor
mousl r importanl : th e cOllfl ict belween (h e merchanl aristocrac)' led by de \Vill,
II'lti ch leaned 10ll'ar<l pacificism. and lh e Orangi sl pOll'el" based largely o n the
army, BUI th e ti es betll'een a defense of lhe idea ofa peopl e 's ann)' and lhe
metaphysical ,Ill d juridical conceplion of th e JI/S .'Ji lJfl pole/da are also cvide n\.
Spin07 . .a expli ci tl y insists on lhe f.:\ct lhat lhe cilizcns are "that Illuch ili on, pOI\'-
elful ami thererore more ful1}" in control of thell' OWIl right
M
lhe more capabl e
Copyrighted Material
lustilia el Armi 111
Ih ey ar e of defe ndill g lhemselves and stand ing u p LO enemy aggression, wi th
OUl or wilhin."'K4 This is whal lhe derense. and lO use Machia"clli's words. lhc
"guardian" uf fTccdorn in. II is fOf Lhis lOO, mal arrnics cannOl
depend on o lhers.; [hey mUSl be founded on their 0"'11 vinue.jusL as Machiavclli
had mainlai ned. Inrleec1 , Spinoza adds I.ha!.:
it is an assurcd [an thal lhe wcal lhi cr men bccornc, lhe more natural it is for
tJlem lo mke measures lo proleCL themselves. HUl lhose cities uml stand in
need of anolhcr's po\\!cr fo,' I,h cir prescn ra Li on do nOL ha\'e equal right Wilh
lhat othcr. thcy a re subj cct tu .:Ul olhcr's r ighl to lhe cxlcnt lhat the..."}' stand in
!l eed ofanolher's power. Far we have shO\\TI in Chapler 2 lhat ri ghl is d efined
by power a tone. IL is also ror lhis same purpose- viz. lJl a1. dlizcns may keep
control over lhcir o\\'n righl and may safeguard l.heir freedom-lhal lhe mili-
ta r)' fo rce should be composcd onty by ci tiz.ens, no cxcmpuons. For an
armoo man is more fully in coO[rol of his own right t han an unarmed man
(see Section ] 2 of lhis Chpter). nd in givi ng up lhcir arms ane! emrusting
lhcir cities' dcfcnces lO a nothclj ci tizcns arc making an ;,tbsolutc transfCr of
lheir riglll lO him, cornmi l li ng il enti rely lO his good failh.8:.
Thc need for a naLi onal miLitia composed of citi2.Cns and IlOl mCtccnaries is
tied direcuy lO lhe conccption of lhe jUJ s;ve po1en (:i(l. a nd Lhe idea of freedom as
a defense a nd ass.en.ion of ri ghl'ii agai nst oppressors., agai nsl e ne mies wimoul
3nd wi t.hin.
BUl Spinol.<:{ h3d bl:gun rcfl ccting On L; liz.cn wldicI)' in lhc "I1leological-Poli(j-
cal when he lold lhe 5tOI)' of lhe proud, .Iewi sh people who
had organ izcd l.h eir own mi l i ti a, found ing iL "exclusively on I.he
Evcrybody "bcu"'cen lhe ages of l\Y'cmy and SiS:Ly" \Y'cre ohl igcd lO "serve in
anns, n faithful "'LO rcligioll , lhal is, lo God" rathe:: r t han lO a military commander
01' a ponti fT. Thi!l. example of lhe J cws prmrides al1 even mo re explici t link
bClwccn lhe defcnsc of frccdom and resistan ce lO polit.ical o ppression.
ing once again to lhe imponance of Machia\fclli 's Icsson. Ind ccd, Spinoza con-
tinues, a citize n army contribules lO creari ng lhe bases for resistan ce. for lh e
confliCl in <l erense offreedom and eommon fig h1.S lhaL3rises frotll l he "ground
up." In olher wotd as bcfore, righ LS only ha\'e consislenty if they are effectively
defended. The}' are lhe Anima i11lperii only to lhe cxlenl tJlat lhe multilud c
desires a nd a ppl'OpriaLes l hem mmm militan against me mreal or corruption
and opprcssion. The Janguage of i ndignat i on has never be en so charged
with Machiavcllian lones. In chaplcr XV11 of thc 'fheol.ogi.caJ-PotiJical 7h!ali.st!,
Spino7.a also observes lhal:
Amoug oUlcr considcI'3tions that reslrained l.he unbridled liccnce of U1C
caplains was one of consid erable importancc. in mal me armcd rorces werc
recruited fmm me ",hole cili7.cn body with no exceplion be[ween me ages or
Copyrighted Material
112 ConJlicl, pi)(utr, ami MuUi/1l dt
lwenty a nd sixty, and lhaL Lhe captains were nm all owed 10 hire foreign mer-
ccnaries. This, 1 l"Cpeal, was of considerable for iL is :a faeL thm.
rulen; <.:an subjugalc a pcoplc sirnply by rncans of hin..-d rncrccnarics, ""hile
mere is nOlhing they fear more fhan lhe independence of a citi:.r.en soldi cl)'
who ha\lc \'m ll freedom and glory rol" dleir COUIU'1' by I.h eir va lour, lheir l.oil ,
all,l lhe heav)' pri ce of blood."
The Mac.hiavellian 3uTICtSphere in mese leXl" is undeniable, bm lhe rael t hal
Spinolf' explicitly begins his renCellOn on laws--on lhe pOLcnlia l violence and
parti alily lha1 accompanic..:s thcm whcJI Lhcy are nol defended and CTcawd
lhrough lhe necessal)' union bcm'cen j usLice and afms, lhal is, between lawand
con n icl- is e\len more inlcresti ng. Thc funclion Qf I.he cilizen army. a L leaSl in
lhe firsl part of lhe republ ican hi LOry of lheJ cws. is precisel)' lO ptcscr\'e free-
dom from Lhe ground up, ex parte popll.li, ag'".nst the ambitions of a princc o r a
corrupL governi ng class:. Ir is a runcLion l hal, espedally in Lhese pages, echoes
Machiavelli 's lCXts on lhe origins of lhe la\\!:
n,ose who govern Lhe SLate or hold Lhe reins of power always slrive la c.Ioak
with a sho\\/" oflegaliLY whalcvCI" lhey commi1., persuad ing lhe people Ihall his
action \\"3S right and propcr; and lhis they can easi ly achi evc whcn lhe inler
prclation of me law is entir cly in their hands,88
The people 's army. I.hen, is an i.llSlfumcnl of fr-eedolll and resislance of peoples
princc-s. but also ag-dinst all Lhose who, lO use Machiavclli's cxprc-ssion.
later deccnl" lhe Lhey have usu rped by dcceit and violence by
lhcm "I.he fa1se tle of honcsleami ngs."
Uut Spinoza a[so remains c10se tO Machiavelli on Lhe poinllhal (j tiren armies
promotc peacc bern:cen statcs,89 In discussing tll CSC issucs, Lucicn I\'l ugnicr-Poll cL
c1aims that [his is o ne of [he higgesldiffe rences henveen Spinoza and Machia\'elli .
For Machiavelli , he says. \ \1at iJ' ilSelf is a val li C. Lhe onl)' one lhal specifically
all ows a pri ncc lO asscrt his personal virtuc,OO lnslc"d, for pino:a. , \V'"ar is sup-
posedlya harsh neccssi ly [O be dcalt with, whose only cnd, tlloug h. lS internal
peace ano lhe economi grmvl. h of 1l1e dl.i7..c n ry As we have seen. however. war
is nOl a val ue in itself ror Machiavclli ciLhcr; raLhcr, il i.s a neccssary phcnome-
11 0n t bal i!jo impossiblc lO avoid. The diffcrencc bctwecn the two lhin ken; would
be betler idenlHi ed in lhe peace-making vi nue o r lhe markel, lhaL is, in lhe
economic mcchanisms LhaL (oster pe.:"lce :and harmony belween With
out a 01" a doubt, pcacc i.s as much by Spinoz.a','j. anncd rorces as
il is by .Machiavelli's.92 The d iITerencc betwcen me two resides more in their
confidence in, or pOS-i!iibil ity oC seniog up virlUous mechani ms !..O prevent lhe
oUlbteak ofvrar. BUl fOI" Spinoza.jusl as ror .Machiavelli, peacc bCl".'ccn StaLCS is
evcry bi t as dcsirablc as il is difficult to achiC\'c, lf statcs arc Iikc individ uals in
a stale or namre. Lh cy musl neces...cmril)' defend themselves in order lO surv1ve.
IUSlilia el Armi 113
In other words, the,. can make alliances based on th e general principlc that
"ir [Wo men come togeth er and j oin rorces, thc)' have 1ll00"e power over Nature,
and conseqllendy 1I10re riglll, than either one al o ne .
HY
' BIll this will nOI aUo,,"
th em lO escape war fore\"er. \<f
The situali on described by Spinoz.."l is \ery simil ar. Ihen, 10 Ihe one discussed
b)' Machialelli . The econolllic mechanisms for olercollling: Ihis silllation can
alwa)'s he illlplclll clll ed. Spinozas intert:st in tb is solution. as Mugnier-I' oll el
has sbown eom1ndngly. arises prilllarilr frolll Ihe hislOrr oftbe Low Countri es
and thdr eo nmets during the sCl'cllIccnth ecnturr NCIerthdcss, 1.hc fa el
rClllains Ihat the state of nalure existing betweell states ean ne,"er be pcnlla-
nentl}' 01" d efinilivd)' sUnllOlInted . In Spinoza's vi el\', this is 11 0 more like l)' lO
happen Mlhl"o ugh Lh e law
H
Ihan il is Ihrollgh Ihe pursuil ofan improbabl e
pe tual peace.
H
AlIlhe same, in Ihe spiril of Ihe people's armr does
hale [he crud al funnion of prese rvillg lhe slrenglh of lhe necess<lr)' bo nd
belween el rml!;.M
Part III
Multitude
I nlJ"oducLi oll
0111)' lake ple(/$wl1 il! pf:ople, he /1'51 iJ afIlO v alue.

Frolll lhe indil'idual, 10 (;Onni CI, 10 Illuhiplicity. This is lhe palh we ha\'e taken
in Ihe previ o us chapl crs lhrollgh Machi;welli and Spinoz."l's realismo The 1I1111ti -
pli cily, \ ,:u i e 1)' amI di,'crsit)' tha! disling:uish nalUral phenomcna thoro ughly
per\'ade lhe emirt" specuulll of human acli on. BOlh thinkers a cenu";:\!
role to Lh e possibility of dominaling Ihe changeability of lhe phenomcna Out of
which Ihis m ultip1icity arises: f O I" Machial'dli this takcs place by imitadng nalu rc;
for Spino:r."l. by d cycloping 10 he mmos! Oll e 's col/I/lus, lh e powcr to act, lhe
capadl)' to self-orb>:lni;o:c and he di spositio n 10 afTect and to he ing !Tened.
The fOI" a gelluine onlolog}' oflhe mu1tipl e bid by assigning a posilive
\'alll e 10 exchanges, encounters, and el'en to conf1i cls. This is accompani ed by
a r ej eclion of all tr pes of fi nalism, wheth er on lOlogical or politi cal in llature.
Perfectioll and \'inue cannot be achie\'ed by auaining unil)', a prearranged end,
or a transcendenL...'l1 mode! 10 be imita led or I'ealized. Rat h er. they m-e airead)'
achi el'ed in lhe aUlOnomOllS affirmalion oflife-in alld through lhe Ill ulli pli c-
il)' of alld relati ons betwee n indi\'iduals. including conf!iclual ones.
These rcbtions are \'inuo us if the)' aspire to a ",ide opcning onto lhe wodd,
embracing COlllaminalio n, and Ihe grealer power lhal comes
froll\ experiencing the real in all ils \'ari el)'.
Within a framewor k th;1I assigns a positi \'e l'alue 10 co nf1i cl anclmultipli ci t)',
il finall )' becomes possibl e lO speak ;,bollt Ihe sul:ti ecIs ofpolili cs: r.l achiavelli's
1)(JIJ% ami Spinoza's /l/II/Iilm/u. Mullipli city takes on decisil'e imponance
becausc o f the rejccti on on Ihe pan of bOlh "Tilen 10 intcl' prCI Ihe oribrin-bul
also lhe end---of c\'el"}' politi ca! sociel}' lhrollgh lhe lP.f/IIClio flfllllWIIl tha! les al
lhe h eart of lhe conu-actualisl argulll cnt. [n other words. lhe reduc!io n of
dil'c rsil y 10 unifo rmity and of p!ura!itr 10 unil)' can be counter ed by a co tl cep-
lion based on Ihe affinmu.i on of mu1tip!ici tr as Ihe irreducibl e core of a soci ety's
vinue alld power. In this 1i ght , the heme ofMachiave11i' s po1itical hUlll ors, lhe
ll ti COl/jliel, Puwer; (/lid Mul/ilru/e
supcriority oCthe goVenlmenl oCthe peo pl c over that oC Ihe Grandi 01' a popu-
lar principalily, lakes o n substance,
idea o f lhe Singular is de\'elo ped in a similar' way,
TIl e relalionship between olll oloJ.,")' and politi cs is il1lerpreled thmugh he
capacil)" of indi ,'iduals 10 expl o it l11ulliplicil}' 10 Iheir OWI1 a(kantage in order 10
resoll'e problems ariJ;ing fmm Ihe Illulability that characlerizes nalUre as a
",hole, Faced with thc changeabili ty ami the of phenomena thm enl'e-
lope the existence uf each individual. Ihe thi ng o ne can do is affinn and
expl oit on e's multiplicitr-ullderstood as a wcapo n, thercforc, or a sU-':lIcgy fOf
the sur"il'al ami affirmation of on("s bcing, Sdel/tia tui/iua, th(' Iasl kind of
kn owleclge in 5pin07.'I., has a central rol e [O play in this SI!-alegy. \ Vhal is the
relat.ionship belwee n [his of indil'idual wisdo m and Ihe polilical,
colleclil'c dimcnsion? Through Ihe del'clopmenl o f a nalll1-a1 m ult.ipli cit}', can a
political comlllllllil y's fOrllls ofself-organizati oll sel up a I'irtuous circ\lit belwee n
indilidual wisdo l11 and collectil'e powe r, or, in otller wo rds, belween ethi cs ud
polilics?
Chaplcr 6
Quid CmtJUs Possit Ne'llw Hucusque Delel'minavit:
The Spinozist "War Cry"
In Ihe pas$.'lge frolll Ihe 'l7l rol ogir/lI-Pofitiml T"l'Ill u, 10 Ihe Poli/iml 7hHll u f',
Spin07A'l abandons the lheme of lhe social cOnl ract 10 el abol"ale 011 a difTerenl
s)"stem of organi7..ati on o f lhe social passi oll s lhal does II Ot exc1ude th e phen om-
enon of connict_ There isno place in Spinoza's realislII for th e illusion of a state
,,'ithout confl icto 0 1" of a coutran cntel"ed into withOll l In th e 1II0st
matul"e phase 0 1" his lhoughl, rej ecl.'i the contractuali sl ti cti o n and
brings lhe idea oran irreducible Ilmllipli cit)' in politics to lhe fore, understood
as a mechaniSI11 al" cOl11posili on of th e efTecl..'i-bo lh positil'e and Ilegal ive-Ihal
ensil e frol11 il . In opposili on 10 l.h e f r, !luclio /lrl 11/1111/1111011 inspired Hobbes and
lhe contracwalisls in ge neral. Spinoza d e\'elops a new concepl. that of mll/li-
ludo. This s 1I 0t lhe fi rst appeanH1 ce of lhe len n. whi ch alreadr had il.'i place
in Ihe c1assi cal polli cal and lil erar}' lexi con. Nevenhe1ess. as in olher cases.
Spinoza takes thi s term IIp by lending it a completel}' new and re\"o luti on-
as-y Ill eani ng.
[n lhe u<ld iti onal poltical and leb>al lexico n. a mllhitude represented the
ioea ofan inorgani c. inconSlanl, and undiscip1ined llmltip1ici ty. 1t was a Lhreal
10 lhe poliLi cal order,jusl as much 1.0 lhe medi e, .. 1 princely l<lti onalily as il "'as
lal er 10 mod ern so\erei"'1l1Y. The idea of Ihe unreliabilit r and inconslallcy
of [he multitude appears in lhe pages of hi slOrians and politi cians st.'lrting
fmm aneiem Limes. d eep "'ro le Quimus Curlus. an author dear to
Spi1107l l, and SIOI"TIl-SWepl oeean muses sll ch gr"-' <ll bil10ws as th e emo-
tiolls of a Quite lhe o pposilc for Machiawlli. as we haye sccn. for
who111 th e vinllc of a republi c. like ha l of a principalil)'. mUSI be fOllndcd 011
the people. Km the inCOll slancy of lhe 1llt1ltimde----or of the people-is force-
ful1)' condemned once again by GlI icciardini: il is Ihe opposil e of Ihe super ior
rcason of lhe arisloerals, lO ",ho m power musl be e11lrusl.ed . wh ere Ihe
n umber is smal1cr. wr iles Gllicci ardin i in I\is "Consid erali ons on th e Disco llrses
of is more llnifi ed alld is ben er abl e lO produce il s
The m ultipli cil)" and \'ari"-' t}' o f the peopl e are precisd)' lhe characterisli cs thal
'"
COl/jliel, Puwer; (/lid Mullilrule
cause a Icssc ni n g: o f vi rtuc sinec , as Guicciardini o bscnc s, bo rrowing fro m
Quintus Cunius' mCI.'l pho r.
\<Ihere Ihere is mullilude, lhe!"e is co nfusion: in such dishannony of minds
where Ihere are difTeringjudgmcllIs. dilTering ideas. amI dilTering enels, Ihefe
G1I1 be 110 I"mi onal discussion, no sound resoh"c, and 110 fjrm auon. Me n <In
frI'olousl )' on <In}' suspi cion 01" :In}' \'ain rUTIl or; lhey do 1101 dis;ern. Ihey
d o no! distinguish. and Ihe}' re,'en with Ihe same frivolouslless to d ecisiolls
tha! he}' had prc\'i o usl )' co ndc mncd: LO haln); Iho se lhe)' to lo ving
tho se lhey hat cd. I-I c nce it is no ! wih a u! rcason tha! lhe multitudc is 1'0111-
pared lO Ihe of .h e sea which. d epending upon which wa)' Ihe ",i nel s
bl o\\', foil now this wa)', now thal way, WithOlll any rul e, ",ilholLl any
The s.'une aris\Ocmli c molifs can be found in lhe revival ofSl oicism betwee n
lhe sixleenlh and lhe se\'emee mh cemuries. In lhe general fnun ework of iI
condcmnation of lhe human passi ull s. whi ch Spin01 .. a opposes in his ope ning
10 Ihe l'olilictl l Tretllise, Ihe ll eo-SlOidsl wrilcrs of lhis pcdod repealed Ihcir con
d emnali on of lhe multitude. accusing il ofbcing a compendium of all lhe vi ces
o f human nature. Sel agai nsl Ihe 01' lhe monarch, who are co nsi d ered
wonhy of go\'erning because Ihe}' are free fr011l p:usi ons, lhe 11lllltilude is
d escr ibed-bY.l u51Us Li psius. for exampl e-as ullS!abl e, passi onale. ill capabl e
o f so und judgmelll. ell\'i o us. and suspi cioll S.
Tit e argullLenl used by I-Ioblles 10 cr ili cize lhe ntultinlde is nOl 111UClt ([ ilTer-
em, lndeed. il is wilh Ihe English philosopher Iha! lhe calegor)' u f lhe 1I/!llJilwle
beco nlt:s a definilive polemi callargel of 1lI0dcI"!1 phil osophy. The lIl ultitude is
now se! againsl Ihe peopl e 10 indi cate forms of politi cal existence of lhe many
qua many. 01' a plura1i ly Ihal resists lhe idea of reprcsent."lli on. For I-I obbcs, Ihe
mult.i\llcle is opposed lO Ihe people inaslIluch Ihe !alter is a subjeCl lhal has
ach ie\'ed unil)' lhrough Ihe ali enalion of nalural ancl the co nSliWli o n of
Ihe po1il ical space lhrough Ihe social conlract, tnmsla ling, lherefore, inl o an
exclusivelr repreSeJ1lilli onal space. Gnl)" through lte represell13lioll oflhe so\"
ereign can Ihe polili clll probl e1ll of Ihe Slate o f J1ature reso lled . llle multi-
is IUrned \Owa rd lhe paS! and IOward Ihe when: confl icl re igns:
lhe peopl!' are proj eCled inwardly IOward lIu.' slale. 1O\1':ilrd a flllllre of
peace and stabilily, as in lhe frontis pi!'ce oflhe firsl 165 \ edili on 0 1" LroitrtlwlI,
where Ihey are lurncd unanimously IOward Ihe face 01' Ihe so\"creign. 111e lI1ul-
ilUde deni ed an>' wil1. h is emlHi ed o fan}' subj eclivil". for ming Ihe busl o r lhe
Ln.'fI/!lII/I lhrough a COl1n eCli o n wi lholll relati onship, in wh ich II/!I/filud() rec;l1s
JoU/ l/ do ami in whiclt lhe original mealling of lit e CWIHIIWIUS. is o\'erturned in
Ihe aUIOIl Omi7.aloll of lhe 11/1/1111$ and in lhe suppressi on of lit e C/III/ .
3
A multi -
lUde thal rebcls aCls ag;.li nsl lit e people:
In lhe laS! place , il'S a greal hindra ncc 10 Ci\"il1 Go\"ernmcnl, especial1y
1\l onal'chical1, thal mcn dislinguish nOI enough hCIWeen a Peoplc and a
TJII! S/Ji "\\'o r e l )' " 11 !l
Mllltitudc. Thc I' cople is somewhat that is one, having one will , and 10 wh om
o ne action mal' he attribllted; none ofthese (an properly be said of a ,\.-l ulti-
tude, The l' eople rul es in al1 Go\"ernments, fol' cven in Monarchi es lhe l' eo-
pIe Commands; for th e l' eople will s hy lhe will of one man: bUI lhe 1\'l ultitude
are Cilizens, Illal is 10 I\.a)', In a Democr.ll)', ami Arisl ocnll)', lhe Cili-
zens are the l\'lultitude. bm th e Co un is th e People. Ami in a Monarch)', lhe
Subjects are th e Multit ude, ami (howe\'er il seellle a Paradox) th e King s Ihe
I' eoplc. The co mmon son of men, and others who Iilde consider [hese
Iruthes, d o alwayes speak ofa great numbcr of men, as of Ihe I' eople, that is
10 S:I)', lhe Cil)'; [hey &'ly that the Cill' halh rebell ed against lhe King (which is
impossibl e) and lhat th e l'eople win, a[ld nill, ""hat murmuring and discon-
temed would ha\'e, 0 1' would 11 01. ha\'e, lindel' pretence of Ihe l'eo])le,
st.i rri ng up Ihe Cilizens againsl Ihe Cil)', Ihal is 10 S.,)', the Multilllde againSl
Ihe Peo pl e, And lhese a re almost alllhe Opil110ns wherewilh SubjecLS being
minted doe easil)' Tumult, Ami forasmueh as in all manner o f Go\'erlllll em
is 10 be preserv'd by him, or lhem wh o have dI e Sllpreme Authority,
Ihe crime" /nt!5nf \lnjeslnlis natllrall y c\ ea\'es 10 Ihesc Opinions.<
Before Spino7.a, o nl)' the mo narchomachists had put in ID quesli on the idea of
so\'ereignt)' as absolllte dOI11 ini on o\"er a savage IIllJltitude and iLS natural po\\'er,'
Spinoz,,'l, on rhe conrrar"}', picks up again on rh e Gl lego1")' of Ihe tllultiwde 10
eSlablish lhe idea of a nel\' relationship belween Ihe tllUllipl icilY of lhe
aud rhe absolute characlcr of politi cal po\\'er. Nol\' wheu ebboraling 011 Ihis COll-
cept, Spinoza uses Hobbes's eonclusions ID o\'enurn thelll; he uses Maehi a\'elli 's
concl usions 10 Ihe s:une eXt Cnl, 10 pro\'ide hilll sclf with a nUlIlber of
dons which he deploys for a ne\\', re\'olutionar'Y idea of the IIlllltitude.
r.l achia\'elli"s refl ection 011 Ihe people is nOI reducible 10 a co mpl etel,. a cr ili-
cal apolog-r Co nsist en ti)' \\'ith hi s anlh ropology, based on realism, l\ lachi .\\'el1 i
d oes no r ingenuolIsly praise an)' social membership 01' group, In "/11/' lJJrOW"l/',$
1. 53, he \\'I"ires rhar Ihe peopl e are oflen blinded: for exampl e, especiall )' when
dariug courses
n
are suggested, \Vh ell e\'er lhe people are rn ealling,
when they can influell ce imponalll decisions, the)' are a fien dece i\'ed alld lead
lhe enLre 1'cpubli c into ruin. Popular power, therefare, appears mcnacill g and
exposcd 10 a false Mshowof ad\"antage," in o lhe1' words, 10 decc plion d uc 10 the
"pcr ni ciousness

of men 01' a scarce knol\'ledge of nature.
The responsihilil y fOl" Ihese \'ices and erl'Ors i5 never sa lel,. and excl usi\"el y lhe
responsibiliry of th e pl ebs. ho\\"e\'er. i\l;ch ia\'elli never 10 simplify roles
by makinga rigid di\'ision berween Ihe good ane! Ihe bad. For Ihis reason. in the
!-7onmlill e "!islori"s Mach irwelli descr ibes rhe mosl signifi canl eve11ls lhar take
place in hi s cil)' ",ilh a "'ea1th of delail s, frolll Ihe most llngic \O Ihe mosr gl ori-
o us. The Duke of Athens incidenl is exemplary fmm lhis pOi llt o f \'iew.
The entr.1l1ce of the duke on\O Ihe Fl orcnline scenc takcs place as a conse-
quence of the diS:1St l'OlIS polili cal war that led ID the dcnnil\'e loss of Lucca.
BClrayed tirst by Masti na dclla Scab, lhe Lord ofVcrona, lhel1 by the Venel ians,
120 COl/jliel, Puwer; (/lid Mul/ilru/e
the Fl orentine nobles lose the of the conquest of Lucca "after a
long waJ- .. . ha\1ng lost ma ne}" amI earned shame. The pcople fo rcerully con
de llm lhe of the fal eful polilical dedsi oll to conquer Lucca, whi ch had
COSI Ihe enre di)' d earl }'. As oft en happens in /-/ iJIQrif.S, il is Ihe popular
oralon who once ab<ain fun)' grasp Ihe reasons for Ihe Fl orenlin e d efeal, show
ing a political inlelligell ce Ihat closel)" mirron JUan}' of th e argumen t.S PUt for
ward by Mach iavelli.
The Grandi. in order to curb populm- hatred. secrell )' olfen the Duke Ihe
lordship of the dt)'. The eITon the} commit are equal to those of the pco pl e,
whil e Ihe peoplcs act.S are ofwn th e reslllt ofbci ng decc iycd by OIhcrs, manipll-
lated by those who have inerCSIS and enas kepl hidden frolll th em. Ahhollgh
Ihis is nOI Ihe onl)" Wa}' Ihe}' are spoken of. foola chi ayelli is certainly aware oflhe
problem tlwl ari ses when he popular pan exerdses political gllidance. 1l is
clearl,. slat ed in TI/e DisWllrsf.S. where he mailllains Ihat 'while on Ihe one h and
there is llOlhing more terri bl e than an un colllro ll ed and headless mulliwde,
o n Ihe other, Ihere is nothing
Nevcnheless, unlike man)' o th er thinkcl-s. Machiavclli does nOI maintain th:n
lhe "lIlan( are nal Ul<l.II)" cowardl)' ami weak. Firsl of all, as he states in The
/)iscol/)sI's, an adeq ual e institutional is able to compensate for Ihe
defecls oran nwlt.itude. The exa1l1ple of Ro me prO\ides ano lher
demonslral.ion. Machia\elli had praised lhe conmn in Rome belwee n (he Sen
:ue and lhe plebs, describing t.he wa)"s it. \Vas abl e to vent (O (heir
No\\', t.he reaSOllS for Ihese co nmcls lila)" Ier)' well haye beell unfounded.
Ahhough the plebs lllight have beell mistaken in their opinions, Ihe institu-
li onal systcm able to contain the e!TeclS of he peoples po\\"c r.
The IIK1l1 )' can lllake lllistakes, toO, but th eir desires al-e direc ted toward free-
dom and they kllow how to lisIen to a wonhy person 1\'ho is capabl e of showing
them he errors of Iheir Machiavel1i stresses lhe peopl e's
capadt}' to grasp Ihe nuh. Unlike many writen of h is ime, he does no! yi ew
Ihe people as inclined 10 eIT. All human beings. as such. can elT,
heHce bOlh pri nces alld pco ples run Ihe ri sk of making mistakes. Furthermore,
the vices of oll e are often more serious than Ihe errors of lhe olher. \Ve there-
fore necd 10 take the opening Slal ement of The P,-il/ CI! seriously, in which Machi-
neUi declares his social status and claims 10 havc political nOI onl)'
from hi s polilical experi en ce, bUl also and espedally from bei ng a of
ver}' 101\' and humbl e conditio ns:
Now, giyen thal everyone is habl e 10 co mmil. er rors, both princes and peo-
pies, Machialelli S\.ll.les Ih:1\ il is Ihe people who eIT less often (han princes.
Princes are less reliable ami, aboye al!, more llngral eflll. Ingrat.it.ude has a deci -
si\e role \O play in Ihal il reflects the equilibrill lll s ami e\'olutio n o f power re\;
lions in a stale. llls vice, whi ch "has ilS source eilil er in or in suspicion.""
arises frolIl the personal prestige thal a captain may achi el"(' in \Val' 01 a ctlizell
in conducting publi c aITairs. Now, both princes and peoples often makc Ihe
TJII! S/Ji "\\'o r e l )' " 121
mistake ofnot knowing how to olTer adcquate I"ccognition and I"cward for th ese
merit.'!. On lhe conLrar)'. th e}" "olIendO. lhe ;aptain 01" lhe dtizen out of fear 01"
a\"arice . l ngralitude and stl spido n, we kn o1\', are lhe gen eral ;hal-acterisl ics of
human n:llllre. Machiaw1H repeals he words of Tad tus. who .o;a.p Ihal "mel] are
readi er to pay back injuries Ihan ben efils. since 10 req uit e a benefit is fell 10 be
a burden. to relum an ilU UI")' a gain. "10 The fact lIlal he cil es Tadlus. who is 11 01
known fOI" his great s)" mpath)" fOI" Ihe pl ebs and the multilude, is in all y case si;-
nifi can t. useS Ihe ,,"uals o f the Roman historian prccise\)' in o rd cr
10 overturn Ihis an cicnl prcjudicc. Thc vice of in''1-atitudc is Icss dangc rous and
lcss widespread in I"epublics Ihan it is in pr incipaliti es. In a republic whi ch has
nO! bcen co rrup!ed , sometimes il even cause ofmllch good ... since [i11
pr010ng[s11.he durati on of it.'! free instill1li ons, and makefs] men, Ihroll gh fear
o f pllnishmenl. better and less :unbiti ous."1I In olll er words. th e al1 empl 10
increasc one s personal power is mo re frequenl in prind pali li es. whereas in a
rcpubli c lhat is nOI corrupl. il is easi er for a so und inSlillltional s}"slem 10 con-
tajn Ihese sub\"ersi\"e impulses. Bccause of lhe power structure and he way..; so,
CI"cig11l)" is cxerciscd. a pdncc wil! al" -;: lYS ha,"c MrungCl" I"casons for fearing his
;itizens. cspedal!y those ",ho are good and wise. This lll cans he will alwa)"s be
more ungrateful than a !"epubli c.
Machia\"elli cl oes nOI sto p al Ihis, lhough: h e clraws 0111 his comparison
belween princes al\(l peopl es 10 lhe poinl ofasse ning Ihe polilic;11 super iority
of the kmullipl e" o' "er Ihe ks ingubr." [n chapl er 29 of book 11 of TJe Disco w"S,.s,
fo r example, he Sl<ltes Ihal lit e faulu; of a people are due \O lil e vi ces o f iu;
prinee . Indeed. princes Oftell complaill aboUl !te chamcler of lheir subj ects.
11) 'lllg 10 countcl'act i with inadcqmnc laws. perhaps. 01" (" \"cn worse. lhro ugh
he cxercisc of li olent pOll"er. On lhe cOlllrary. pr111 CeS should be refl c;cd in
hei l" pcopl e, in thcil" CllSlOms and lifeslyl es, bUI especially--o\"crt urni ng
",hm ,,-as by Ihen a d assi c IQ!Jo.r-Iheir ,kes. The cause of Ihese ,i ces is 10 be
allributed solely to t.h e inab1i t}' of pr inces 10 conlrol Ihei,. own I'idous
beha\"i or.
12
[n nle DiJcow"S',J, lI H: ll. as "'el! as in other 1I' 0rks, l\b ehia\"elli wages a !u;h
balde a;ainst a dominal1l. Imditional curl"elll of thou;h l in Western political
phil osoph}', une which \"iewed Ihe people as indined to vi ce and error. illcapa-
ble o f m ling. and nccding lO be rcpreselltld. To do Ihis, Machia\'elli d oes 1101
hcsilate to take his distan ce from UI); whil e he cannOI q ucsLio n U,)"s author"
il}', in Ihis ;ase he ca n ce rtain1y di s. "lgree \\'ih his opini on. In book 1, chapte!" 58
of ni' DiswlI T"5t.s. he IITil es: MTha\ nOlhing is more fi ck1e and inconstanl than he
mullit ucl e i5 amnned nOI by Titus U"ius only. bUI by all olher n l e
reason for lhis opinion Hes prim:lrilr in lhe fact thal Ihe mllltilUde perfonned
aClions Ihal il bter reb"rell ed . such as condemning Manlius Ca pi tolinus \O
death" Thi s is where the sa}' ing A 111 JlImili/u se/vil, (III supf!l"be (/o//lillll/ur rigi-
na.ted, a Icn erabl e judgment that has bcen shared a.nd passed d own by ( ntin:
gencl-aions ofhislOrians ami poliLidans.
Copyrighted Material
122 OmJtid, Por.,.,., and M"Uitude
Machiave lli rorcerully asserL<; me OppOSilC opinion, lhat he rinds
l.his ideological baulc lO be neilhcr easy n01" one w be taken for graIH' d. The
law, as u"c h4:\\'c S<''ClI, allows w; 10 judgc lhe vi rtucs of a go\'crnmcnt. Prin ccs whu
are "regulatcd" by lhe Jaws--as l he so\' ereigns of Eg)'pl were in lh e remOle
antiquhy" and Lhe kings oF France our own cla)'s"'- go\'crn virlHously_ HUI.
multi lll des-and lhis is lhe point of lhe argumcm- possess th e same virlll CS
whcn controllcd by lhe laws. Thc old prcjudicc !jo rcvcrscd: undcr IT\\' orablc
condiLio ns, we Soha tl fi nd lhe multilude "'nei ther conducng iuclr as an abjecl
sla\'c nOl' as a dominccring mastCI:" lndced, Machiavelli adds,
BUl whal our hiuorian says of me multitude, he sa}'s nOl of a muhiLude which
l i ke dle peopte of Rome tI) cOIl1.rolled by I,he bm or an L,ncoo1.follcd
mulUlude likc lhe Syracusans. ' I/ho \\'e l'e guilly ofalllhese crimes wh ich infu-
rialcd and ungoverncd men commit. and whi ch were equalIy commi lled by
Alexander and Herod in t.he cases memioned, 'Wherefore l he naLUre of a
multitude is no more lO be bJamed lhan Ule nalUre of princes. sin ce bOLh
cqually crr whcn lhcycan doro wilh ollt rc...'g"drd lO consequcl1ccs.
14
Experiencc, wc mighl say, bears Wltness agains t lhcory, al'ld hiswry agai nsl
hislorians. Those \\'ho accuse onl)' peoples and not ptinces of having lhe vices
of hu ma n nature are short-sighled , ingenuous, or in bad failh. lt is prcciscJy in
princes -in whose tives we rll1d sueh ill consLanc)' and fickleness, a., "le miglll
loo k in vain fOI" in a mulli mde, " MllChia\'cUi's 3u",ck suikes al - Lhe heart'"' of Lhis
prcjudicc, ag.nsl lhe "cornrnOn opi nion, bUI also againsl thc aUlbori tyofhislO-
rians and politidans, and even againsl his cherished Li\oy. AL lhis poil1l. the com-
mon opi nion can be eOl.i rel)1 oVCI'Uimed. Machia\' clli launches himscl f againsl
Lile false conviclion that "He \Yho bu.ilds on Lhe pcoplc. builds on mi re," liJ insist-
ing lhaL, under [he .s..1.mc pol tica] conditions, thc peoplc and lhe rnulutudc are
superior lO an)' prince:
l maintai n, lhercfore, con tr..uy lO lhe common opinion \\'hich a\'crs lhal a
people when lhey have Lhe managernent of a.fTars are changeable, fi ckle. and
ungrat.erul , Lhal th ese exu nOI. i n I.hem tha n Lhe)' exist in
indivi d ual pri nces; so ma l were any 10 aCClIse oolh princes and pcoples. lhe
chargc might be true, bm lllal lO make exccption in fa\
l
our of pri nccs 5 a
mislake; fo r a people in comrnand, ir il be d uly resuai ned, will have Lil e same
pn.ldencc and lhe same gl"au.wdc as a pri ncc has, or evcn morc, ho' ... ever wise
he mar be rcckoncd; and a prince On lhe othtT hand , if frccd from l he cOn
[fol of lhe laws, ..... 111 be more ungrateful, fic kle, and short-siglnoo lhan apeo-
pie, And 1 say Lha!. a n)' d iCferencc in Iheir meLhods of aCling I'csuhs
nOl frorll any diJlerence ifl lheir nature. lhal bein g lhe same in both, Or, ir
mere be advamage on eithcr side, Lhc advantagc resti ng wiLh me pcoplc. bUl
from thei r having more or le8s respecl for lhe laws under which eaeh Iives.
l
&
Copyriglrted Materi.1
TI", Spillozisl W",. Ory" 123
3lUr is no diffcrcl'l l., I-hen. This is thc rnain pOiot 01'1 \'IIhich Machia\'clli
decides LO w"- agc his bauJe againsL trddilional poli l.ical philosophy. Whcn (on-
duding the chapler, Mac.hiavclli adds olle more very interesting dctai.L He
explains th e rcasan ""rhy lhis prejudice has becn entenained and preservcd over
lhe centuries: il. derives, once agajn, froln relations ol' power. Hislory, Iike poli-
ues, is not extraneous lo lhe conflict, balItes, anel su' uggles lhal lake place
ben,,-cen ideas,jusl as they do belwecn meno The lask o[ histOl'y is lO understand
and report lhe e mechanisms as well :
Again, the cfuclLies of a people are mrned againsl him who il fcaes will
encroach upon the (ommon rights, bm lhe cruelues of lhe princc againsl
Lhose ",ho he fcars Illay aSSCtl lhosc fi ghts. Thc prejudice which is eflle':..
tained against lhe people ari<cs fram lhis, lhalany man may speak ill of Lh em
openly and fearlc:ssly, cvcn when lhe govemmcn l is in their hands; whcrcas
prim;l,..'S are always spoken of wil.h a thousand res.en' es and a COnStanl ere LO
consequences.
17
I t is fear thm we fi nd, once again, at the helm oC human judgmenL In lhis
case Machia\'elli is not al"raid o[ de1"ending lhe muJti tude againsl lhe common
opinion that views il as ungrateful, fickle, and disloyal BUl lhis recogn ition,
which lakes places primarily in Lhe sphere 01" hislOry and experiencc, also
impli e. ule taking of a lheoreLi cal and poli LicaJ .lance of greal importance.
Through lhis recognilion, Machiavelli is able lO speak in a new ",ay aboUl lhe
peopIe and lhe multitude as poli Li cal subjeclS: as a powcrful, new subjeclivilY
mat erupts, in practical lerms, inlo POHlics lnd hisLOry. lf nature is lhe same for
everybody, ifthe prince cannot lay claim lo a superi or political rationali t)', then
the mul tilude can demand its entrance onlO th e political scene on par wilh lhe
omer players. Princes, states, lhe powerful ramilies, and condQUie,.iare no longer
the only ones lO be adminoo: lhe people and all persons of "\Iery lo\\' and hum-
ble condi Liolls" can no\\' enlpl onlO rhe poli tical scene. This i yet anomer scan-
dalous leaching of Lhe Machiavelli : to have given dignil}' and
recognition lO lhe people for lheir poliucal compelenc}' and rauonality,
\Vhat mis recogni uon means, fot example, is thatlhe prince can no longer
geL by in poli tical acuon \\'ilhoUL taking inlo considerati on lhe rcacuon of his
subj ecL'I:, lhe bchaviof of Lhe ciLizens, and mote gcnerally, Lhal of the people.
18
We need look no funher ulan lO ule pages in which Machiavelli, Lhl'ough
dialogue beLween ccolo Barbadoro and Niccolo da Uzano. describes lhe
impossibiIiLY of opposin g Cosi mo, the universal " benefaCLOI'. lfI 01" LO 1he gl'cal
dcal of care and encrgy lhe able Valentino pULS into earning lhe U' USl of lhe
pcoplc of Romagna by "cxti nguishing" lhe oJd IOIi1s \Vho had I'ulcd thcl'n wiUl
iolcncc,20 only t r.hcn e li minale Lhe li eulenanl who had calTied Oul t.he job
with such cruelty. 21 Tn this ",ay he established peace and order 3rnong .. he inhab-
itanlS.'!2 Or we mighl recall how importan l il is for a prince lo earn the lrtlst and
COl/jliel, Puwer; (/lid Mul/ilrule
aITecti on of his subj ecls, so as \O mee! Ihe dang:er of co nspi r-a.ci es, Ihe main
cause ofwhich i5, as we would expeCl, halred,"' The besl way for a
prince [O secul'e h il11 Sclf againsl conspiraci es is 10 be cenai n 10 "al'oid such
cOI1\'ses as would make him hal ed 01' d espi sed: and Ihal wh enever he slIcceeds
in keepi ng cl ear of lhese, h e has performed his part, amI runs no risk lho ugh
he ill cur other infamies,""' Machial"elli uses lhe eX<Hnpl e of a fon ress
whi ch is useless all d damab"ng if buih 10 proleCl yourself from ro ur own sub-
The politi r s ofhe pdllee mUSI alwars as Ihdr aim Ihe safeguardi ll g
and i11lel'eSl of he pcople : his is the bcS! !I'capo n fOl' dcfending: }'oursdf from
all dang:ers, BUI th e bigg:esl confinn atio n oflhe fa r l thal he peo ple, Ihci rjudg-
me11l, and Iheir ar li on hal'e become essenlial componenl'l of polili cal acti on
can he fo und in chapler I X of T/II'P,.illrl', on Ihe "Cil'il l' rincedom, "'''' he one in
whi ch Ihe leading ci tizen is madI' a prince lhe fal'or ofhis
This can happen, \-Jachia\'e lli wriles, "eiher lllro ugh lhe fal'or of Ihe people 0 1'
o f lil e BUI in lhe lalter case il is more diffi cllh \O h old omo p ower
beca use he Graneli, bcing ambitiollS, represents a b're.ll er danger, The
"hllmors" ofa cil)' are by diITerent ends whi ch lhe prince should
lake into co nsider::r.ti on, Indced ,
Ihe de lllands o r Ihe nobles cannOI be with credil 10 Ihe I'rince, nor
Wil houl iqjurr 10 olhers, whil e lhose of lhe peo]>l e 11'1' 11 mar, Ihe ai m o f Ihe
people being: more honourabl e Ihan Ihal of Ihe nobles, lhe laHer seeking to
oppress, lhe for mer no t 10 be o ppressed, Add 10 thi s, lhal I'rinee can \l e\'e r
secure himsdf ::r.gainst a disaITected peopl e, lheir number being: 100 g rem,
whil e he may agai nsl a d isaITected nobilitr, sinee their numbcr is sllI all ,?"
In Ih is chapl er, Machial'elli argues Ihal a prince mUSI necess.-rily favor lhe
peo p!e over Ihe Grandi. The po pu1::r.r "humor" thlls en lers 01110 Ihe polili ca!
scene as Ihe fOllndarion of l'il'lll OUS politics in Machial"el1i 's eres. Not onlr
can lhe prince nOI take iut o accounl t.h e peopl e, when faced with a social con,
ni CI Iha! is polarized belween lhe peo ple and lhe GI'<Indi, b UI Iso h e must n OI
hesirate to side ", ilh Ihe Illulliltlde, El'en in Ihe el'e l11 the prinee gel'l iulO p o"' er
by Ihe fal'or of the nobles, his pOI" er ",ill rem::r.ill unstable and exposed 10 adl'er-
silies unl ess he changes his politi cs in fal'OI' of lhe peopl e:
I'!e who becomes a Prince Ihrough Ihe fal' our of the peopl e should always
keep o n good ler ms wjlh them; whi ch il is eas}' for him to d o, since al! lhey
ask is not lO be oppressed , 8 111 he who agninsl lhe wi11 of Ihe peo pl e is made
a Prince by the fal"o ur of lhe nobles, must, abol'e a1l1hings, seek 10 conci liat e
he peo pl e, wllieh he readil }' mar by taking Ihe11l under his prol ecti on , Fo/'
since men wh o are welllreal ed by one whom they expecled to lreal th(' 111 ill.
feel the more beholden 10 lher benefactor, Ihe pcople will al once become
better disposcd to such a I' ri nce when he prolects lhem, than ifhe owed his
Copyrighted Material
711. Spittl)1i.sl "lI'"r Cry" 125
Pri ll cedom lO tJ'CITI . ll1ere are many \vays in which a Pri nce may gain lhe
of l.he peopIe. bULo beca use L.hcse ven)' wjt,h ircumslallces. no
ccrt:lin rule can be laid down rcspccting thcm, and I shall, thcrcJurc, say no
more ,,!.>out rnem. BUllhis is [he sum of lhe maller, lhal il is esscntiaJ fo r a
Princc 1.0 he on a friendly rooting w11.11 people. since otJlerwilole. he ",itl
have no resource in advcrSily.29
This chapler on lhe Civil Princedom is decisive for understandi ng lhe increas-
ing importance lhal lhe demands of Lh e pcople assUIf1 C in princcly poliLi cs.)O
Thc mUSl sl-ablc roundation for l.he princc's powcr hes pn, "Ciscly in lhe pcoplc,
in the same multitude Lhat had tradiLonally becn considered a deslabilizing
elemem LO he kCPl under c0l11,rol and suhjugaled to pl'eVenl. them from doi ng
harm.
Thc central importance of lhe people in Machiavelli's political [heoT)' can
be examined more closely in anolher contexl as "iel!. Although Bonadeo, fo r
example, rccognizcs lhe emrance or ,he people-I>y rul! righl&-i nlo ,he
princc 's polilical "agcnda," hc still limit:s l'i. importance, cntrdJlCC takcs
place onl)' "indireCl..ly," ",hile lhe prince' s poinl ofview supposooly remains the
dominanl onc. The peoplc become a sllbjecl of poliriC"i, according lO Bonadeo,
tO lhe eXlem lhal lh e princc can no longer aCl Wi lhoUl laki ng iOlo considcr-
aoon lhci r demands and "hllmor,":Jt The slabili ly of tJ1 C rulcrs' power dcpcnds
on sau:sfyi ng me lR Furthermore, says Ronarleo, even lhough Machiavelli
no "mllural" dTerencc bClwcen Lhe people and Lhc CJ"andi, lhe nobl,-s rcmain
the truc dcposit.uics af lhc cxpcricncc md wisdorn I1 Cl.-dcd LO rule. 111c
entrance of Ule people imo politics as full)' nedged lherefore, should
nOI he ove!"ly cmphasizerl cOTllpared 1.0 (he ,"ole and impoflance Lhal had bcco
traditiot"J. ally granLcd LO the Crandi. !!:
.Jean-Clallde Zancari ni examines l he polilical role of lhe people ,\i lh more
thoroughness t hrough a linguisc anal)':sis of l he relalionshi p betwecn lhe
,elm, "people (popolo)" and "pleb, (pklit) :'" For Zancarini, ,here is a "ten,ion"
in lhc Machiwcllian lcxicon, ""hich is lIscd, On the onc hand, a.s an original
-mcorclical arrangement" for describing "new objects
1O
in polidcal th eory, bm
which, on lhe olher hand, 8tH1 an -ongoing proccss." nl is makes il
essenlialto lake in lO accounllhe polyselnia of the ttnns and lhe complcxi t-y of
me COnLCXLS in which they ar e lIscd,s.t
Zancarini's analy:sis reveals mal lhere is "no difTerence in lhe conceptllal
rncaning Oclween 'pcoplc' and 'plebs: which are denncd in conU"<:l,S1 Wilh th c
otJl cr ' humor' of lhc cily, U1C "Gr.mdi,' or [he 'nobles.'" But as wc havc sccn in
earl ier chaplcrs of lhis book, me humors are lInder considerable lensioll, espe-
dall)!:as ['(Ir as lil e possibi lhy of a being ablc lO diSLinguish l,l nambi guous ly and
lincarly bctween good and bad confliclS is concerned.: As early as l 1U! J+inct,
we find "sign s of grc3lcr complcxi ry,- Zancari ni points OUl, whi ch sugg<"'Sl lhal
"perhaps me bi nar)' di\'ision---of l he [\\'0 humors--is nOl adequale lO explain
126 COl/jliel, Puwer; (/lid Mul/ilru/e
the intemal workings ofthe bod)' polidc.' l 'le tension in the 1cxicalu!;age beco lll cs
apparent in the Honm/illf' /Ii.I/orie.l, wh ere, on the one hand, Machia\"c11i 10
gr.up Ihe compl exily and illlponance of the people's d elllands, especially in book
111 , Ihe one d escribing Ihe UUlHl!t ofthe Ci ompi. J3 w on th e other hand, lhe lin-
guisl ic use of Ihe [el"Ill S Mpeopl e" am! "plebs" also seelll s 10 bring the eonnie! baek
10 a more lmditiollal classifi eation based on Mtri e(kmd_true explanations.'"
Zancarini therefon: gmsps th e pri ncipIe pUt forward insistcntly by
tha( the Ciompi or,lIor is capable of rccognizing the laws of pa liti cs. aud fo r
this reason can amllllust b{' recognized as a political aClOr."37 Now thi s "ten-
siol1" in lile IIlachbvcllian lexi col1, far from bcil1g limitcd 10 the terminologi cal
pairing of "people/ plebs," aClUally pen"ldes lllany of his langua ge.>I!
lI!aehiave11i is in lhe process of fOr1l\ulalin g a revohl1.ionary polili ( al th eory
st., 'lrling OUI fmm a Iraditional termin ology ami lexicon. In spile of Ihis tensi on.
however. lhe orati on by lhe a11 01l)'lll oUS pl ebeian does n01 appeal" 10 be l11eOI\ -
si slelll or abstrae\. Witho ut going over hi s emire ormi on again. we can smte thal
no loss of praClical reality is impli ed b}' th e pl ebcian 's use of Machia\"ellian COll-
cepts and lernlS.:W 0 11 thc contrar)', as wc ha" c see l1 regarding thc ori gin of
jllstice and the law, the fa(\ that thc anonymous pl ebeian speaks l\bchiavclli's
language signifi es the autho r's recogniti oll of th e peo pl e and the plebs as
aUIOn01l\OllS poli tical as bearers of d emands who are no longer awail-
ing recogn ili o n from Ihe prudenl 01' virlll ous pr ince, but who express polili cal
and sod al forces thal make Iheir independenl and abrU]>1 entrance onlo the
polili cal scene. And th e use of hendiadys--Ihe peopl e alld the pl ebs--isjusli-
fi ed precisd )' by the fact that be)"olld the panicular c1assifi cation ami lexi cal
Machi avclli has a conCCpti Oll uf thi s politi cal r{'alit)" lhat is
not rigidly fi xed in to catcgo ri cs and schcm3s.
h is no t impol"lant , in his eres, whether a plebeian, rC\"Olllli unar)' program is
sti1\ rel e\"ll1t, but il is important thal the demandsand con tent be asserted, rec-
ognized and set 0 111 in worch. also thro ugh lhe speech oflhe ano nymous pl ebe-
ian. In lhe same \\'a)', Ihe idea Ih:U1here are no nallll";1 difTerences belwee n an}'
o f Ihe gro ups,j11sl as th ere are non e be1wee n pl ebeians and pr i!l ces. is impor.
tan t. It is that in hi s enlire wor k /-,1 ,l(hia\'e11i entl"l tsts th e task o f SUiIl-
marizing this esse tltial po litical principIe, in powerful prose, 10 th e ano n)"l nol1s
Ci ompo. In hi s own wl'ds:
1J0 not be dismayed by thc antiqllit y of the bl ood lhe,. berate LIS for; becallse
ever)'one, having Ihe same beginning, is equally andent , and nalure has made
us in a singl e fasl1i on. Slrip us bare: )"O ll will see o llr simi laril}' : dress li S in lheir
c101.hes and them in ours: no do ub1, we \\'i11 appear nobl e ami Ihe)'
beca use pO"en}' and weallh are the o nl )' thinb'S thalmake li S IIl1equal. "'"
This is th e fundamcntal principal tu be graspcd in the or:Hi oll. Thcrc IS a
linguistic tcnsi on and a diffi culty for Machiave11i, th en, in fOl"llllllating ncw
TJII! S/Ji "\\'O r e l )' " 127
theoreli cal concepts in the contcxt ofa lIlore tr.tditi onal1cxieon and politi cal
phil osoph)"- Bll t the figure of the an onpnous ormor would seem to sho\\', ",ith-
out the l"i sk of abstracti on, tklt this aspecl of Maehial'elli's thought-nalllely,
Ihe popular subj eel 's attainmelu of a cel1lr.t1 pl ace in polili cs and lhe super ioril Y
of Ihe peo pl e over lhe prince-is llndergoing a proeess of Polili-
cal mlionali tr, as an expressi on of 1ll 111tiplicitr, must be pUl in the plural. ILS sil l-
guiar forl1l-lllt: prill ceJr o ne-is nOlhing uUt an abslfactioll whose purpo n ed
suped ority is I'igorousl)' d cno ull ced and ullmasked uy Maehia\'e11i, Prcssed 10
find a precurso r 10 Machia\'c1li on this qllesli on, wc mar I'el}' wcll ha\'e 10 look
as far back inlO th e hislOl}' ol'West ern thought as the fiflh ee nmry Be, 1'his was
when the Sophist I' rotagoras fon nulated a Iheory of demoeraey based 011 lhe
recogniti on of a jmliliki lec/lil e for a11 men, witholll clistineli on, prol'oking hanh
criti ci sm (rom Plato, Whal we fino in 1Ih ehiavelli 's thought is a kindred philo-
sophi cal geswre, a similarl )' radi cal one lhal asserts lhe natuml equalit)' o f all
people and the politi cal superi oril)' ofth e multitude a l'er lhe IH;nce!2
Now when 5pin01 .. a paused to n:Oect OIl these queStiOlls, Machia\dli's argu-
ments mllst have see med like a "el'itabl e cOll cepmal fol' a po1ilieal
approaeh 10 th e lheme of th e mul tiple and the sillgulm', ethi es can be
d efined as a Irue "eth ies ofmultiplicil)'- " The mutual rebti ons betwee n Ihe ti\'e
books o f lhe E/Iir,.r-the dl\'isi on inl o necessity ancl freedo tll, Ihe Ill etaphysics 01'
the Subslanee and Ihe l\'l odes-suggest fr011l th e outsel Ihal Illultipli ci l}' and
compl exity are I'ital eharaeler isl ies of hi s anal )'sis ano esse mi al for
ing th e real. 1'h e e thi eal efTects of [hese eharact eri stics are tnost feh in Ihe onto-
logical Status ofth e fi ni te modes,
1'he 1I10S1 l'esistal1l, powel'ful, and pcrfcet hodi es are th e mOSI complcx o nes:
nOI in l'dation 10 a prcordaincd ami cxtrins1c hier-al'chieal sea! c, but in relatio n
lO the capacity !O alfeel aud be alfeet ed, in the depl opnenl of one's COIIO/U.I as a
surTi.-a! Slrategy in lhe compl ex web 01' relati ons belween inrli\'iouals'" This
happens primaril y thro ugh lhe ana!ysi s of bodies, lheir eneounters, relati ons,
amI exc1mnges, wriles 5pinoza , a boely is more apl than
other boches \O ael or be aCleel upon Si11l111taneousl)' in many ways, so Is its mind
more apl than olllt:r minds \O percei\'e man}' things Rela-
ti a ns, exchanges, and e\'cn ca nnicts repl'eselll the besl conditions fol' bodies
and fOI" the minds of whi ch Ihe)' eonstilutc the idea to affinn theil' CO/W/IIS. 1'his
is the meaning 01 Ihe ( lI/ili/ru)" that is proponi onal 10 the inel'ealle of
"thal whieh disposes lhe human body that it can be alfeCled in more ways, or
whieh renders il capable o fafTecting ext ernal bodi es in more
No\\', one of lhe phil osophieal sources for lhi s lheme Ihat had lhe great esl
inOuence o n Spinaza was undoubledly At omi 5m, wh ose importanee in l.IIi5o COII-
teXI eannol be undereslimaled, This is both becallse Mac1l ia\'el1i was slrongl)'
inOuenced by Atomism, especi al1)' through his reading o f Lucretius, and
bceause 5pin01.a, \\'ho "'as nOI01'uusl)' niggardly "'ith eitati a m, I'efcrs in po siti\'c
temlS specifi eal1y 10 Ihe AlOmists, l
128 COl/jliel, Puwer; (/lid Mul/ilrule
Spin07'S I'clations wih AlOmism have been examined in much gl'eatel' d etail
over he past few }'ears, 1\10I'eall , for example, has investigaled
the role and imponance o r the stlldy o f ph)'sics fol' EpicurIIs and fo l' Spino7 .. '1Y
Both lhinkel's beli e\'e Ihal physics is essemial 10 lheir philoso phi cal
wilhOll t going inlO greal detail in (heir studies, They limit themseh'es t,o descrilr
ng its essen tial principIes. focusing ther att enti on 011 he elhical ancl phil o-
sophcal implicalions, Epicurus amI lhe Atomsu in general share some
fundamen tal principies ",ith Spinol.a, such as a rigOl'OUS la", of causalit)'. Ihe
constanc)' in lime of lhe laws of nalure. amI the refusal lO granl any recogn ilon
whalsocver 10 lhe idea of a without 1aws. In this sen5e,
althollgh in difl'ere nl phil oso phi cal physics serves bOlh aUlh ors lO
reject an)' finalistic logic whalSOe\'er as well as lO soundly cri ticil.e tel eologi cal
illtLsions and, above all, lhe ignorance of causes, The political dimension of lhe
axis is thus inclined by Moreau primaril}' toward he crilicism
o f -!J(lIlfl and supersilion,
Based on his research 011 cOlUr llls and the memol: '. Laurent Bo\'e has instead
undcncored the conceptual proximity of Epicureanism lO Spinozislll in the
e thical sphel-e,"" Boh authon lllaintaill a principIe of resistance 10 external
rorces that tend to create disequilibrilllll in lhe natural human order, Epi curus 's
rll ITgrin ami SI>1nor.<'1 's CQIUI/IIS are Ihus reglllalorT mechanisllls in the pll\'suit of
pl easure and the a\'oklance of pain, lInderslOod as guiding for a
practical etllics, In AlOmists circles, moreo\'er, he Epicurean position is more
sharpl )' defin ed by th e theoretical cOlllributi on of Ltlcret ill s's dillflllirll lheory.
This i5 a genll ine principIe W which ex presses natllnll desire and power:
apure, positi\'e affhmation of bcing opposed to lhe destnlctive fOl-ces of
nallI'C," This also all o"'s Bove 10 undcrscol'e lhe dilTcrenccs bctween EpicllrllS
and Spino:r.a, Ir Epicul' us's ataraxia i5 esse ntial!y defined as lhe reestabli shment
o f an initial equi librilllll tha! comes to be disturbed by eXlernal forces, lhe
pl easllre princ:iple takes a more dynamic direction, lOward lhe coll ec-
live life ancl. ultimalely, toward politics:'IO \\'hal "'e have, in a nUIsh el l. is Ihe
difTerence between Epi cllrean presenTItion ill srw stal ll ami Spinozist Ii SIlO
eJst, Spi no7.a's being is aClUall)' real mo\'ement of lhe real il'lelf. in ils self-
constitutivc acti\'it)'. at he begi nning of lhe elhi cal pmcess, in he rc1mi onal
and all lOnOlll OUS sclf-orb"<l nir,ation 01' he human mode (on Ihe basis o f he afTcc-
tive bws 01' imitation, pi!)', ambition fOl' glory, and the pl easllre principIe) ,"'1
A real OPPOSilioll is established, aCl;ording to Bove, bCI\\'ce11 hei \' respective
o f resistance tO forces thal are eXl ernallO the individual and ils func-
lioning on th e elhical terrain: an OPPOSiliol1. in ol her words, between a pr inci-
pIe of si mplifi caron for Epicurus. a relurn tO he elementar}' indi\'idual essence
of desire and pl easme; aud a princi pIe of compl exifi cation for Spnol.a. the
indefinitely conslructive perfecling of boclies nd their relati onships, Fo r his
\'el'}' reaSOll, BO\es claims, th ro llgh he condcmmnioll of he tmlimitcdness of
dcsires and the idea of pmgress ell5uing fmm il, Epi cu \'us amI Lucre tills rcfusc
TJII! S/Ji "\\'o r e l )' " 129
to direct lhe sci enee of nalure towanl lhe elhical-political dilllensi on o f lhe
world. Epicurean and Lucrelbn Atomislll lhus risk opening up th e way 10 an
escape from lhe "rniseri es of hislOr( and politi cs lhrough individual wisdorn and
frie ndship. COn1rariwise. Spinozism ambit.iollsly prolllises 10 open the way up to
resistance and 10 an ethical political al ternati\'e to the "hislOry of
Bove's suggeslions ha\'e lhe meril of exwndng th e analysis of Ihe rel ation
belweell AlOmism and Spinozism lO elhi es ami politin. I-l is obsen'al ions on
ataraxia <lnd lhe pleasure prill cipl e in COIllr.:lSI lO AlOmislll eOlllribute to bring-
ing into focus lhe drnamic, expansive , collcctivc charactcr o f d csirc and CQ"lW/IIS
as a principi e ofresistancl' in Ne\l' rth cless. although lhe politi cal ami
elhical outcO]1les of Al omism may aho .mggesl individllalistic solutions which
itwolve removing oneself frolll Ihe world, Spinol."l, like r-.bchiavelli, finds ele-
ment s, especiall)' in Lucretian omolog}', Iha! are hi ghl }' peninen! for develop-
ing his own In Spinows case ill particula r. il is lIle coll ecti\"e
omology of Ihe mullilUde thal is consisl ent ",ilh the philosophi cal premises of
AlOmism. especiall ), Lucretiani sm: lf uotl c!IIlllfue IlllIgis vis mu{/ru IJoJSide/ ;11 se u/lfru!
pQ/es/u/eJ, i/u plurillw prill dpio/"UIII in Sf.se gel/tUI uc Vm7(l!i doce/ esse
Of co urse, the passagc from lhe nccl'ssa,"y mulliplicity 01" Lucretian fOlTes (01"
"powers") and propenies (01" "qualilies") to 's polili cal ont ology of mul-
I,iplicil)' neither1inear nor direc! ami, as Uove has shown, il can in dif-
fere nl and e\en opposing conclll sions. Nevenheless, il is !he link belwee n
power ami m llltiplicit )" lhal slrenglhens the relationsh ip bel"' een AlOmsm and
SpinozislIl in lenns of a polti cal anal)'sis. a direnion suggested by Ihe increas-
ing cenlralil)' lhat lhe calegory of 1II1I1/i/lllloassumes for Spinoza. If t is true lhal
qtlid ( Q/Ptl!i possi/ nt l/lO dt/ennillflvi/. lhe muhipl e and complex bod y of
lhe multitude is precise l)' what ofTcrs lhe ,rcatl'SI cxampl cs of vinul' and powcr.
This follows in lhe samc path that Mach iavelli had bla7.ed, and
subvcrting lhe polil icallraditio n. Lel liS examin e, lhen, how Spino;o;a de\"elops
his thought Otl th e power of Ihe Illultitude.
Like Mach ia\elli , Spin07A"l does nOI nurlHre an)' ilIusi ons abolll lhe political
characler ami virtues of a large mass of indi\"iduals. As Bal ibar Slresses, ",hat
essenlall)' characleri zes a mass of people if it is tl OI regulaled ;lIld "conmined"
within ce nain limitl; is itl; in the fear il feds, for example, bUI
,,'hich also inspires The multiwde is thl' brel'ding gmund of superstition.
ignor.mcl' and V UIW religio par excdll'ncc. It is soml'limcs d esc ribcd by Spi n07.<1
as changeabl e and fi ckle, in the !l.."lme terms used by jlS mosl fero-
cious delraclOrs. In chap!er 17 of th e "/1eologicol-Polili((l{ JiY:rlisf, for instance,
Spi noza wriles lha!
indeed. those who ha\e experienced he fi ckleness of the masses are almosl
rcduced lO dcspair; for the masses are gOl"erned sold)' by lheir emotions, nOI
b)' i"cason; lhe)' r ush wildl)' imo c\"l::r)'thing. and are rcadil), co rrupled c::ither by
a\'al"icl' 01' by luxm"ious li\ing. E\cl"}' single man thinks hl' knows C\cITth ing,
130 COl/jliel, Puwer; (/lid Mul/ilru/e
ami want5 to fashi on the wodd to his likillg; he considers thi ngs to be fair or
IInfair, right or wrong, according as h e jlldges them to be to his profit o r
loss. "
J USI as for l\lachiawlli, Ihen, in d el'e\oping a posi ti on in polil ical phil oso ph),
thm is careful to llnderline the enon nOllS pOlential of tit e mu1tipl e, he h ardl),
d oes so un crili cal1r, nor d oes he adopl il as an unproblt:mati c e\ ement. Never-
Ihc1ess. ifwe look more d osel)' al this passage from the The%gictI/-PoliliClli T,nr-
liJe. ",hich is particularl)' c10qucnt in undc"ining the vices of the mullipl e , it is
impossihle to o\'erl ook an apparently paradoxi cal element. o r luxu ri ous
lil'ing, fi ckl eness ane! emoli onalit,. do no t charaCleri7.e the Illllltipl e as sllch. bUl
ralher Ihe mass inasmuch as il is formed o f indi\'iduals ",ho think Ihe)' kn o\\'
eWIj'lhing and wanl to make lhings lO l.heir liking. as if Iheir opinion were uni-
I'e rsal oro beu er. as ifil sho uld be unil'ers.1l1y shared , The mimeti c mechani sms
d escribed in book !l1 of lhe EllIies had airead)' made tlti s poilll cl ear. Spinoza
had lIlainlained lhat endeavors. as far as he can. thal whal he lo\'es
should be lol'cd by cW:I)"one, and what he hates should bc hated b)'
This is th e d efinidon of ambiti on, accord ing 10 whi ch "it is in Cl'el}"one 's natllre
10 sU'h'e 10 bring it abOll! that others should adopt his auitudc to life; ami whilc
all striw equally 10 this end he}' hinder one anOlher, and in al1 seeking
Ihe praise or 10l'e ofal!, lhe)' provoke mUlllal dislike,")A
Thi s is he paradox associal ed with lhe muhitude , lIs weaknesses ane! I'i ces
are nOI due 10 multipli cit)' mullipli cil)', bUl to lhe singl e indil'i d uals \\'ho
expect \O make themsdl'es universal: in other words. 10 Ihe predominan ce of
Ihe cl cments (whi ch isobtt lhe individual, cr caling a serial Ill ulti-
plicity) ol'er the conncctil'c (whi ch 111m the 1l1ultitudc into a place of
rclati ollship and exchange. induding conniclllal o nes) betwecn indil'iduals
who int eract wih other.
It is preci sely because each persol1 beli eves h e 0 1' she can aCI and know ele r,.-
Ihing 011 lheir own Ihal lhe IIIl1ltiwde beco mes changeable and fi ckl e like Ihe
wal'es of Ihe sea. h is lhe ill1'erse-bul anal ogous----phenomen on of lhe fea r of
soliltlde. Ir il is true that fear is primaril y associmed Wilh soli ltld e. ilS pen 'erse
efTccls are balanced by lhe extrcmc opposite. nalllel}'. by lhe solilUde o f lhe
indi,'idual whi ch he 01' she expcclS to be uni\'t:rsally affinll ed. This is a bidng
criti cislII of an abstract concepl o f individualit)', sim ilar to tha! of Hobbcs, 01' to
\\'hat wiJ11at er appear in Locke.
J
" \ lheor)' o f in 's Iicw. cannOI
be by sla rting from an indil'idual a subSl.rale 01'
o nlO whi ch Ihe passi ol1s are grafted, On lhe conlrarr, an o tll ologr o frelali on-
slr ip. in whi ch indi"idllals de lermine and defin e themsell'es wilhin ami thro ugh
Ihe rdali onal and afTectil'e sphere, becomes central for Spino7.a.
Al; for ]\lachial'elli. howe\'cr. SpinoZ<.s criti cisl11 of lhe I; t es and weaknesses of
lhe Illllltiplc is aCto mpani cd by lhe incl'easingly imponant polili ca! r ole that
Ihe multitudc assllmes. This is not an original aspcct of th oll ght.
As Salibar has shown com;ncingly. bOlh in t.h e Ellcs and lhe 'I1u>o[ogiCflI-Poliliw[
TJII: S/Ji "\\'o r e l )' " l .'l l
Tr/?olis". the IJlebl-m!llti llldi! associalion still predominatcs. It is \"i ewed. lhat is.
mai nl)' as lhe su bjecl of ignorance and \"i ce due 10 a lack of kn owledge about
causes. This leads LO Ihe spread o f th e leleol ogical prejudice. along with iLS
Iheological corollalJ . ili on, and ils po1ilical co roll ar}', \'oh'nt'll"y .-.en ilUde.
Re\'olulion. for exampl e, is o pen1r co ndemned in Ihis comexl Ihro ugh Ihe
example of Ihe English as a tnall ifestati oll of lhe irrali onality and \'iolence Ihal
spring from igll orance. COIl\"t:rsel}'. preserl"ing lit e fonn of gO\'enll ll elll is" Iways
prcferabl c 10 rc\"oll. while onlr illdi\'idual ptllhs lO liberari on frolll superstilion
are taken into co nsideralion and \'i ewed as aeee ptable.
Instead, aflel- 1672 and th e restoraL on oflhe HOllsc of Or' l ngc, refleClion on
lhe llmltitudc occupi es a eentl"l positi o n, lending \'ibra ney, originalily, and
COtlceplUal power to Spinoz.. ... s IaSI work. lhe Po/itirol /h!ut"."l The een l.1"lil )'
Ihat Ihe concel)\ of IIII/l/iludo graduallr aSSlltlles d oes ill deed appear 10 dwrac
lerize lhe IIl OSI re\'olulionary aspecIs of th oughL This lakes pla ce in
agree melll wiul lhe equall)' re\"Olulonar)' lheor}' described by Machia\'ell i o n
lhe superioril}' o f [he people O\'er Ihe Graneli. In lhis sense. ,\'Iach ia\"clli is hOUl
lhe "ami Hobbcs"6l amI lhe amidole to almosl <In}' politics bascd on the cen tral-
il)' oflhe abslI,lCt indi\"idual. 1t i5 fo r this reason lhal monareh)' amI arislOeraey
are also weaker amlless absolute forms of governmelll Ihan demoe,,,cy_
Bul lel liS take o ne at a time. For Spinoz.."1, as ror Maehiave11i,
nalure is Ihe $o ... 11Ie in all indhiduals. Therefore, kinb'S are eguall)' prone 10 mak
ing llIi sl:lkes as are. Howe\'er, jusl as in '\b chia\'elli, t.he superioritr of
tll e lllu1tiple o\'er lhe singular beeomes cl ear preciselr in cOllnection wiu'} Ihe
pOlemial for falling illlo error. Sinec we will alwa)"s necessarilr be traversed by
passio ns, as long as lhere are people lhere will be mistakes. BUl il is specifieall)"
on lhe of lhis principIe, by whi ch no indh'i d ual i5 safe from error. tha t Ihe
multi tude is s. ... id 10 eo mmit less 5el"ious mislakes.
This also allo\\"s liS lO examine so nl e of lhc problellls regard ing Ihe e\'ollltion
of Spil101.."1s Ihoughl from Ihe J1/ffllogiwlPo/iliCflI Tff'fltis" 10 lhe Politic(ll Trcutis".
In Ihe firsl Tl"rfllisp. for exa mpl e, Ihe use of COlllraCI I;mguage made il e,'ident
h o\\" lHuch more difficult il was 10 express id eas tha[ \Vere airead)" beginni l1 g 10
slp through lhe ligid confines Of COlllfaClUalislIl. Likewise, we llIar II O\\' Slale
lhal regardl ess of the fael thm Ihe IIlII/lillulo had 1101 )"e l assullled lhe po ltical
cemrall,. Ihal it would in lhe final work, th e pOlen tial oflhe mull pi e, eo mpl ex
ind ividual is already given strong emphasis in lhe TIl /?ologia /.Po/iliCf/{ '/hmlise.
ReasOIl is prescn ted h ere as Ihm wh ich is able 10 interaCI ",ilh th e affeets with
out demanding super ior o r IransCendenlal conlrol o\-er th em. Thi5 i5 wha t spe
cificall}' allows a st. ... te 10 achieve inl ernal peace. Thi s is also whal i5 spec ifi Cilllr
associaled wilh Ihe mullipl c dimension of politics. In chapl er 16 of tlle '/1/fologieal
Polilieal Tret/lis", \Ve rcad lhal
in a dCllloe l<ley the]"c i5!eSS danger ofa go\'cl"llInem bcha\' ing un reaso nably,
fOI" il is pl"acticallr impossibl e for the m:ti or ity of a single assemblr. if it is of
some si;o;e, 10 agrec on th e same piece 01' folly. Then ab>ain, as we ha\'e also
132 COl/jliel, Puwer; (/lid Mul/ilru/e
shown, il is Ihe fundament al purpose of d cmocracy lO avo id Ihe follies of
appelile and to keep men wilhin Ihe bounds ofreason, as lar as possible, so
Iha!. lhey mar Ii\'e in peace and
On Ihe on e h;lI1d, Ihere is rhe idea ofa poinl ofno reWnl , a Iwmer ic thresh-
o ld be)"ond whi ch it is unlike1)' Iltal an will make irrali onal d ecisiolls.
On Ihe olher hand, anolher principie is assen t d. Ihal ofan expansi\"e l1l tcha-
nistll according 10 which Iht larger lht assembl )', Ihe It ss are [O be
fcared. Spinu7 .. a does nOI maintain Ihal folli es will be complcldy diminalcd -il
would be ingenuous and il1usor,. to do so. Ther will nOI be damaging, ho ugh,
because o ut of quamil}' arises reasoll and, co nscq uenll y, also peace and
harmo ny.
Ir, 011 lhe one hand, politil.: al rali ollalily o ri ginales and del"elops frotll lhe
mullipl e, orr th e olll er hand, its end is precise l)' 10 aehi el"e Ihis Tnliollality. Now,
Spin07A"l Stal eS expli eitl )', Ihis I"inuo us e)"c\ e is realized in a Since lO
imagine an assembl )" in whi ch errors are nOI cOllimiued is tantal1l ount to imag-
ining an impnl ulIl ill impe,.io. Lh e beSl situatio n is Ihe one Ihal is affirmed in Ihe
absolul encss ora dCllIocraq. From Ihe point ofview of Ihe n' lali onship belwce n
lhe individual and Ihe multiple-simibrly in el"er)' way \O Machiave1\i-lhis
means a grealer apliwde of Ihe tlluhiple, o f Ihe mll/lilude compared 10 he
singltlar (10 Ihe wisdo lll o f indh'iduals, no maller ho\\' prudelll lhey mar be) ,
for d ealing wilh politi eal diffieulli es.
Whell !larr.lling Ihe hisl or)' of lhe J ews. Spill oz<l d oes 11 01 mi ss OUI on lhe
o ppOrUl11il)' !O provide " concrele exampl e of Ihis principie immediately after
its dl t'o reli eal preselll:uion. In chaplt' r 18 of Ihe The% gictI/Poliliral Trttl/e, he
\\Tites:
the peopl e-in wh onl lhere is generally a proud 01' hUl11bl e spiril according
10 changing ci rcumst."ln ces-was ready 10 mend ils ways in lime o f disOlsrer,
l\lrtling lO God, resl orillg th e laws, amI I.hus eXl.r ical.illg itself from a1l per il:
whereas killgs. who are un\"a1)'ingl )' proudspirited <lnd who cannol ch allge
eo urse ",ilha ul hutlliliation. adhered obstnal ely !O Iheir faults r ighl up 10 the
final desU"ucti a n of lhe City.63
h is the fib'llrc oflhc king, once again. thal I"cfl ccts Ihe vices ofhuman na.lUI"C.
Howe"cr, as we kno\\", in Spinoza's phil oso phy afi"ccts are 11 01 "ices, bUl simply
properries of human nalure. Thi s is precisel}' whar all ows Ihe people lO mend
Iheir ways. Peopl es and princes share th e s,"lme nalUre. Bul for peopl es, il is OUI
o f lhe quamit)', lhe tllUllipli ci l}' o f opini ons, lhm polit ical rmi onalil}' a liginal es,
whi eh in this case takes 011 practi eal fonu in he d ecisi on !O fa rgo Iheir nalural
"obsl inac}'.w Con\'erse\}', Ihe king. a singl e individual ",ho builds his powe r 011
his own sinbrulaiIY. canll OI escape frulll Ihe perverse dIce\.'; of Ihese arrec\.';, in
Ihis case, Ihe alIect of pridc. Rccalling l\bchiavel1i's teachings, howevcr, one
TlII! S/Ji "\\'o r e l )' "
could mainlain lhat lhe biggesl lI"eakness doe nOl co nsisl in olle panicu1a,"
a!Tect 01" anothel", bUl I"alher in lhe constiuni\"e ill capacity o f peo pl e 10 adapt 10
changing times according to their own liking. '"
Now, in lhe Po{ifiml as Spinoza Iransformed lhe th eory of lhe for-
malio n and decline of Slales. co mplelelr abandoning lhe contl"actualist d oc-
trine. he also adopts a difTerem perspeclil"e on Ihe th eme of the r1l11ltipl e
indi,idual. Allhough not the onl}" aspecI distinguishing the lI"orks before the
Poli/ieal Trl'tl/Je. Ihe cOll,ergence betwecll p!bs and 1/lIIlIi/lldo stresscd by Balibar
loses its consislenc)". The "IIII/i/ude gradual1y assumes greater ccntrality. Thc
lessoll of the aculiuimuJ Florcntine fu11}' penneates the Spino7.ist logic. nle
"encounter" with 1\bchia\"ellian th Ollght produces its most ob,ious and consi .o;-
lem efTecls in Ihis regard: lhe cal egor)" of th e multi\llde is load ed with posilil"e
connotal ions. founding and eSlablishing o ne of lhe moS! im porlan!. concepls in
5pin07A"l 's entire political ami juridical s)"sle111 of tho ught. 1.11 seclion 27. chapt er
7 of the PoliliclIl Treo/ise, at lhe hean of his d escripti on of h ow un .11iSlOcrac)'
fUllcti ons. 5pill oza picks up again and expands 011 th e conclusi ons he had
rcaehcd in lhe TlIt!fJl ogiml-PoliliCflI Trtm/Je. The IOnc of these pagcs d osel)'
mirron lhe co ntent and slyl e of Machbvc11i 's. Rctunling 10 lhe anthropologi cal
premises set Olll in lhe first chapt er, as well as 10 lhe conclllsi ons of Ihe E/hir,J,
5pin07 .. "l remarks that
perhnps ollr suggesti oll s will be recei\'ed wilh ridicul e br Ihose who reslri ct 10
the plebs lhe faults Ihal are illherem in all mankind. sa}'ing. is no
modennio n in the mob; Ihe)' terrorise ul1l ess they are frigluened.
w
al1d,
e0111111011 pcopl e is eilher a humbl c or al1 arrogant maMer. thcre is no
lrmh o r judgmenl in it; and th e like. But all 111en share in one and the same
nature; it is power and culture tltat mislead us.<
His anlhropologi cal ami o nlOlogi cal pre mise is assert ecl wilh esueme clarit)',
prol'iding Ihe basis fo r all th e polil ical arguments lhat will be cleveloped fro m
it. The essenlial kernel ofthe argumellt is expressecl in lerl11 5 that al"e similar 10
Much ial'elli s: Ihere is one and onl}' oll e nature shared by all indi\'iduals. eq ually
by pco pl es al1d princes, persons al1d humbl c eondilons
w
and mOl1arehs,
subj ce ts, and so, "cr cigns. 5til1, sinee difTcrences in human beha,iol" do CSiSl,
other facton need 10 be summon ed besides a supposedl r difTercnl
$pill07 .. a dms PUts forward lhe argument of cultural difl"erence. Edll cati o n-
again foll owing Machia\"el1i-creates good peoples jllsl as il d oes good princes.
And wh en il fails 10, thi s is Ihe s)'mplOm o ra bad go\"ernmenl. Incleed.
adds Ihal :
lhal is no trUlh or judb'lnelll in the plt'bs
w
is 110 t surprising. since thc
important afTairs of statc arc co nduclcd withom lheir knowl edgc, and I'r0111 the
inlc thal GlIltl Ot be conceal ed the}' can onlr make conj ecture. For 10 suspend
COl/jliel, Puwer; (/lid Mul/ilru/e
judgment is not a common "inue. [Ijf the pl cbs could practise reSlraim
and suspcnd judgment 011 mallen insufficienLly known, or form co rrecljudg-
ment 011 the basis ofscan!)' informatiOIl, il would surely be more fit 10 rul e
Ihan 10 be rul ed. t>O
Thi seems like a simple uiticism of Ihe way rul ers cOllduCl aITairs of sta te,
namel}', in secreto wilhom all owing heir subj ecls lO panicipat e. lt is a criticismo
\\"e migh of SIal!: seu ecy and, in sOllle wars, of reason of state as a dissilllu-
lated kn owlcdge thal sO\'ercigns keep hidden from thdr subj ects. But if this
were pure1r Ihe case, ,,"ould nOI be VCI)' far fmm a rccurring IOpOS in
Ihe po1ilicalliteralure rela!ed lO th e Crilicism, as one migh! expect, of seu ec)'
in stale This was levied C\'e n by a l.rue aris!acra! like Guicciardini, who
commenl ed Ihal 'T here is a fi en such a d ense fag or Ih ick wall belween lhe pal-
ace ancllhe piaZ7A11hallhe human ere is incapabl e ofpenelrating il. The peopl e
kno\\' as much abo u! what he rul ers are d oingor th e reaso ns for il as th e)' know
abo tH lhings being do ne in
In realit}", ifwe loo k lO lhe Machial'clliall argulllem 011 th e superi ority oflhe
lllu1tiple O\'CI' th e singular and 0 1" the peopl c OI'CI' th e princc, il becomes ob\'i-
o us thal Ihc main issue im'oh'cd ac!ua]],. concerns a compl etel)' diITel'elll mal-
ler: llame)', Ihal the faulls ofthe peopl e d epend on Ihe misgol"ernmenl oflheir
prince. In fa ct., Ihe pl ebs do nOI know Ihe Irulh anel lhe}" canll OI form lheir oll'n
judgmenl becall se princes manage aITairs o f Slat e behind 1l1er hacks. He l1 ce,
Ihey fonn a jud:''lnent based 011 a handful o f cOIUecwres and elld up cotnmit-
ling erron. Ir th ey were wel! infonned, they would be abl e lO judge based 011
causal cognili oll amI. co nsequemlr, 1I'0uld be fi lO Hile than lO be
!" ulcd."
On !he one hand, Ihcn, Spin07A1 takes up lhe Machial'ellian argumenl 011 Ihe
responsibi!ilies o r rul en regard ing lhe educali on amI vices of Iheir people. On
Ihe olher hand, he el evelops his Iheo!"y 011 ideolo!,'}' based o n realism, mai1lIlin-
ing. like Machial'el1i, Ihe simpl e princi pI e t.har men share in oll e ami Ihe
same l1 ature: NolI'. rul ers make ever)' eITon \O keep lhe pl ebs fro m acquiring
knowl edge. Ir Ihis were nOI the case,jusI as Machial'e1li main tained . they "' ould
be fiI O rul e. On lhe basis o f hese conc1usio ns, wih a marked Machiave lliall
navor. e\"en !he tcrl1l II/cbi loses its traditi onal1y ncgative connotati ons. Plcbs
seems lO rej o in lhe semalllic fl eld ofth e /l/ul/ilmlo, Ihal whi ch denotes th e supe-
ri ori!)" oflhe l1lu[ipl e O\'CI" lhe singular. J USI as in th e case of the h elpless body
o f rh e chilel, laken as a mod el o f human nalUre 10 i\1l1strate lhe absurdiry of
1hose II'ho I'ew aITects as I'ices, daiming lhal 1hey are reslri cled solel)" lO parti cu-
lar illdiliduals 01' dasses of individtmls,c," in the same lI'ay, Spin07 .. a goes ba ck tO
Ihe metaphor of th e 11lultitude, fi ckl e and inconstant as the Iwwes of the sea. in
order lO extend it to al! humall beings, with 110 qualifying distill ctioll. The lll/c-
IUlllo llllmi is not propcr lO an}' illdi\idual in particulal' o r tO the mass as such;
1,lIher, it is thc \"(' I")' mode of existence of Ihe afTcclil"e !ife: '\,c are in lllall)"
TJII! S/Ji "\\'o r e l )' " 135
respects al lhe mercy of extcrnal causes and are tossed aboul like Ihe wal'es of
lhe sea when drilen by co ntrar:- winds, Un5ILre of lhe outcome and of olLr
ble, "<W
The exampl es gil'en until no\\', howel'er, al! relate to Ihe comparison belween
lhe muhipl e and lhe singular in silllal ions Ihal we miglH define as crises, \ \'11 en
faced Wilh mislakes, wilh Ihe difficulties inherelll 10 politi cal auion, lhe multi-
pIe subjeu manages 10 al'oi d lhe vices lO which indil'iduals are necessarily
cxposed and fall I; c\im, I-I owel'cr, Spinol..a del'clops the q uesti on on a \llo re
general Icvel as ",el!. Political rationalit)' does not arise mainly within and
Ihrough lhe multi ple, complex individual only when it is a C]ucslion o r erron
and critical situali ons, but .. uher, under al! d rcumstances. \Iulliplidly is lhus
preserHed as rhe beM coneliri on for del'eloping ancl Ihe power of a
colleclil'e bod)' in arder 10 affirm Ihe coll euil'e eO/lfl/us of Ihe bod}' polil ic: lJuid
(O/tms pO$si/llell/o /wc!Uque drle/7IIillfwil.
[n seClioll 5, chapler 7 of lhe Poli/ioll Trl'fllJe, when demonslmting lhe found-
ing principI es of Ihc monarchi cal Stale, Spinoza explicitlr Slales lIlar ",hen mak-
ing decisiolls, lhe sOl'ercign can onl )' chose between lhe alternatil'es proposed
by his many acll'isers, "Ancl," nOles it is quite incOll ce l:lbl e thal in
a maller of poli cy there can be anylhing that escaped Ihe attenti on 01' such a
lal'ge body of tll en, it fol1o\\'s t.hat Ihere can be no opini on concluc1ve to the
people's \\'elfare thar is not incll1cled among lhose submiued 10 rh e king by Ihis
In this sense, the monarch cannor claim 10 possess any superior
ratioualil)', \\'isdom, or prudence wit.h respecI lO auy olher citizen. as wc
ha\'e seen, nawre is one aud the s.lme for c\'eryone, AH the more reason, t hen,
Ihat the king call1l Ot clai m lO hal'C hit upon an)' pol iti cal solutioll lIlat is nOI
included in those formulaled by his council. Frolll a polilical painl lhe
singular i5 ent ircl)' contained within Ihe Illllltipl e : lhe king's wisdolll is entirel)'
cont..,ined wil,hin his cOllnci1. l 11e besl decisi on li es, once again, in a plunllit)',
Olll of\\'hich rh e king can onl)' selecl and appro\'e.
Thi s principIe is suggesled by na lure irself. Monarchical m1lll oril )' depencls
on lhe dumti on of lhe complex, allhough alwars singular, body of Ihe 50\'er
eign's persono No\\', as lI'e kil O\\'. c\'e l) ' finit e mode is limiled by olher mod es ami
wi]] be deslroyed sooner 01' later by olle of them,71 It is for Ihis rcasun th,H the
coll ectil"e bod)' holds more absolute pOll'e1", As a singular bod)', Ihe king is
limit cd and inferior to a c0I111cil. The multipl e is more polI'erful than Ihe
singll lar,7"
like l\l ach iawlli, rel'erses lhe classical 10POS of lhe lTlUlliple as a sub ..
jecllhal is constill1lo nall )' ex posed 10 inconslancy ancl instabilil)' comparecl 10
Ihe wisdo m and firmness ofa monarc11 , For lOO, Ihen, "kings are nOI
god: Ihe)' are but men, \\'ho are ortell enchanl ed by lhe Sirens' song, So ife\'er)' ..
lhing lI'ere 10 depend on th e inco nslant lI'ill o f one man, there \\'oll ld be no Sta,
It is lhe therefore, lha! is <In "inconstant lI'ill," while onl)' the
lllany cxprcss a rationalil)' lhat is sufficicnt fol' ruling a sta te, Moreovcl', not a nly
Copyrighted Material
136 ConJlicl, P",uer, and Mulludt
is lhis IdLionalilY suffi ciem, il is also necessary. \o\fhen discussing lhe roundaLions
of llle arislocrauc Sl3lC, Spinoza expli hly observes lhal. the single individual is
nol capablc of "bcaring the wholc burdcn"' uf go\'crnmCnl and lacks sufficicnt
power LO ntle 0 11 his OWI1 :
we muSl note lhe differcnce thcl'e is between govemmenl in t.h e hands of Orle
man and go\,crnrncnt in thc hands ora .'iufficicntly la rgc COUl1ci l,.a diITcrcncc
which s indeed qui le considerable. _ . . [T ]he power or a single man 15 fIr
from bcing equallO bc.ari ng the whol e burden or govetTlmen t.. .. . So ",hereas
ar e quite indispensable lO a ki ng, lhis is ccr tai llly 110t lhe case
with a council of Lhis kind. Second ly, kings. are morml. whereas counci ls ar e
everla.uing . ... ThircHy, the rule ora ki ng i:'ii ofle n precarious, by realJon ofhis
minotity. sickness, old age, or for other causes, whereas the power or a coun-
eil of lhis ki nd remains alwa)'S one and the .same. FOllTlhl)', lhe will of one
rnan is, very changeable and inconstall l.. ... V/e may lh erefore concl ude lhal
lhe sovercigrny conferred on a council oC suffi ciem sizc is absolme. or il is
rcally that which is hcld by the people as i:l whole.-t
r t'om Ihe weaknes.s orlhe si ngle l O lhe powel' or lhe Olul liple: Lh e rome laken
by Spinoza llnambiguously follo"'s the palh tmctd out by Machwelli. The et ll -
ies and politics of qllan tity L..'"'1.kc on lhe signifieance or a rcason and a powcr lhat
originale from a plural iry. On lhe one ha nd, lhe monarch ean neve r be alone,
sincc he needs advisers. Thc absolutc rule ofa single man, thc"efore. is nOlhing
blll a chimera."i1 On thc olhcr hand, l.he aristocraq has au expausivc nalllrc in
Spinoza's program, lending lov ... <lrd democrauc, horizontal enlargemenl. Aris
tOCl'acy and democracy, t.hen. are conSlimt.ionally I'elal cd- ahhough 10 a dHfer-
cru extCnt-lO the WCc1.lth and power OfLhc multitude. Only democracy, as
Spinoza himsclf maintai ns, does imperium. become Qlnn;no absolutum.
1ti
The last lhi ng lO be understood is whall..his absol ll leness signi fi es in Lerms or
politic.:1.l and governmental rat.ionalit,y. Spinoza's poli lical philosophy mUSL be
rcad in th e lighlofhis onLOlogyand Ih eOl)'ofaITccl:.S. The mtionalit)' thal arises
rrom [he tTI lIlti ple, which is expressed by lhe multitude, is nOl simply qllanta-
tively greal.er than lhal expres."icd hy I.h e single. The mulli tllde tI. no!. Lhe SCland
replica ofallthe singularities place<! sidt by side. Quite lhe reverse: ,e idea of
relaLionship and of l he network stnlCture leaps to lhe fore and defines the very
concepl of mul umde. However, lhe r:nionaIiL)' of lhe rnulti rude creales a supe-
rior poweJ" precisel)' because il is mulLiplc and nOL in spile oflhe plural (lnd col-
Icctive dimensiono Hencc, jusl as rdLlonality does not impose ilSclf in lhe single
Lhe delrimem or Lhe passions, but ralher contribUles lO organizjng
l.he d)' namics. d Uferences, and conAi I.S by il1 ler rwining whh the aH'eclS. in lhe
same way, lhe conf1iclS and dilTerences lhal ate produc<.-d in the multiple
amplify its power- lhe capaci ly lo affecl 3nd be affecLcd in man)' d iffcrc nl
\.ays---of [he collee\'e btxly. The distan ce be[ween Spinoza and sorne o r his
i llusu"iollS comcrnp0r3"i(."S can al50 be mcasllrcd by I.his yardstick.
TJII! S/Ji "\\,(I r e l )' " 137
Fo!" L'l Court brothers, fOl- d ualislIl mlio and
nJJu lllJ produces its elTects in the political sphere as wcll creating the need for
a fnrther dualislIl between rulers and sllbjects. Poltical rati o nality Ihus a r ises
0111 of Ihe \\'orld oft.he passions, bUI in a negalh'e fashion, lhanks, Ihal is, IQ lhe
way lhe \-arious passi ons and Ihe confiicts lhey generat e lllumally cancel each
othe!" out. For SpiU07.a. Ihe opposile is true: rali onalil), arises froTll
ing the shared alTt:C\s 10 Ihe d el r illl ent of lll ose Ihal isolat e Ihe individual. The
structural dualislIl is Ihus surpasscd by amnninga principIe Ihat assigns a posi-
Ihc \"aluc 10 tht, 1Il1lltiple gua lIlultiplc.
Based on this pdnciple, is also abl e 10 O\'ertunJ lhe I-I obbesian the-
orJ' ofthe need for a lIlu]i lude to be represented ami disciplined by th e unilar)"
figure of an organic peopl e, For o n lhe co nl1-ary, Ihe multiplicil Y is
necessarily presen-ed, since Ihe UniL"lry form and disciplilling are nOlhing bUI a
chimera, amI because lhe power of lhe Q/l/llhw abSQ{IIII11/1 ;111/"''';11111 is acmnlly
fouml ed on il.
The posi ti\'e mlue b';\'en to lhe lIluhipl (O and Ihe collecti\'e as such is closel}'
ticd 10 Spino1..a 's rcading of and cngagclll Cnt Wilh Machia\'cllbn arb'111lle nts.
draws clclllcnts frolll 1\b chi;wclli in order 10 formulatc most o l"igi-
nal and expl osi\'e aspects of his polili cal and legal th eolT' Machia\'elli is lIscd as
a 1001 against th e ideology of re presenlati on. th e disd plin ing of lhe !l1ul li ple,
;111(1 ils 11l0difi cation inl o a singular f01"ln: in ot her wo rds. againsl lhe transror-
malj o ll of Ihe multitude i1110 a people, It is preciselr in lhe Pn/il;ml T,."al isr,
tll en, that his infiuence is most decisi\-e. l' arallel 10 the abandonrn ent o f Ihe
contractualist doctrine. a positive \-alue is gil'e n to the politi cal r ole of th e mul-
tipl e as such, to the I/Iu/liludoas a multipl c amI complex individual. aud lO its
supcd or ity o\-cr an)' indil'id ual rcason. In no other pans 01' hi s work, then, di d
the nC1/Ii.s.\illlllS Fl on"ntine olTer such c1ear-cul in suppon of fi-ecdom.
Chaplcr 7
Individual Multipl e Being
[n the pass,'lge from the J1IPologicnl-Poliliml 7i"l'llfisp W Ihe Politiml n :llfisti
Spinoza abandons Ihe [anguage of lhe social colltract and formukHes a more
complex idea of lhe formatio n of states. This idea is based 011 lhe immanent
affinnati on-tll eaning, lhe sclf-organir..:uion-oflhe IIIlIlIifrulu underslOod as a
Illulliple, compkx individual. Thmugb lbe wd lings 01' l\bcbia\'clli, Spinoza
de\'dops his lboughl o n lhe poltical rati onall)' 01" lhe JIlllltipl c and its rclati on
with lbe singular. Foll owing Ibi s method, just like Machia\"clli, be is abl c to
attack some of th e most traditi onal assllmpti ons ane! most widespread prejll-
on th e politicallimits of Ihe peopl e and the
Now, in Ihis framework, lhe probl em oflime amI change takes on fundamen-
tal imponance: il is an 011l010gi cal problem thal. for bOlh Machia\'elli and
Spinoza, is also mtll ediatdy poltical in nalure. The neecl LO cleal wilh a world
in conlinuo us change becomes the political problem par excdlell ce. It spcc ifi-
catl r bccomes the probl elll of resisti ng lhe multipl e causes of destruction lhat
thrcatcn each finit e mocl e, 111is rencction lhen leads Spinoz::l 10 resume his
study on a ce ntral quesli o n in episl emology and o ntology: the third kind
o f kn owl edge. The influence of Machia\elli's historical and political wrilings
beeomes even slronger amI his traces e\"en more evid ent in Ihis arca of
inqui ry.
The idea of an indi,dual multipl e being rcfers LO J ean- Luc Nanc(s work 011
being plural.
l
The Frcn ch phi losopher makes no cITa n to disguise bis
ambiti on for th e tex of "redoing thl' wb ole of 'fint phil osopby' by gi\"i ng the
'singular plural' of Being as its The cssar is fuU of\"alllabl e "efer-
enees to o ntologi eal questi ons ane! cth ical-political issucs reminiscenl of lhose
laekl ed b)' Spin01;. Slarti ng fr011l he 'finl Heidegger's Mfun_
damental ont olog)'," Nan ey underlin es lhat Mitsl';, lhe 'being-wilh," is essen-
lial 10 the consli tuti on of DIUf'ill, 0 1' Howe\er, d espit e litis
affirmatl\c asseni on. Nancy beli eves Ilta Heidegger fails to attain to Ihe trul )'
dimensi on of being ilSclf. This ol1lologi cal emerprise and the
political cOllscqutnces of bt ing-with muS! be fuU)' expostc and identifi ed as
the exclusil"e modc of bcing.
Copyrighted Material
139
The es;,c.;ence of Being. in Nancy' \'ie"" is a in which
lhe COI1- (lhe cum) is nO\. addcd lO Bei ng as an external allribute or supplernen-
lary propCrly but r.nhcr is to il. This holds fundamental imporlancc
for me idea of a collecti\'c subjecl and for lhe issues explored by .Machiavelli
and pinoza. J\ot. h ror lhe Machiavellian "peopl e" and lhe Spinozian ttlultitutW,
l he problem hes in undcrStanding lhe exist.ente 01" an individual lhal is mul li-
pie and complcx in rclation lO other individuals 3nd
t
al lhe sarnc Lirnc
J
in
relatio n lo lhe individuals il cornprises. For Machi .welli , lhis can he arrived al
lhrough lhe complex relalionship lhe plincc and U1C pcoplc. and
l hrugb lhe conflictual rclatioT1.'th ip bCl\. .. ccn lhe peoplc and me Grandi . ror
Spinoza, il can be arrived allhrough lhe lheory of lhe fLnile modes, Lhe theory
of c;:ausa lity. l he I.heo!")' of Ihe affcC;:LS anft knowledge. as well as Ihal of Lhe j Urft
COIIJ"IfI'll;a. 1'0 understand lhe mode of existence and action oC lhese complex
individuals, stalcs Naney, it mUSl be rccognizcd thaL "t.he singulari lY of cach i!jo
indis.'\ociable from its being-wilh-rnany'" and lhat is indissociable
from (l. plllral ity,";!
Nancy's omology of bci ll g !till gular plural has poims in eornmon Wilh oolh
\i achiavelli 's conninualisl lheory of politics and wim me concepuon of Lhe
ahsolmely immanenlscl r--organization orlhe mtlhiludo in a ciemocracy: lheories
and conceplS as thcy have bcen formulat<.-d in modenlity thal are subvcrsive lO
morab , polities, and the law, They conve rge with Nancy's affi nnation by which
lhe multilUde is nOl a Lhrong ofaLom-i ndividuals3l Lhe merey ofa
ta] powet (i L is nm an onlrollt:.d multillldc") ,just. as "wc" is nOl an algcbraic
sum o""'."':
we [arel apable ofsayi ng .. we, ,. . .. we [afC] capable ofsayi ngwc Looul'selves
(saying il about OUI'selves LO one anothcr). beginning from lhc point \\ihcre
no Icader or God can say it for USo This demand !jo in no way sccondaf)'J and
tJlis L'\ whal il il'i terrible power l O subVCI1., resisl, or sweep a"",ay.
Becallse 001 bcing able LO say is whal phlnges eveJ")' "1." whether individ-
lml Or eOllective, into the insanity wherc he (:annol say ''1'' cithcr,1
Spin01..a'S fonnulalion oran i nl.ui Live sdence shows how democracy, undcl'-
sLOod as a process 01" lhe muUitud(), is very ' irnilar LO the idea
cxprcsscd by Nancy of a "sharcd sovcrcignt}' , , , of cvcryonc and of each onc,
bUl a sovereiglll)' underslood nOl as the exercisc of po\,.,'cr and domination bUl
as a proxisof
Nc\'crthclcss, Lh csc cond usions deriving [rom l-I eidcgger's analytics (which,
S3yS Nancy, al1 funher thought is a derivau\'c 00 preserve significam uaces of
Ihe language of teleology, oF lhe flOal end lhat. Ollr lI nderslandi ng of bei ng, as
suela. bcgins to aualn 1.0, Nanqr is conccl"ned about cle.:1.ring the ficl d of Lhis
risk, al lhough his conclusions remai n intcnuonally ambiguous on a few poinrs,
\>fachiavelli and SpinO'"la are lO be IOcalCd on aplane Lh al is endrely roreign lO
1<0 COl/jliel, Puwer; (/lid Mullilrule
any tdcolog)' 0 1" to an)' phi loso phy of history, unde rstood as lhe alt cmpt lO givc
mcaning, a dircnio ll, and <In cnd to lhe (ourse of c \"c n ts.
The of Be ing as being-with. long ", ilh the rornmbtio ll o f ;
phil osophy o f Ihe mullipl e and a poltical th eor)' based, fo r Jl.l achiavel1i. 0 11 Ihe
power o f Ihe people ancl. fOf Spin07..a. on lhe rl1uhiwde confirm his principIe.
FOI" Ihis rcason. in additiorl to Ihe singular plural o f Nall c)', lhe mosl
appropriate expressi oll fOI" describing lhe Machia\'el1i-Spinoza axis is: Being
Individual Multiple .
Adaptillg io Diversity: Multiplicity and the Imitation of Nature
in MachiavelJi
[n January of 15 15, hadjuSl come back to Florence afl er his brief
but imcll se in Ihe Albergaccio near Sa n Casciano in Val di Pesa.
Whal he hoped fo r ,,'as LO gel baek imo polilical life, e\"en al Ihe sen"Ce of Ihe
J\ ' edicis. Bardy IWO )"ears had passed sinee he had been LOrtured after bcing
aeeuscd of parti eipaling in Ihe ami-J\ ledici conspirae)' organi7.ed Agosti no
Capponi ane! I' ietropaolo I\oscol. He now en\s."\ged lhe possbilit )" of resuming
an act i\"e pol tical life. But this hope, as I\"e kno\\', was never LO be fun}' realized .
Some of hs 11I OSI be:nniful lell ers dale from this periodo In hi s co rrespondence
wilh Frall cesco Vellori, Ihere are ech oes amI mo tifs that reappear in Ihe pages
of his lI'orks. in 711f! Dcoll rseJ. for exampl e, Iha! on l}' a few monlhs later
he lI"ould begi n reading lO his On i Ori cdlari fricnds.
ft
In his lener daled J anuarr
31, 1515. half-seri ous and hal fjoking. Machia\"clli \\Tit es lO hi s cOITcspondcnl:
Anyone ",ho sal\" our letters, m)' friendo and nOled their be
q uit e ama7.ed. for al one point he would think hat we are I'er}' se ri ous,
in\"ol\"ed in weigllly mallen. al1d lhat we ne\"er elll ertained a lhought whi ch
was n ot 10ft}' ami hon es\. BUI Ihen. mrning Ihe page, he would di sco\"er Ihal
these same ser iolls men are fri\"olous, inconstan \. lusul, and occupied Willt
trines. Allhough lO some this way o f being mar appear disgr.lceful, il scems
\\"onhy of praise lO me bccause lI"e imilatc nalUre. whi ch is \"ari ous, and an)'-
oll e who imilalcs nallll"e cannOl be crili ci 7.ed.
7
111e imil:Jlion of ll:Jlure is a topos in lhe 1ileralUre of RenaiS'i,"\ll ce
Natul"e is \-aded ane! changeabl e and el'er)"wh erc shows her mulliplicit)'. Machi a\'el!i
lhlls suggesls Ihal we from Ih is multiplicit )'. lhal we be capabl e ofbeing
seriotis rel also fli\"ololls. honcsl rCI also self-indulgcllI. occupi ed al limes Wilh
weigluy maners <lnd al olhe rs willt u;\"ial pursui\.'i. In Ihis len cr. Machia\"elli
rcpea\.'i a principIe in his pril<nc, personal life Ihal hacl been Ihe basis of his
political rcasoning. I-I CI"C, howe\'e r, lhe (heme is associated wilh change and,
more genera ll )". wilh times."' \\'e ha\"e already seen ho\\" changcabilily
Copyriglrted Material
Indivitl.ull M ullip/e Being 141
bCCOrllC$ assotiatcd wilh lhe and t.he afTcttivc tife. maki ng it di ffi ClI lt.
lO resiSllhe perverse caused by lhe changing times. ror the single indi-
vidUll. it remains an un resolved issue: people ch;tnge their opinions over time
and added lO this, the times themselves are extremely changeablc. Uncertainty
and insmbily are thus me perenniaJ conditi ons of every individual's tire.
l-I owever, changeabiliLy is nOl simply passively sulJered by human beings. On
lhe cOlllral'Y, we can attempt lO make use of it as a vinue, as a strategic resource
lo be uscd against lhe changing times, "'playing" Lhc varicl)' of our passions and
behaviors againsl me varicly of me world and nature. By imitating namrc. as
Machiavelli repeats in his leLler lO Vellori., \\le imitale its vinue and prudence.
BUllhis di mension is nOl limiled purely la individual characlensucs and \'irwc.
Its mOSl powerful and frll iul fonn ulauon is aCllIally fOllnd in Lhe collecve,
poli tieal dimension, in lhaL of lhc people and Lhe mulLilude. in Lhe principie
l hal affirms the supcriority of Lhe lYIulLiplc over .. he singular. The argurnenl in
the leuer lO Ve tlori opens up a ne", horizon ror refleetion and a new
ror lheory with respeu Lo this principIe. The power and vinue of lhe multi ple
musI be successfuJ l}' affirmed in lhe problemalic, original)' di mension as well :
in me dimension ol" change. which Machim'elli had already investigaled in rela-
lion 10 individual virtue.
The importance of lhe problem of change and changing times in Machia\'elli's
lhought is demonslra(ed once again by its earIy appearance in his poli tical wril-
ings from lhe Chaneer}' pcri od. I n W"nls lo be Spoken 011 lile Law Jor Appmpriali"g
J\foney, lhe problem of adapng la Lhe changing times already occupies a
central posiuon. 'vVe are in LIle era of lhe blazing powcr ofCesarc Borgia, Dukc
Valentino, whose flames li cked a l lhe bordcn and came l O Lh reaLen lhe \'ery
seeurily of lhe eit}' of Florenee. Faeed ",ilh !he "cxp1osion" of this individual
"inuc, the only response for Machiavcl li consislcd in rcorder ing lhe StaLC, in
rel.uming lO the principies ofitS original virtue. Tliis involved seizing I. he ocea
.sion that the danger oflhe Duke rep"esented in order lO do what nobody had
done until th en, eitber out ofshort-.sighledness 0 1" negLigence. BUl occlsions, as
MachiavelH knew very \ ... ell , tend lO slip away. His harsh CriticiSIll , lhen, i5
prompled specifically by lhe problem of change. In his OWll words:
This whole city \\las in anxi ety because she was unprepared, and everybody
pra)'cd Goc\ to give us time. BUI ",hen [Valenti no] showed lIS his baek b)'
goi ng in lh e direction of Pesara, and lhe dangers did nOl seem immediatc,
you shiflCd LO rash confidence, so mal it was nOl possible LO persuade you lO
pass any appropriaLion. There was no failut"c LO bring befare you and l O name
ove!" and predicL lhe dangers LhallaLe!" camc aboUL, la which you sLUbbornly
would nOllislen.
8
The rulers are ineapable of changing lheir behavior in response lO lhe chang-
ing siluation; are incapable of up their "sLUbbonmess".so as to turn
Copyriglrted Material
l'I2 umjlid, P!uer, and M"Ui/",it
LO virtue. 'When danger is near, lerror paralyzes lhem and they are "in anxiety"'
in lhe hope IhaL lhe dangcr will pass. Whcn lhe danger is al a dislance. inSlcad
of ci:lpitaliz.i ng on lhcir rnistak<."S, thcy go lO lhe olhcr extreme of "' n\!i.h conli-
d cnce," And lhis beha\'ior is even more disgraceful, Machim'clli adds, because
!.hey saw Ih e e rror or lheir ways bm ignored il, jusI. tike people \\Iho l hink mal
""hen lhe sun is hining il. will nc\'cr rain.
tI
Faced Wilh the dangcrs lhaL others
have c xpcri cnccd, anyotlc with a minimum of wisdom would come LO thcir
senses, ,,,hereas me m lers of Flo rence condnued LO be short-siglned even in me
Cace of l,hcir O\ffi dangcrs. And lhis is when lhe idea of change comes to lhe
rore. Im.lccd , adds Machiavclli , "'. tell you lhal For lunc docs nOl changc her
decisio n when mere is no change in and the hem'ens do nOl wish or
are nm ahl e 10 sUpporl a cily lhal is dctcrrni ned lO fal l in any
POrlUl'C and order. fonune and "irtuc, are 110l complctcly independcnL \Iali-
ablcs: lO change ili c course of one, you have to acl through me oilicr. AClions
mll'U be changed in order lO combaL me changi ng limes. The lheme. we see.
is already rnoving lowaro Lhe POli licaJ and CollCClive sphere. Machiavelli's words
are an olll..and-QlIl cxhoruujol1 lO action: you cannot Sil still and simply observc
lhe changing mes; yOil need loacl LO a\'oid being cnlShed b)'them. This theme
,'UIlS dlroughoUl his works: lhe ide.'l is Lhoroughly developcd i n l'Ju Discoursejll
and in 'Fht Hisluries,l1 I-IO\IlCVCf. lhe idea of change used as a \'o'capon, as a Stral-
egy of virtue, is most fully embodicd in the figure of Tlle P1ina. The Lheory of
lhe humors occupies a cenlral posilion in lhis comext a.1I well. The Janguage of
medjcin e. Orlen used by lO express pol iti cal ideas and conceplS, ,) is
also parti cularlyeH'ccti\,C in exprcssing lhe importancc ofthe cau ..:'goryof changc
and lhe need lO adapl LO ts regimen. Machiavelli wriles t hal day in a
greal ci ty, as has been sairl many limes, acciciems necess<ll'ily ari se lha!, I"equire a
ph)'s.ician. and lhe more imponam slI ch accidems are. tlle .note necessary it is
lo fi nd lhe wisesl Thc pol iti cian bccomcs the "physician" from lh is
perspeclive. abJe lO u'eallhe lhal Lake place evcl) ' da)'. Since a dI)'
cannOL ah<;'3ys be in peacc and quieL and is necessarily exposed LO lhe aClion of
lhc timcs, poli lia; OcCOITI 4..:s the an of treating the dcstructivc elTeclS 01' lhis con-
linuOllS motion. Machiavelli is Lhus ablc lO dc\'eJop his meory of lh e hllffiOrs
a long wh.h Ihe idea of Ihe reLUm 10 p ri ncipies a nd . he nccessily 1.0 ad apI 10
change. This is lhe enlire passage as il appears in The DiscQI.rse3 111.1:
Il is \'e!)' lfue lhaL all lhe [hings of lhis world have a limiled exislence, bllL
,hose \ 11i eh go lhrough Lll. enlire cyde oflif. or<l ained ror ,Ilem by h. al'en
Ire gencrally lhosc ,,,'hich do nol all ow lhcir bodics 10 fall into disordcr bUl
mainlain lhem in an ordedy way. so lhat eilher nOlhing changes. 01" if il
changes. iL is 1.0 t hei.- welfare. 001 lO Lhei r delri mem. Si nce I am speakiog of
mixecl bodies. such as republics and "ebgions, Jet me say lhal changes \-.rhich
bring such bodics back lO lheir princi ples [principit] are hcallhy. TI1C oncs
mal have lhe organizaLion and lhe longcsL \,es are, ho",e\'er, t.hose mal
Copyrighted Material
Individuo! MulliplB Ileing 143
can renew themselves orlen Lh1"ough Lheir own insLirution.'i, or lhal come lO
such a renc\\'aJ I.hrough some drcumstan e oUlSide I.hese i nslutions. And il.
is clcarcr than lighl ilSclf that ir th<...'Y do nol rene\\' thcmsch'cs, lhcsc bodics
\\'ill n OL endure. The melhod of rene\\1n g Lhem s, as was stated, 10 brillg
them hack l O lhcir pli nci plcs, becausc lhe pri nci pi es, of religions, repuhlics,
and kingdoms mUSl al\\'3)rs contain in themsclvcs sorne goodness lhrough
which lbey may rcgain tJl cir carl)' prcstigc and lhci r carl)' expansiono And
because in lhe course of time lhal goodne:ss is orrupted, ir somelll ing does
1101. come aboUL 10 brin g i t back lO ilS propeJ" 1irni LS, il. will. o[ necess;ity. kill
that body. Those d octo r. uf medicine declare. spcaking uf human bodit:s;
M["'ery day the bod)' absorbs sometlling l hal requires. a cure from time lO
time."l!.
CcrLai nJy one of lhe most illlcresng cxpressio ns in this passagc appcar.i in
lhe opening senlence: lhe "cyele of Jife ordained by heaven" couJd suggen the
idea o[ adivine providence and of a n:inural ind ividual dUfalion-for bOlh
si ngle individuals and slatcs-dcpcndcnl on a superior, tnmsccndcmaJ order.
In realilY, th e idea ora superior enuly, or even a superio r arder, is completeJ)'
fOfeign w 'Machiavelli's I.hi nki ng. ('lowC\'er, lhe idea ofa good Morder," indical.-
ing l he affi rmalion ora si ngle V'inue does a ppcar: lhal of an indi\ridual, bUI aIso
of a more complex body like a stalc, which is nOl crushed by the power of
anOlh er viltu, such as a slronger ind h'idual o r a "' nearby" slale lhat is '-beuer
oJ"gani'lccL"IG No\\' LO make lhis happcn, lhe adaptations made mUSl be heaJthy
rather than dcbilitaLing, cxdudl.:s lh e possibility of avoidi ng Lhcsc
adaptalions. They are a given, a ph)'sical and o nlological necessil)' thal o ne
\\'ould he ad\'ised 1.0 leam how lO regu lal.c. They do nOl c1epcnd on SOOlC bl ind,
deslructi\fC fOrLunc, bOl tathcr, on human action. Rene\o;al ol' lhesc bod ies is
both possi blc and ncccssary. Whal \\fe are dcaling wilh here is mixcd bodics,
like republics and religions.
The anal ogy Wilh simple l>Odies ,,hi ch servcd lO guidc our argumenllhus far
is nOw abandoncd. The hmguagc of medici ne WitS uscd tu accolTlpan)' lhc
reader of T'lIe DisC011TSes lhrough a journey leading lo the recogni lioll of lhe
neccssi l}' for changes. on .. he onc hand, and of I,he correspondi ng necessily 1.0
use lhcm tO one's own advantage. on lhe othcr band. It is lhe id(."3 ora "health"
lO be curcd in !.he sarnc wa)' we cu re individual bodics. This anaJogy is now pUl
aside, howcvcr, so al lO procced Wilh a dClailed analysis ofmixed bodies. Health
can be achic\'cd in differem ways in lhc (\\fO Lypes of boclies. BUl.. mOfC (han
an)'Lhing, it is rccognizcd lhat mixcd bodics are morc powcrful than singular
ones, since, unlike singular bodies, mixed bodies can be lcd back lO their "pri n-
cipIes," meaning, lhcy can be -renewcd. "
A mixcd body undergoos the corrupng acon of time and chango unl es.
sornclhing inlcn 'encs lo sUCCCSSf1.1Il y rcvitaliz.e ilS "inuc. Starting from Lhis con-
cepl and lhe medical analogy lleu,een palhology and CUrt1t'()7M of singular and
COl/jliel, Puwer; (/lid Mul/ilru/e
mixed bodies, J\lachiavel1i devclops lhe idea that lhe muhipl e-and onl)' lhe
mul tiple-is abl e to adapt adequalcly to change, Ihcreby affir ming Ihe
grcatesl power and vinue. In T/ f. /)i.wUI"$' ,$l his id ea is explained nsing Ihe Ihe-
or)' o f conOicl and l.h e asserlion o flhe people's superioril)' o,"er he Graneli and
princes. Instead. in nI' Pril!CI' it is presen led lhrough lhe Iheorr of \'irtue as Ihe
m Ulliplicil)' arld ,ers.uilil}' of Ihe singular fib'llre of lIle prince. Onl y by continu-
a1l}' adapting 10 changes is he able 10 ach ieve Ile kinds ofresults Ihal the TIIuhi-
lUde, Ihanks 10 illi multi plc constituti on, is nalura1l y capable ofaccomplish ing.
Thc q ualiti es Ihat a single individual needs are , al"ous amI even opposi ng. 1
7
The ,irtue ofthe prince consisl.'l in imi lating nalUl"e, whi ch is vari ed and d em-
o nslrales all the di Oerent q uali ties. I-I owever, Ihis is also ils limit, since il is
nalure-Ihc Mhllman constit.ules Ihe blll war k and limil 10
tite exercise of a1l1he Mqualities. Li mil and objecli\'e, cri sis a11(1 power inl enecl
o nce again in Machi a\'e1lis discourse. Thi s is Ihe signifieance of lite melaphor
of Chiron lhe cemaur: lhe ,Htempt 10 break through the bulwarks thal limit our
capacity 10 adapt 10 natural changes and di,ersity.'S Al; a figure of indi,idual
mul liplicity which co umen Ihe LIlllhiplicitr amI infiniw mriet}' of naIU1"<::, the
centaur is a figure we should al1 aspire lO in ord er" lO suni\"e Ihe continual
changes orfortune. Using "one and Ihe ol her nature," Ihal orlhe beasl and Ihat
of man, means knol\"ing hOI\" 10 use them all. [1 means JIlllltip[yi ng poinls of
,iew and exper ien ces. For lil e individual. il means maki ng oneself 111 ultipl e; for
Ihe one, il means becoming man)":
A r ul er. theu. !l eed not aCluall y possess al! the abo\"e-lII enti oned qual iti es, bUI
he must certain!)' seem 10. [ndeed, I sha\! be so bold as lO :t.1)' Ihal hal'illg and
always euhi\"ating thcm is har"mful, whereas secmi ng 10 have Ihem is uscful;
fo r instan ce. 10 see m mercirlll, u'ustwonhy, humane, upright amI de,"out, and
also 10 be so. BUI ir il becoll1es necessary 10 ref!<lin, you musl be preparen lO
ael in lhe opposil e way, ami be eapable ofdoing ilo Ami il lll\W be
Ihal a ruler. and especia]])' a ne\\' !"ll ler. ca\lIlO! always aCI in ways thal :I!"e con-
sidered good because, in o rder 10 lIIaintain his powe!". he is oflen foreed to
ael treacherously, ruthlessl)" 01" inhumand)', and disreb-al"d tite preeepl.'l of
religion. !-Ience, he musl be prepared 10 mr,. hi s conduct as th e wi nds o f for-
tune and ehanging cireumstanees consuain him amI . as [ said before, nOI
dc\"iate fmm righl conduel if possibl e, bUI be eapabl e of ent ering upo n the
path ofwrongdo ingwhen il beeomes
Both sinWllar and multiple at lhe same lime, tltis prince \ll o\"es bel ween lhe
two extrel1Les of power and chny. !-l is objecti\"e: 10 adapt 10 changes, 1.0 go
forward in accordanee with lhe changing times.
This is a strategic pr incipie of \"inue amI, at the lime, a hennen eulic
pr"incip le ror undcl"Stand ing the real, since Machiavel1i wages his baltle equa\!)'
in the ficld 01' IheOl-y and politieal ph il osophy. !-l is ad\'cr!i<u"ies ar"e abo
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:Jrl!;'" ;,11/WW }unJ/r1.11H1j
COl/jliel, Puwer; (/lid Mul/ilru/e
of good succcssi ons. One after an olher, \"inlLous princcs propagale lhdr drlue
time, in a !inear series, transmitting it 10 lhe statc. The mechanism lhe
!k"lllle in a I"epublic, but because of the mried 11llrltiplicity of ci\"il sen-antS-lhe
consuls, in lhe case o r Rome-the risk or inlernlpting lhe series is redueed 10 a
minimum ore\'e n eli minat ed .
Through the theor)' of eonniel, 1I 0we\"er. Maehi;wel1i also explains a difTerem
principIe for Ihe affirmati on o f \"inue. Instead of being affinned through a lin-
ear selies of \; n uo us gener<\tions. \' nue arises immcdial ely out of polti cal con-
ni el. I f in th e first case \"inll e is gencraled specifically by mllltiplicilr. because
the sllccession can counl o n an CnOl"lnOllS COl'pS of civil sen.mts, in the second
case it exis15 exclush'ely within and lhrollgh this same l1l11lliplicil)', nQl 01l1side
il. Virtll e is a direet out eome, th e immediale of lhe di\"ersi ly of Ihe
hllmors, opini ons, and connicls.
No\\', lhi s dilTere lll model is also la be found in Spin07A"l. especi al1y with respeCl
10 lhe tlr eoT)' ofcausali t}". ViuOI; o Morfina has studi ed lhis con cepl al lenglh.
examining lhe theoreli cal efreCls of Spin07.a's cncountcr \\'ilh
MorHno 's h)'pothesi5 is lhal the eon ccpl of eausality undcI'went an c"olution in
Spino7..a 's Ihoughl thanks 10 his cngagcmenl with lhe hi slOrical-pol iti cal sphel"e
and, more specifically, \\'ith Machia\"ell i's theory or histol")" as an enlwin emenl,
relati on, and aleatory composil ioll between virtue and fortllne. Al an early
slage, in Ihe 'fi"lll;lal llS de 1IIII'II1'r/lls Emr/ldnlitlllf, Spinow had eonslructed an idea
of causalil}' b;, sed 0 11 Ihe nOlion of Thi s represellled the uecessary
order o f lhe intereonnectioll of lhe si ngular essences. Existence olTered olll)'
accidental relations thal eould no! be adequalel)' known, while onl)" lhe essellee
co uld express the necessar)" principIe 0 1' arder that springs fr0111 lhe series of
fixed and cXlcrnallhings. Spin07.a 's cncountCl' Witll the Machim'cllian lheor)" of
hislOl'y lcd him 10 formulale a new conccpti on of causalit)" in whi ch th e idea
of series i5 replaced b)" Ihat The essence of things i5 no longer
an independenllllonad bUI ralher '"resides in Ihe accolllplished
r."l el of Ihe relalions and cireulllstanees t.hal bonve rise 10 Ih is exislenee." The mrfo
sirll' smrs is th us graduall), replaced br lhe sillr w llllexio. 1lle Maehiavelliall
cOTl ception of hislOl)'. according 10 Mortin o. eontribu ted to the forlllation of
a lrue o f relati oll."
No\\' lhe idea of lhe super iorilY of the 111ultiple O\'e r lhe sinb'lllar, of i15 b''I"caICr
capaci!)' 10 adapl 10 changing times, would appear 10 be inscribed within lhis
pl"ojecl fOI" understanding the compl exit)' and variabilit)" 01' nallll'e. BU! 111 0re
han anything, lhe idea of virtlle arising out of poli ti ca! confli ct seeU1 S to
mo\"C in lhe same direclion. For l\beh iavelli, Ihen, Ihere is a simple, linear prin-
cipIe of lransmissioll of \'irlue aeros.\. time Ihrough lhe series of \'in 1I OUS succes-
sioll s. There also exisls a 11I ore eompl ex principIe, however, expressed in lhe
theor)' of eonf1ictual order. I f lhe sueeession of \'inuous prinees represe ms
the series through whieh "inue isaffinned, political conniCl repl'escn15 th e COI1-
neclon out ofwhi ch ano th cl" ,irme can original e.
{dividllfl( MlllliPle Bei ng 147
Democracy, Mllltitlldo, and the Third Kind of Knowledge in Spinoza
f or e\'cl1' singl e finilc mod e cncountcn a ser ies o f obs(ac1es in nalure
and in ilS singular exislence. He describes th ese limits prilnar ily with respecl 10
[he probl em of change. Even more expli ci tly Ihan Machia\elli . Spinoza atl.e mpb
[O lake inlo accounl changeabilit )' and individual sl.rategi es of resistanc;;: for
coping Wilh th e pOl entiall }' d estructive efTects of change. Similarl)' in ever}' way
10 l\h chi .welli's approach 10 (he probl em d evel oped in chapter xxrv of The
P'7Iue, describes the extreme insmbilitr of human opni ons and beha\
ion. In I' ropositi on 5 ! ofbook III of th e E/Mes he II'dtcs thal
difTerent men can be affcctecl in diITerent ways by one and Ihe same obj ect,
amI o ne ane! the sa[ll e man can be afTecled by one and I.he salll e obj ect in dif-
ferent ways al diITerenl limes. I' roof: The human body . . . is affecled by eXI.er-
nal bod ies in a greal many wap. SO IWO men mal' be aITecled al [he s.,.me time
in difTerent ways, amI so .. . Ihey can be aITected by on e all<llhe same o bjeel
in differelll wa)'s. . ... (he human bod)' can be afTecled no\\' in one wa)'.
1l 0\\' in another, and consequentlr . il can be afTeced in dilTcrent "'ays al
difTerem times by one and lhe salll e obj eCl ."
Because of lhis, the mOSI changeabl e 01' man are lhe judgmcnt and
lhe aO"eCls. Based 011 thi s s...me principIe, sOlll e peo pl e can be co nsidered fear-
less, others timoro lls, ami )'el oth ers Mwith anolher anrl Ihi s is such a
universal principIe lhal il could be argued Ihal Ihere are as nmll)' as
there are peo ple, Multipli cil)' and heterogeneit r seem 10 be the universa l crite-
ria for describing beh,wi ors and he affective life in general. an afTectil't: life
whose elTeclS are imlll ediatc1y perceived in the pol lical sphere as \\'cll. E:..:peri.
cnce shows h:u in some cases anemplS have becll made on thc pan of I" lIl crs,
espec iall y monarchs, lO influcll ce individual opini ons amlmakc hcm uniformo
By means ofth e (illusory) illlaginati on and superstiti on. kings have e\"en luan-
aged lO ge l Ihemsell'es worshipped gods. This princi pIe has obj ecli\"e lim-
il S, howevcr, The faet is. Min spil e of alllhal ingenuilr has been abl e 10 d evise in
t.his fi eld, it has ne\'er attained sueh success lhal 111en did not ever find Ihal indi o
\'idual citizen has his OWll ideas ill pl entr. ami hat opini ons \'arr as mll ch as
funhenll ore , the mlempl to m<lke he opini ons of subj cclS uniform
and in agreement with lhe so\'erci gn's is a distinguishing tra of monarch ics.
bU[ nOI dcmocr.lci cs. whcre power is cxcrciscd The rcason fOl' his,
says SpinoD., is ob\"i ous ami Slems from lhe fact lhat
however mueh soverei,,'lIs are beli c\'ed to possess unlimit ed r ight aucl 10 be
lhe interprt:tel'S of law ancl pie t)'. lhey will never succeed in pre\'enting Ill en
from excrcising thcir own panicular jud
t
,'l.ll ent on <In}' maners ,,'hasocvcr
ami frol11 bcing influcnced accordingl)' by a vari ct)' of emolions. ""
Copyrighted Material
i'l8 OmJtid, Por.,.,., and M"Uitude
No\\' froln tJ,c individual poim of vie\\', this re\leals a fundame mal ambiva-
lence. II this principIe asseJ"lS 1.11 at. individual judgmem.s as l "'hole are essen-
tiaIly 4:lUlOn OmOus from any idcological"ingcnuity" un l h e pan of the sovcrcign,
il also apens Lhe neld up la a .siluation of universal connictual ity. :?7 111is multi-
plicity a nd inslabi lil)' miglll makc a ru ler 's auempL al iclcological clomina Lion
dillicuh, bUI lh esc charactetistics are al lhe samc lime \,hat dri\'c rncn iOlo
conmCL
Inconsrnncyand instability in individuals are th us aggra\'aLed by human dlver:-
Sil)'. SLiIl, allhough individuals find their rello\'" man LO be limils and obslacles
lO thcir own 4: lllirmatiol1. this inconstancy and changcability can opcn up diffcr
em and even opposi ng scenari05. The siluation is acnmIly overturned by
Spi noza wil en he a possible sol mioll ;n .he mulLiple and coll ecL:i\'e
dimension of polities, On the one hand. iOn/O Iwmini deus is lhe t evcrse mitror
imagc of Hobbes's horno homini IUllllJ; on lhe olher hand, il poin l.S lO an cthical
and polilical organi7 ... ;u ion of ule universal muhipliciry and variety of human
offeel' .nd
in SpilC of lhc rnuh.iplicity. which docs indeed dri"e individuals imo connicl,
man's worsl enemy is aClually solitude_ So aUlo nomy, in mis sense, is not a pri nci-
pI e of ind i\'idual dosure in lhc t'lce Oflhc multi ple and IJle collec,l\'c; quilc lhe
opposite. iL is a pJinciple ofmaximuIn opening and comamination belween and
lhrough me relational , multi pte, collecuvc dimension, It should be nolcd lhat lhis
Slrnlegy nm simply lhe prc rerred choice, one om of a lI eld or valioll.O; possibili-
es: it i.s a mallCI' oflife and This is lhe mcaningand significan ce ofLheSpi-
Ilolist -tate of naturc, Thc main danger in me Sti:UC of nature docs not come from
other people, excepl indirecLly and derivavely. \"re mighl say_ lt comes, rather,
from solimdc. in which each person seeks 10 defcnd himselffrom evcryone elsc.:!II
This foundalion aJlo\\"s Spinoz<1 lO rcimc'l>I-et lhe Arislolclian and Seholase idea
of sociabilit)', polemicaUy ,\ith regard lo Hobbcsian individualism:
Funhermol'c, i L is sC(lrcely possi blc fOI" mcn LO SUppOl"L life and cuhivaLC tJl cil'
rninds wilhoUl mutual assistancc, We thercfore conduele t11 tH the natur.d
right spedfic LO human beings can scarcely be conceived excepl where men
have thei r rights in common and can logelher successfully rlcfcnd the l. elTi-
lOries which Ul (.-Y can inhabitand cuJ tiv.ue, prolect lhemsclves. tepel all fot ce,
and Uve in accordancc \\ith Lhe judgrnclll of l he cnLirc commllniL)'_ For (by
seclion l g of Lhis chapler) Ule grealer Lile nll mber of men who lhll .. unile in
on. body. lile more right ,hey wiUaU eoll ectively posses,. And if il is 00 lhese
grounds-that mell in a statc of Nalu re c;:m scan:cly be in con trol of lheir
own right- thallhe Schoolmen want to cal! man a social animal , r have 1l0tJl-
i ng 1.0 say
Thc rel acional, lTI ultiplc dimcnsioll ,"Lhin and lhrough which me afTccuve
life of individuals. is developed ena bles SpinoT.il 10 li nk his crilidsm of
{dividllfl{ MlllliPle Bei ng 149
I-l obbesian indhidualism with Aristotclian-Thomist nnalism. The alTects. like
relati ons, co nstitut c the cxistence-and th crcfore, the essen ce itselr---of indi-
\"iduals, in a dimension Ihat is necessarily nlllltipl e and complex.
On lhe ba$is oflhese faclOrs, lhe similari1ies wilh Mach ia\'elli become ap par-
em: Ihe limil edness of lhe single indi\idual faced wi1h lhe lllllh.iplicil}' and
change thal di slinguish nawre as wel! as Ihe affinmnioll of Ihe sll peri orily of
lhe lIlulliple aJl(1 lhe col! ectil"e in thi s cOllni cllIal. snaleb';c horizon. The spe-
cinc character of Ihe mlunalil)' can be seen in Ihis conlCXI as lhe
absolule sclf-organi1 . .alion and affirmation of the lllultipl e wilhin and Ihro ugh
Ihe nelwork ol"its l'clati ons.
I)cmoc racr, S-"lys Spino1.a, is Ihe only entirely absolule form of go\"ernmcnt.
Howe\"er, Ihis absoluleness not deri\"e fr0111 form as such. in Ihe 1-erms
of Ihe dassic d octrine on forms of go\"ern ment. Spinol."l aClllall)' shifts the prob-
lem awa>' frol11 this framework. leading it 10 t.h e question of the re\ati onship
belween lhe multipl e ami Ihe indi\'idual. An elllire\ y absolute fonn of go\'eru-
ment i5 one in which th e arrangcl1Icnl orlhe l1Iultiple-the multil ude as a COI1l-
plex lllUllipli cit)' 01" indhiduals, irreducible 10 an abstrae! unitr-sucecssfully
sclf-organizcs itsclf wilhout dispcning 01" ncutl<llizing its lIlultiplicit,..:IQ Fo r
Spin01;l, 10 ghe up on Ihis means aUlOmaticallr ghing up a part 01" l-alonalily
and, conseq uently, 01" power. Absolll!e rigln, power, ami l-atianalil}" are only
olher llames for Ihe llluhiplicily, \'ari etr, ami helerogenei ly of lhe lllllltiWde.
Still, Spinoz.o does nOl de\"elop .on uncri tical. un colldili on.ol- rnerelyaes1.helic-
apol ogy of dI e rn ultiple qua multipl e. Similarlr in el'er}' "'ay to Machia\elli, !he
m ultiutde is also desClibed as a place 01" igl10mnce ami powerl essl1 ess. a place
where supcrstilion can get its h ooks into d cepl )'. Thc pUfe and simpl e supprcs-
siol1 of this lllllltiplicity does not solve lhe problclll, ho,,e\-el". lt aetually agb'1,I-
vates it, Illrning Ihe sllbjects 01" an absolule monarchy or a Iyrann)', for exampl e,
in 10 isolat ed and lonely indi\'iduals who al"e IIli sel-abl e and powerless. Nalul-al
power and m ust be so ughl insl ead in Ihe ' el; ' activit}' of self-ol"gani z."lt io n
of lhe dilTerences, including confli cto Onl)' if the 11Iuhiple is able 10 affir11l ilself
qua muhipl e ",ilh nondestl"uct i" e elTecls ",i!l il gi\e rise 10 a fuBy absolute SI.He,
Ilamelr. a democrac}'.
[n Ihis light, in lhe passage fmm the T/l'ofogicul-PQliliCI/ { 10 Lhe PoliliCtlf
'/i f uli$(!, Spin01.a de,c lops Ihe idea of lhe ,,"ealth and po,,"el' uf the multipli cily as
a slralegic resOllrcc fol' Ihe mullitudcs The pl'inciplc of
IWO l\len COll1 e togelh er andjoin forces, Iheil' powc!" i5 increased" is immcdi-
alely confirmed by lhe lI'orld of politi cs ane! in ternali onaJ law. The probl em for
bOl h the h uman individual and lhe Sl.ole re11lai ns Ihal of aulOnolll)' and power.
For Ihis means Ihal even belween slates
a co mmonwealth ... isautonomolls 10 di e extem Ihm il can take sleps 10 safe-
guard itsdf fl"om being subjug::ued by anolher co mmon,,eallh (Sections 9
ami 15 of prcvious Chaplcr ); ami (Sections \O ami 15 of prcIious Chapter) il
is sllbjecl 10 anOlhcr's rghl 10 the eXl enl thal il fears th e powe!" of another
150 COl/jliel, Puwer; (/lid Mul/ilru/e
commonweallh, Ol" it is prevented by il from canyi ng out ilS own wishes, Ol",
finally, il needs lhe Olher's hc1p for ilS own presenalion or prosperitr. For
Ihere can he no dOll bl that ir l\\'O COlllnlOllweal ths choose 10 arrord each
olher mllUlal help, hen bOlh together are lIlore powerful. and conseq uently
have more righl conjoilllly, Ihan either by ilselpr
In Ihis passage, Spi no7..a suggesb Ihe idea thal Ihe principie of uni on, of su"a-
tcgic alliances belwccn se\"er.l l finiw modes. can be applicd to bOlh singl e indi-
viduals and Sl.."ltcs. 111is d oes nOI aUlOmaticall)' mean thal Ihe anal og)" is \"alid in
all situalions and al all times. In ol her wonls, it does nOI mean Ihm Ihe Slate can
be tremed as a larger indi\'i dual consisling of 1l1any single indil"iduals who are
onl)' composecl into one in he superior re<tlil)' ofhe ruler's bod}', as depicled,
for exampl e in Ihe fronli spiece 10 I-I obbes's Ln.litll/ulIl. Slill. his proble m can-
nOI be lIndereslimaled a]\(1 il d esen'es a wider discllssion. \Ve \\'illth us bring in,
first, Ihe Spinozisl idea of Ihe rnuhipl e individual. ami secondly. lhe emire epis-
temolob" cal qllcslion. wilh specific referente 10 Ihe Ihird ki nd of kn owledgc,
l f, on Ihe on e hand, Ihe cpistclll ological and lllclaphysieal problclIl oflhe Ihird
kind SCCllIS to lake liS away fmm our co mparison with on Ihe olhe!"
hand, implications are immedialely elidenl in Ihe elhieal and poltic1
spheres. The po liti cal superior'il)' of th e mu1tiple over he singular, foreefully
asserled b,. Machi:n'el1i, Iinds i1s expression precisely in lhe connect ion llIade
b)' Spinoza belweelt demoemc}', IIIIII/i/lllloand lhe third kind ofkno,,"ledge.
Spinoza first int.roduces Ihe II Olioll of a Ihird kind of kn o,,"ledge in lhe sec-
olld Scholium of Proposili on 40 in par t 11 of Ihe Elhics. To Ihe first kind of
knowledge, whi ch is im:l:,'i nalive and dcril"ed from the senses or from signs . and
Ihe second , a rati onal kn o\\'lcdge based on adeql1ate ideas, Spino:G1. adds a
Ihi rd: the intl1iti\"e Acco!"ding 10 ilS definiti on, lhi s inluitive science
proceeds fro tn th e "adeqllale idea of th e formal essence of cert ain a\tributes of
God 10 an adeqll:lte knowl edge of lhe essence of Ihings."" Ahhough Spin oz;a 's
Iheory of adequat.ion had aIread)' suggested :\ means of o\"ereoming a binar}"
logic founded on he rigi d OPPOSilioll belween Ifue and fal se Ih is
thi rd kind ofknowl edge is imroduced illto Ihe argllmentatio n quile unex pecl-
edly, sib"mrling an orib'; nal del"d opment in his theory ofknowlt"dge,
Spino:f.a's argumentalion ne\'cnhclcss procecds cl1iplical1y, rcmain lng
implicil and obscure for'a numbcr of lincs. Crilics have plumbed Ihe deplhs 01'
Ihis IOpic, co nlinuing to prescnl il 3S the ker 10 all undcrslanding 0 1" Spino7.islll.
Crilics also recogni ze Ihat Ihe atll hor of t.he likely inlended his e11ipli eal
approach 10 slimllble reneclion l"alher lhan 10 develop an exhauslh'e descrip'
lion of !lle inluitive science. The foll owing pages offer an allempl 10 sho\\' Ihe
conneclioll belween Spi no"l."\ s notion of a lhird kind of knowledge all d h is
polilical Ihoughl, pani cularl r his cOll ceplion of mul/i/udo amI democracr,
intl'nded as UlIIIIW IIbso/ululII illlfJel"illlll. 3!>
This chapl er's h)"poth esis is t,,"ofold, 111e fi nl lask is 10 consider ho,,"
the knowledge men co me 10 :lttain wilh lhis inlLli l\'e science relales 10 Ihe
{dividllfl{ MlllliPle Bei ng
coll ective and political dimensi on, panicularly in a d emocrac}', The qllestio n,
th ercforc, is whal li!lks lhe conditi o ns lhal cnabl e the developmenl orthe h igh-
eSI kind of knowl edge, and lIlt.imat.ely ofwisdo m, with lhe col1ective dimensi on
of Ihe //IlIlli/l/do, specifically in I.he form of Ihe libero //Il l llilud", or a multitude
thal has self-organized ilself in lO a democracy? This endeavor fi rsl hl" ol\'es plac-
ing al Ihe cemer ofanal )'sis lhe rel ali onship belween Spinoza's theory of imui-
li"e scien ce and his polilic<'ll llteor}'. Br focusillg on l!t ese 111'0 aspeCls. il will
becollle clear hoV>' his COll CCpl of the multitudc- panicularl y as il organizes
ilsdf into a d Clll oc racr-favo rs the dCI'd opmcnt of conditi ons lhat cnabl e
access 10 lhe lhird kind of knowl edge.
Secondl y, I.he possihility of whether we can co nsider Ihe nmlt,itude as an
individual composed of a mullipli ci l}' o f human inclil'idllals is addressed. If so,
whal I)" pe o f kn owl edge would Ihe m ind of l.his indl'idllal be capabl e of achi e'
iug. and more particularl}'. h oll' mi glll il come 10 kll Ow by wa}' o f lhe inluilile
science? The second aspect of lhis 1I'0rk lherefore see ks 10 del'elop lil e relali on-
ship bctween polili cal theo r}' and lhe lhird kind of knowl edge nOI frolll an
indil'idual perspcClil'c, bUl from lhal of Ihe lIlulutlldc reg<uded as a sin-
gular indilidual.
lIl enli oned abol'C, Spin07;1 gi\'es an elliptical and al times ambiguous den-
nilion of Ihe Ihird kind of knowledge, knowledge proceeds from lhe "acl e-
quale id ea of Ihe formal essence of cen ain allrih\l!es of God
H
ami arr ives a l M an
adequal.e knowl ed ge of Ihe essence of tllings. M:I/I Spin07A"l lim it.'i h is d efinili o n of
lite il1luilive sdence. ofTering lhe reader onl )' lhe minimum, indispensable i nfor-
l11<'1ti ol1, and Ical'ing lhe nouon suspend ed as if ilS me,lIling ", en: sdf-el"idt:IH. ' 7
The aUlhor of lhe E/hies wamed 10 stl m ulale his reader's curiosil)' by onl)' ,lllow-
ing hims(,\1" 10 indicale lIlal, with lil e lIlrd kind ofknowledge, we are no lo nger
engaged in l-ati onal knowl edgc, bUl r.nher in complehending lhings.
111e reJat.ive a1llbiguity of lhe Spino7j an d efi n ili on of lhe intuit.ive science has
se' el-al commentators !O int erpret it.'i meaning in I'CI"}' d ifTerenl ways.
For example. this ambiguity lead !O Ihe idea ofa knowl edge Ilml. exceeding
lhe d imension of ordinar}' mli onalit)', reserves for an dile lhe possibil i l)' of
achie\'ing a difTerent from lhal ofTered by lraditional
Ther cfore, accordi ng 10 lhese COIllIII(' lIlalOrs, Spinoza ,,"o uld be interesled in
de,dopi ng lhe idea of an ilHuitive scicnce as lhe basis for a superior kllowl edge
lhal al10ws access lO sah<l li on-a son 01" mysticism based o n lhe cent ralily of
reason, 1<llher lhan arising rronl irmti onal ('\ements.""
E\'en Iho ugh Ihis "myst.icism of is endowed wilh a IInlers."lliz-
illg pOlenlial-because il i5 detached from he paniclllarism of Ihe re' ealed
relib'; ons-it would ne'enheless prohibit he of men fmm reach ing
lhe lerel of lrll e phil oso pll)' or DifTerell1 froln lhe S, 'll\<llio n ofTered by
tmdilional religions, lhis mysli cislll wOllkl onl )' benefit a small group of eliles.
Acco rding 10 such an intcrprt:tali on. lhe l!tird kind of kno,,lcdge is 0 111)' lhe
concem ofa few mcn ami never makes itJ;dfal"ailable 10 lhe multitude.
tO
152 COl/jliel, Puwer; (/lid Mul/ilru/e
Leo Slrauss has doublless been one of lhe mOSI in nuent ial scholars in lhis
reg:rd. He inauguraled a suhstanlial1ine of inlerprelali o n, mOSI pre\"ale nl in
lhe Angl ophon e trad iti on, lhat 1S based on lhe opposili on belween re\"ealed
religions amI theol")'. In Strauss's reading, knowl edge i5 only lhe d omain of the
free and strong: human indi ,'id lla1. whi le supersti lion is reserved fOI" the many,
imofar as Ihe ma!ly are impolen t and el1S!a"ed by Iheir passi o!ls. Sudr a rigidlr
dicholOlll OUS \'ision is difficult \O accepl since il is so incompatibl e Wilh Spi.
nozist clhies, I,'hosc im 1S \O rcveal Ihe am Ild paradoxcs that charo
actcrize human Ilature. of Ihe w1se and of Ihe ignorant. in cq ual llIeasurc, and
cel"lainl)" no t 10 consider the fonner as an imperi lllll il! imperio.
The illlerpreli\"e aCUlllen of Slrauss's posili ons has faded o\"er lhe last few
dec;des, followed by !lew interpret ati ons Ihat are more allenll'e 10 th e leXI,
ane! also byan organic interpretati on of Spinoz.,'s polilical oe UITe ",ilhi.n his
emi re philosophical corpus. The emphasis 011 an indi\'i dualit)' opposed 1.0 a
coll ecti\"ity remains ali\'e in Angl ophone cirdes. howeler. Sle\'en Smilh , for
exampl e. maintains a double function of polilics. an outright dicholOlli)' in
wh ieh lhe freedolll of lhe few (lhe wise l1len ) is so mething entirel y different
from lhe freedo m of the many. r Nonelheless, if we foll ow lhe lener ofSpinoza 's
[eXI dosel}", il appears lI"uly d iffi cult LO alll'bute LO lhe aUlhOl' of Ihe Po/ilica/
'lil'a/ISf', as Slrallss and his disciples do, Lhe of whate\"er is com-
mon LO all ;md th e idea that tllllllitude despises th e nalllral light
whi ch is C0l11 111011 10 all meno and prefers lhe ral"illgs
Olher ill1er pre lers have ll rgued tlml tIre inluit ive science relates no t to soli
tar}' contemplali on, btl[ mlher lO a superior form of community. E\"ell in this
case, hOll"e\"e r. a co miderabl e fmcwre I,'o uld d ivide lhc wise person, who altains
h is knowledgc th roll gh Lhe hcrmeti c path of Inlning: frolll Ihe
mlll tilllde, whi ch mUSI insl ead rece i\"e ils salvation fl"Om Olltside, by o\"crcoming
the an'eeti\'e ten -ain oflhe p;ssions and lhe imaginati\"{' kind ofknowledge.
Th e following pages are inlended to ad\'ance a difTerell t h)' po thesis, showi ng
Ihat SpiIl07 .. , rejects t.he idea of a fracture, or an insurmounrable dist."ltl ce,
be1\\'een the wise person am!lhe multitude. "I oreo\"er, lhe author of th e Etl!i(.$
expli citl y refutes the imllge ofthe solitar)' wise persol1 ,,"ho ach iel'es true phi los-
o ph), precisel)' by disti llgui shing hi msel f fl"Om a mass condemned LO ib"nor..lIl ce
and I,'hose sah-::ni on depcnds 011 pl"Ovidence.
The Ihi rd kind ofkn owledg(' do('s nOll ead LO an ascel ic, herl1lelc o r, a bOl'('
all, elilisl co nception of wisdom after lhe lllodel of SLOicism. On lhe con t rar,',
d epar ts precisel}' from Ihe ordinary amI common condi ti ons of know1-
edge lO sU!"'gest th:11 true rali onalil)" and wisdom are found precisel}' in a sden ce
aimed at h Hman beings. \.Ve are nOI dea!ing wilh a m)"stical or transcendental
knowledge rese r\"ed for lhe few. blll ",ith a knowledge of other people. a kll owl -
edge sanclioned by Lhe famous Spinozian expressi on. is God for
\.Ve wil1 now lUl"ll 10 lhe third killd of kll owkdge. TIt e intuitil"e sdence,
[lreciscly insobr as il is an adeq uale know1cdge of sinbrtrl ar Ihing5, does nOI
{dividllfll MlllliPle Bei ng J.'i3
refe r to an inaecessible idcal, but is "\lhe]" at the d isposal ofa]] people. Thc fa el
is that the human mind adequatel )' undersmnds God:"" God's infi n ite esscnce
and eternit}' are ;' kn owll 10 al1" and al10ws e\'erj"one the possibility of creating a
third ki nd orknowleclge.'" Il therefore not a superiorwisdorn , but
rath er Ihe idea Ihal a!l pcopl e can al1.1in the most ele\";lIed ronn ofknowledge,
or wisdolll. that is. freedomY Thi s is in no W;'l Y a co mrasl to lhe cOll clusi\'e affir-
m,ui oll of the E/hirs. in wh ich OW; pmecl(!"(/ /(1111 dijJicilia, qWIIII f(ml 5 101/ onl)'
confhms whal we havc said.+!!
The intuiti\"c sdcncc cssc ntiall )' pennits a passage fro m r.:nionality, which is
confined 10 the plane of duration, to a knowledge with th e capacity 10 de\'elop
itsetf along thc plallc of cter nity. The inter indi\"idual di lllension is lin ked in \-ar-
ious ways 1.0 lh e lh ird ki nd of kn owl edge. '" The wse pen on who reached
bl essedness by way or lhe Ihrd kind of kn owledge mai m,1ins a bond with o lhers
with out e\'e r abandoning Ihe mullipl e and collecli\'e dimensiol1 ofh tllllan
Wisdom is nOI lhe rare fruil ha onl}" a reSlli cted group ofwise men mar sa\or.
btn the dimension of coll ecti\'e life itse\f to which humanit}' may tend and
aspire.
The Spino:risl subdh'isio n of knowl edge inlO kinds sen es to distinguish zones
of influcnce from \"ari ous Irpes of ideas in lhe mind. '1 In Ol her words, adequale
and inadeq ual e ideas necessarily inhabil lhe 111 indo The doctrin e of the ki mls of
knowl edge allows a dil'e rsifi c;t!i on of lhe spheres of ae!il'itr in wh ich lhe p ower
10 think ar ticulat es ilSelf in imagination. in re;tson, and ultimal ely in
lhe in tui1i\'e seienee, Despite lhe searcil)' of explici ! information 011 lhe highesl
kind of knowl cdge. Spin01l\ indica les cen ain funda memal charaClcri stics abOll!
its origino
FOI" example, we know for ce rtain lhat onl)' the fi rst kind of knowl edge Icads
man lO fo rm "Ise ideas, ",hile Ihe sccond and thinl kinds lI<l.nsport men lO a
true" kn owl edge." Thal lllan 's desire 10 know lhrough Lhe intuiti\"c
sdence cannol emerge frolll lhe lirsl bUl onl)' from lhe second kind of kn owl-
edge suggesls a between he hree Reason and th e intuith"e
sdence maintain an ambiguous relaliollship to one anolher lha is crealcd al
once b)' r uptu res amI h is therefore on the terrain of nnional
knowledge tha! <In exploration of the intuili\"c science amI ilS relati on lO poli,
lics must bq,.i n.
We must firsl ask ir and in Wh;l W;r th e lllultipl c. eoll eeti\"e dimensio n of
human !ire fa\"ors lhe third kind 01' knowlcdge. \ plura!ity of experiences and
relati onships create in Ihe individual mind th e condi ti ons for de\"elopi ng
true ideas. Rat ionality, parti cularl)' wilh respect 10 po1ilical dedsions. emerges
most readil ), from rel alions lhal develop wilhi n th e complex rel; ti onal lI el of
lhe mI/l/iludo (e.g . see E/llies IV. 37 ScholiulII 2). The S:llIl e process of const r ucl-
ing indi"idual it}' must be fou nd in the omology of rd alions and comlUunica,
li on that is actuali zcd in the forms ofmoml and For lhe
indil'id ual o nlr creates and identifi es ilSclf in ]"elali on to other indhiduals.
COl/jliel, Puwer; (/lid Mul/ilrule
Co nsequentl y, it determines iu ver)' essence within co!leni\'e and, using Simon-
don's tenllinology, processes. Based on th ese indicat ions,
what conc1usions can we n OI\" (h-aw for lhe human m ind wilh respeCl to lhe for-
malion of lhe Ihird kind o f kn owledge? /o. lore accural el)', and recalling orl l"
li er crili q ue ofhe image of he solitar}' wise person, in whar way is i possibl e 10
allinn Ihar Ihe politi ca1. col1eni\"e dimensioll promol es lhe cOll dilioll S for rhe
de\"clopment of individual wisdom?
A response 10 these qucstions mUSI depan from Ihe second kind of knowl-
edge, ami in parti cular fmm the conccpt of eOIll//101I 1/0Iioll.I. As oll e of the Inrlr
strategic concepts of Spino .. :a's philosophy, he co mmon notions are. on the
o ne hand, th e origin of u'ue knowledge (e nabling 1I 0r only ralional kn owleclge,
bUl also access 1.0 rh e inluitive science), and on lhe other hand, Ihe missing lin k
hel\\"ee n lhe Iheor}' o f knowledge and Ihe polilical dimension of human life.
Indeed. Spino7A'" c1aims lhal cenain things exi sl which are commoll to e l'err-
o ne, can he rou nd lhe pan and in I.h e ancl can 0111)' be conceil"ed
adeq uate\y.!7 !-l e dislinb"shes th ese nOlions as hose neeessarily percei\"ed
clearl}' and The firsl eharaneristi c a!lows us \O b'TItSP thar rhe COI1l-
Ill on norions are nOI onl r lhe origin of lhe second kind ofknowledge, but also
Ihe desire to kno\\" b), he lhird kind of knowl edge. The seco nd chal-acte rislic
mainl<l.ins th roll gh rh e idea of convenience (ro/llHmipll l it) Ihe inrerinclil'idllal
d en:lopmenl of Ihis palh. which ,akes place precise1r Ihrough Ihe composile
retallons belween bodi es and Ihei r ideas. or in o lher words. ber\\"een m inds.
Compositi on alld adequati ol1 are \\"har aliOlI' us 10 eSI<l.bli sh he link herween
Irue kno\\"tedge, wisdom alld lhe polili cal
The C0ll1111011 notions in rael originally refer 10 bodies,oo 10 represenl lheir COIl1-
poslion. !-Ience they are neccssarily adeqll,ne ami thd r adequati on extends to
Ihe minds orall the bodies inyoh'ed in the $.. ... me composition.
1i
Howe\er. in whal
way can we combine lhe processes of composilion ami adequuion within rhe
dimemion of inl erindilidll<l.1 rclarions? Spinoza sllggests one ,,-ay by amrming .'I n
inc\inalion:11 and expansil'e process hy whi ch hod ies are composed. and anolher
way Ihrough he l"<lr)"ing deb>Tees of milil)' possessed by dil'erse common nOliollS.
Indeed. the Coro ll ar}' of Proposili on 39, pan 11. allirms lh:u '"the mi nd is
more capable of perceiving l1I ore lhings adcquatd), in proponi on as itl; body
has more things in common with otlu:r The more bodies [hat ro nn a
relaionship, the more comptex mi multipt e Ihis rclationsh ip is, th e mo re it
conl<l.ins conlmon noti ons, and lhe more adequately onr mind is capable of
perce iYing a 1IlUlliplicil)' or lhings. \Ve can abo read in Ihe s.. ... me way Proposi-
lioll 39 of par! V, which amrms Ihe co rreb,ioll between the elem ir )' of lhe flI ind
ami dI e power (po/ml;ll ) of ti re The hody becomes "capable of many
precisel)' 10 lhe eXH:nt to which il can alTee! mrd be alTecled "iu llIan)'
by o ther bodieS-lhat is, in its propensit)' 10 intemel in a no ndeslruclil'e
\\'<1)'. Moreo\e r. it s.:: nisfi es th e principie of urilily. 6:I What wc are dealing \\'ith is
<I n inclinali onal and expansiyc process thal, as such, anticipales fOl' the mind an
{dividllfll MlllliPle Bei ng 155
increase in the power (/JO/en/ia) to lhink thal is proporti onal to lhe develop-
melll of relali ons of conveni ence (cmrutmum/ia) belween bodies.
The comnlOn notiol1s are found al lhe origi n ofboth rat.ional knowl edge and
Ihe for Ihe inluilive science. This is pan icularly apparent ",hen consider-
ing Iheir genealogical de\'elopmen 1, beb'; nning ",ilh Ihe less general and, 1.here-
fore. l1I ore lIseful notiolls. The co mmon noi01l s also allow liS to explain hol\'
lhis dc\"el opment takts place nOI Ihroll gh a rdlcClion Ihal is abslraclcd aud
detached from real life . bUI insICad on Ihe basis of Ihe real co mposilio n of
bodies and, ultimalcl)". Ihrough the exchangcs allCl rclalions betwee n people ....
The co mmon nOli ons Iherefa re allo\\" liS 10 link desire ami Ihe third kind of
kn owl edge 10 th e illl erindividual dimensi o n o f politics.
Spin07A' does nOI oITer examples of Ihese more complex aud useflll common
!1 oli ons. Nevenheless, ifwe follow Ihe ge nealogical process of Iheir fonmnion
al Ihe ver)' hean of his polilical Iheol1'. we find several conc11.1s ions lha l can
recuperme lhe imponance of real and actual COl1l1110n nOlions of immensc ulil-
ily. SeClion 13 of lhe secolld chapter of the Poli/icnl '[rt(/ist, for eX<lmple. assens
thal "if two men come togelher and j oi n forces. Ihe)" have more po\\'er over
Nalure, and cOllsequenlly more "ighl, than eithe" one alone; ami lhe grealer
lhe number wh o form a llni01l in Ihis wa)', lhe more righl Ihey \\'i\l togelhel' pos-
sess.""' This ide,l of lhe q uant italive and composili on of la\\' (di riIlQ)
and power (jlQ/I;II/in) can be lHerpreted as a transladon onto Ihe political
plane of lhe genealogical process of cOl1ll1l on nOlions ami lit e adeq uation from
whi ch Ihey arise. Seen fmm litis perspeni\"e, lit e tOlalil)' of Spinozisl polilics
appears lightlr linked \O lit e Iheol1' orknowledge. The pmcess lhal leads 10 lhe
fonnati on of Ihe COl1ll11on nOlions and Ihen 10 adcq uale ideas ando fi n ally,
to Ihe Ihird kind ofknowledge amI ilS desire, COlTcsponds in some ways to lhe
fo rmati on of politi cal and l-alio nalily.
develops lhi s correlalion funher: for exampl e, he affirllls as a "con-
tntrr" proof Ihe absurdily and misery of lhe solilude and isolation in which Ihe
ill d ividual 11mb il self. This is Ihe Iheme o f me/II.J JQ/itlldill is. J USI as a greal many
relations enrich Ihe life of lit e individual on lite political and ehicall e\"el . so
fmm an o pposing pcrspeCli\'e, solitude frigln ens mell. AJone, il is ne ither pos-
sibIl' to defend oneself fl"o m o ll e's enemies. nor \O procu re Ihe minimum llI eans
of existencef" \ Ve can then argue Ihal. for Spinoza, fear is principally Ihe fear
of solilude or isoblioll , th e fcar 0 1' Ihe abscncc of rclalions. In Ihe lasl instance,
il is afear o f Ihe absence o ra C01l1mon, and Ihereby polili cal, condiljon.
61
The link ",ilh lhe Iheol1' of knowledge is, ne\'enheless, e\"en more expli cit.
To d evelop lite power (/IO/rlaifl) of Ihe mind and \O enable ils survl-:lI are in
reality one aTld Ihe same Ihing. "B. .re we could argue. is onl)' an abstrac-
lion. an extremel}' general idea, amI of linle tltilit,..6/! On Ihe cOl1lnl1)'. for
Spin07l\, li fe is always accompallied by tite icl t" of Ihe concrele de\'elopmenl of
lhe conditions of security, by lhe possibilily of increasing Ihe power (/W/ell/)
of Ihc mind,tII' and, lhus, by embarking on lhc palh to wi .\.dom.
6j; sn o !.\ua
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9'11
{dividllfll MlllliPle Bei ng 157
On Ihe contl;:uT, Ihe love Ihat emerges from wisdo lll "can no! be tainted with
emotions of env)' orjeal ous)', bUl is th e 1IJ 0re rostcred as we think more mcn lO
bejoined to Cod by this s..me hOlld ofl ove.HIOl J ust <lS he coll ective, po litical
dimensi on ajds in lhe co nditi ons for Ihe developmen t ofwisdom, so Ihis love is
lhe d esire fOI" multiplicity, Ihc desire for IIIIIl/iludo. To o\'ereome Ihc lile/M sol;t,,
din alld lO wkc up Ihe palh 10 wisdom are IWO aspeets of lhe s.'lIle power
(polnl/in) of tht: mind.
[ do nOI intcnd lO d en)" tha!, for 5piIl01.1I. jI is also possibl e lO achicvc knowl
cdge Ihrough individual mcans, indcpe ndent from Ihe soebl d imensiono I also
d o nOI int end 10 affirlll thal lhis coll eCli\'ily is lhe true 01' Ihe only forlll of
kn owl edge. Relllrning o nce again 10 lhe 51rallssian inlerpretation, it is possihle
lO say that sllperslili on is ce rtainly Ihe prodll cl ofa form oflife
R1
<lnd
Ihat kn owl edge is. in eOntrast, a eerlain form But whal 5lrallSS and
hi s di sciplcs maintain. will10111 actuall y showing il. is Ihal penains
exclusi\'c\ y 10 lhe singular. whil e Ihe mullipl e al\(l lhe coll ecti\'c are b)' defini-
lion co ndemned 10 passhy.
The idea bcing lId\'anced in these pages is. r.Hh er. Ihal 5pin01.a is sllggesting
lhe exist ence of a differenl form of knowl edge: OlH' thal is polilical insofar as il
is mu1tiple amI <1 knowl edge lhat is in no way m)"Stical (Le., nc1lher indh'id ual
nor myMerious .... ). bll1 on lhe contralT, ratio nal and affecti\"e. \\'e are d ea!in g
with a peculiar form of kn owledge thal remains co nsisl enl within and lhro llgh
lhe inl emeti ons of lit e bod ies and millds of lit e 11Iultilllde, insofar as liti s llI11lli-
lude expresses in an inl egml war ils own power 10 be and 10 ael, free ofsupersti-
li on, and in a war thal is ,111alogolls 10 wha l transpires wilh Lit e wise indi\iclua\.
Fl"0111 Ihi s perspeclive, pan Voflhe E/lt ics is linked 10 lhe constiluti\'c process
of d emucnl c}' clabora ted in the Poli/iwl Trenlis,.. The foll owing pages clabor.He
on th e eonnecti on between lhe lhird kind of knowl edge and Ihe //II/I/illldo as
lhe ofadequale knowleclge and ofMpolitica! Willd011l."
The intuiti\"e science leads by definilion to an knowl edge o f Ihe
esse nee of Ihings,M lhal is, to a knowl edge of particular th ings. ''''hil e the com-
mOI1 nOliolls allow us 10 grasp Ihe neces!!ar}' rules. which are abslrael and gcn-
enl\. Ihe jntuili\"e seience allows LIS 10 reaeh a difTel"cnt leve\. \\' ilh Ihe intuili\'c
science, we co me 10 know whal is basicall)' Ihe \'er)' essel1ce o flhings insorar as
lhe)' are dr.m'n d irectly fmm d i\'ine nalu re. To undersland singular Ihinb'll in
litis W.I} is also 10 undel"stand Cod itself. 1I.1
' Ve can disce rn lhe dil"erenee between Ihe object of lil e second and the
object of Ihe Ihird kincl s of knowl edge by 111\"11 ing once again 10 5pi no7.a 's politi-
callheol")'. \\Ilml is lhe Iype o fkn owledge Ihal de\"elops wilhin lhe fi eld of poli-
les? In tit e opening \O lhe PoliliCf/ l Tl7'lll iJI'. Spl10 1A' himself expli ci lly d eclares
Ihal men prefer life in eOl1l11l 0n (O life jll sol ilude. Howe\"er barbari e 01" ci vilized
Ihey lil a)' be-e\"en in cases when Ihe)' are 110t guided b}' reason-men always
fo nn a sociel)'. Thc study of politi cs fOf lhi s reason cannot be founded 011 lhe
leachinb'll of I"casoll . bUI must be drawn inslead lhe nature and co nditi on
158 COl/jliel, Puwer; (/lid Mullilrule
o fmen in gencr.lI.
MIO
' Dne can also find within the dimensi on ofpoliti cal theol")'
a tr-anslali on of the distinction betwcen the and lhe thil"d ki nds ofknowl-
edge. \Ve cannot deduce slLch a tr.lnslati o n fr onl abstract Of general rul es, but
mUSl instead lum \O Ihe essellCe of panicular Ihings, Ihal is, 10 Ihe coltlmon
nature und cone!i tioll s of Polili cal sc1ence is InrI}' un in llri li\'e science.""
As we seen, SpinOz.1 ,,<i\"es a posilive \-alue not to lhe singl e indivi d ual.
bUI nnher 10 the multiple indivi d ual, the lIlulliludo. as lhe bearer of a mtionalit}"
arising fl"om magnitude and quamity. The political decisi on thel"e fore emerges
independently fmm the form of goven ml clll, "by discllSsing, li stening to oth-
crs, and dcbating." l\len thcl"eby Msharpcn" Ihdl" wiu until the)' find u solmi on
"Ihal meets with genel-al approml and that no one had pre\io usly tho ught or. M"7
I-I ence, if Spin07 .. :1 e mphasizes th e cenlralit)' of Ihe mllltipl e individual wil h
respec t 10 the best polil ical d ec1sions, ami if po lilical sc1e nce is an inluitive
sc1ence, never toO dislalll fmm ind il'idu:ll phi losophi c:ll wisdom, h ol\' d o we
undersmnd lhe enco unt er belween lhis indivi d ual :llld lhe lhire! kind ofknowl-
edge? Ho\\' can a lIIulliludo kno\\'. i\ nd more spccifi call )', whal is th e relati onship
bel\\'ee n thi s knowledge and thc idea of the third kind of knowl edge? Be)"und
and against th e idea of a wisdom fOI" a solilar)" fe\\', th esc issues posc th c queSo
ti on of a rcal knowl edge and a wisdom spccifi c 10 the lIIultiludo.
To inqllire int o the relati onship be tween the thi rd tr pe of kn owledge and
l//IIilill/do, a br ief digressi oll muS( be made illl O th e problem thal has so fre-
quent ly cOll ce rned crilics. namel}', lhe quesli on o f whelher and how th e poli-
tical bod}' can be conce il"ed as an illdi \'dual. Sorne of t.h e most irn po rt.11l1
commen mtors on Spin0711 have argued ill f,lI'o r of a interpreta on lhal
considers il possible 10 lhin k of lh e Slate as an ind ividual wilh iu own bod)"
(compl ex, since it is formed by a multipli city ofindil"idual humans) ami ilS 011'11
mind, Of thc id ea of his bodr."" Olhcl'S inslead c1aim hc necessity of an en Irel),
interpreta tio n of Spino7 ... 'l 's lext, thereby negating th e 110ti o n of
c ither of lhese o nlOlogical realiti es of Ihe slat e ....
h is 11 01 111)' aim in lhis stucl)' 10 relt-ace lhe emi re hi slOr)' ofa problem wh ose
cenlralit y for a correcl illterpretali on of Spino7.isl11 will seem e\'ident by Ihe
quesli ons und er d iscussi on,\lIl Howe\'er, plainl)' asseru thal il is possibl e
lO speak of Ihe politi cal body as an individual in a cen ai n sense_ 11 is nOI a mal-
ler of d efi ning Ihe TlIcaning o f Ihis polti cal bod y, hO" 'c\'er, bUl of undersland-
ing th e Iypc of ind ividual we are d caling with and iu chal;:ctcl'islics.
v1
Thc vel}'
possibil ity of inter preting political sc1encc as an intuitive sdcnce accord in g 10
Spin07A'l 'S own indi cali ons ul timat ely c1arifi es h OI\" il is possible 10 speak o f a
poltical body as an indi\'idual endowed with iu own mind. Spinoz;,l furlh er sllg-
gests lh;ll lh e veT)' :lClil'il }' of lhi 5 indi vidual- in panicular Ihe acti\'it y o f Ihe
libr m llilll/iludo self-or"ran ized imo a d emocracy-resembles lhe lhird kind of
knowl edge.
In lhe E/lrics, Spiuoza suggesls Ihal lhc idea ofa mind-budy un iOn, for cxam-
pie, appli cs no 10 pcop1c Ihan 10 o th er individuals. "which II'C all
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1Idividu,/ MllltijM 8ei1lg 1;9
animate, albeil in difTerent ... ft2 Thes.e indh'iduals are. however, nm al]
homogeoeolls. Indeed,jusl as ideas diJIer among lhemselves depending on lhc
dcgrcc o""rcalil}''' ole)' contain.:so th e ideas of' lhcir bodics. lhal b , lhcir mi nds.
d ifTer among In lhis scholi um, Spi noza again SLresses thal lhe
mind's superiority depencis on lhe faCL lhal t he boci y is "more apl than ol.her
bodies 10 aCl 01" be aClcd upon si multaneously in many \\Iays." This superiority i50
al50 a maller of me knowlcdge lhe mind can have of iLs own body.
\'\fhen speaking about [he poHlicaJ bodya.'\ 0.11 individual, o ne of lhe major
diffcrences bCLwcen Lhe human mind and l he mind of ll,c SlalC tllcl"efol'c
dcpcnds On lhe lypc of association oclwecn me iTldividllals lhal cOllsti lll lc dif-
ferem bodies.'9t The human body is made up of many diIferenualed individu-
als.'7J. whilc in th e polilical body. individuals associate Wilh onc anOLher more
Out oC convenience (convm;enfia) lhan frorn a mmual dJerenliauon. Conse-
qucnuy. lhe human mi nd provcs lO be lcss diffcrenualcd and more conscioLLs
of whereas lhe pol ti cal b<x.ly very di ITere n Li ,ued bU[ les!i cOnSciOll!i of
il.8elf.
The consutll u\'C proccss in whi ch lhe m-ultitud,v org-anizcs ilSclf into t dcmoc-
racy represents, in a cenai n sense, [he development of t his consciollsne-ss.
Dcmocracy. underSlood as a prnClke ano nOl JUSl as one form of go\'em mem
among others, is a collective rno,emcm in which lhe multi tudc in creases its
powcr (poilmlia}:97 "Civi.las j w !Jotent;a 11l1l!.tlI.dinis, qllae une vt!luli mente ducittu;
detF.rmiJ1a.tur [me right of lhe comrnollweal Lh is deLel'mi ned by Ihe power of Lhe
mul,i",de IhaL is guided as Lhough by a single mindJ- Guided "as lOllgh by
.single mind": lhi:. exprcssio n mu.sl be rcad ll ol as. thc ditlcrcncc bclwccn lhe
human mind and me mi nd of lhe political body-..'l sll qjecl lhal is. nei tJl er a
d ifficuhy no!" a cot1cern for Spioozislll- but ra\. her as .he iefea ofan inc .. ea.. ... e in
raLionality that accomparlic.."S po","'er' (potenlia) inclination lO gro .... ' colJectively.
As Spinol2. cxplains. as in the stale of Nalurc thc man ""ho is guided by
rcason is mo.';.t powerful and mOSL in control ofhis own righl; similarl)' the com-
monweal ll1that. is 1)("'lSt.-d 00 reason and directed by reason is mOSl powcrful and
in control of iLS OW11 righl."(18
BlIl we can go even furmer. JUSl as on lhe individual plane l he developmem
of l'aLionalll.Y. and thcrefofe of r.he second kin(! of knowledge. was the basis
for lhe Ihird kind orknowledge. SO for the 1YI1IIliple individual, that s, lhe rnul-
umde, o ne can ralsc the same qucstion. Can !.he libero multitlldo kno\\' in a way
thal is analogous lO tlle individua l human mind 1.hal knows with me lhird kind
ofknowledge? Can democracy. lhe only imptritttn onmlO obsolutttm. l'cpresenL in
.sorne way a fOl"m of knowledgc for l hc mind of lhi!io complcx body Lhat lS 1C
rnuhjtude?
The thr ee killds of knowlcdge J!'C n 0 1,. onlr rnocl cs of knowledgc; meyare also
fonns oflife. 'fhe nrsl kind, charactcriz-ed by inadequate ideas, corresponds lO
bOlh U1 C stalC of nalurc, dominalcd by ""'ague expcricnce: 31l d me chi l SlalC
wilh iLI imperial (hal are perceived as a command. The kind of
160 COl/jliel, Puwer; (/lid Mullilrule
knowlcdgc corrcspo nds ins!cad 10 a statc of rcaso n tha! introduces li S va lhe
comlll o n n o ti o ns lO trILe knowl cdgc."" As ", il h lhe si ngle incl il'iclua!, lh e kinds of
kn owledge are l h e (Orll\S 0 1' Jife 0 1' lhe IIIlIflilzu!Q in lhe process by which il o rga-
nizes iLse lf jnto a d emocr.lCy. FOI" he mind 01' fh e poli tical body, Ihis process
corresponds lO lhe form of Ihe C0 l111110n nOlions amI therefore to a f01'111 of
!"alion;)!it)' frolll whi ch ari ses lhe desi re \O knol\' wilh he third kind of knowl-
edge, wilh Ihal kn owledge of lhe essence oC singular things and of Gud tha! is
united ",ilh a cOllsciouSIl CSS of tself.
Al; Wi lh lhe human individual. his p roccss bcgins o n lhe level o rthc bod)'. of
cOllveni e nt c ncounl ers Wilh othe r bo di cs. This is he gcnealogy 01" cOllllll on
nOlions. \Vilh respecl 10 Ihe borly of he mulitude, ",hieh is ditTeren l fmlll the
human body, we mus[ [Urtl 10 [he enCoUl1[el" wi[h o[her boches and also 10 ho\\'
Ihe difIerenl pans and indhiduals [ha1 il is composed of organize and arrange
themsehes. Composi ng lhemselves by way of
ralher Ihan by lhese pans can orga nize themse1ves in ver}'
difTcrent ways. each expressing a cermin power (pollm/itl) <lnd lhus a ce nain
I"ationalil)'.
Knowl edgc, dtal is, the power (po/1m/in ) tha[ the mind of lhe polilical body
expresses, is necessarily difTerent from that of the human indh-idual. The m ind
of Ihe mul titude, although less conscious of itself Iha n 1he individual m ind, can
den:lop a power (/,olell lill ) and 1hus a ralionality lhal is significantly grealer
than lha! of lhe single mans mind. Indeed. as we ha\e see n, il is multipli ci lY
thal creates rati onal ilY from qua l1li tr ami rell ders th e mOllarch's-or lhe phi-
losop her's-solitude linl e a(bpted lO bear the ha:f .. lIrds of a Republi c: Min a
democrac)" thc rc is Icss dangcr of a go\"ernmcnt bcha\'ing un reasonably, for it is
practical1y impossiblc for lhe of a single assembl)', if h is of some size,
10 agree on lhe piece of folly. " lO! Democrac)' therefon! consists ofbeing an
o/llll i /l o nbsoJlllulII il/l/Jt'l7ulI_nol 10 squander or exclude its forces (Ih e bodies
and minds of lhe indi\i dua!s lha1 const ilul e Ihe I/Iu/tillldo). bUI ra ther 10 make
them act ively participa le in lh e process of self-o rganiz.1li o n and lhe groll' lh of
power (POfell/ill),I"2
We might be tempted \O objecllO Spinoza for declaring himselfa reali st , bm
in n:ali t}'. il would be fur fal1ing prey 10 a utopiat! ideali L'lt ion of democracy.
Indeed. has il nOI bcen dl"tllocracies that h:l\'c so oflen and so Iragical1y dccted
Iyran ts? But SpinO:f11 wel1 all'are of these objectio tls. As lI'e kno\\", h e was an
alten ti\"e reader of l\lachi a\"elli's H OIlW/illl' H i.Ilorit:.f. II'hich describes \\'ith ana-
IOtlllcal precision Ihe entire process o f [he d egen erati on of democracies. And
in faet, he had also personal1)' experieneed lhe foreeful and \iolen1 multi lude
(COI/ri/fi/a 1IIIIIIi/llllo), wh ieh had brut.111y t'li mill .1led lh e Grand Pensionary of
I-I olland.johan de \ViII, ami hi s brother Cornelill s: Ul/imi bllrlNlfOf!l1l1!I<r.I
And ret o to ac(ltse Spitlo:f .. .a of id ealisl1I on Ihis point wOll ld be a l1Iistake.
On dI(" eOl1ll<lr)', what he is suggcsli ng is a Irul )' realistlc theol"}' of dCl1Iocraey-
a thcolT thal accoun ts precise!y fOI" the al1lbh.llcnces and Ihe par-: tdox es of
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Individuo! Mullipf Rcing 161
democracy itsclr. WhalSpinoza actually !ii uggeslS in lhese pages is lha[ iL is Il c\'er
the libero. mttUudo lhat eleCls i LS own l.yranls. bulo a coll ect ion of disconnecloo,
isolatcd abLc lO ael logClhcr, bUl which do nol const..i tutc una vt:luti
mente. A tyram always relies on a dssodated group of separalc. isolated individ-
uals, reduccd lO enslavement. by I.hcir own passions ando in a ",a)'. c::rushed hy a
genera l \\I'ill that is aIr ead)' the final and trdnscendcl1lal ca use oftheir own deci-
sion.... The "reason"' of the multitudc-iLS peculiar fonn of knowJcdgc-is tJ1C
exacl of lhis aJienation, ,,hich is al lhe same time singu larizi ng and
collcctive. This "."cason' of lhe rnulliLUdc is a fOl1n of bOlh knowledge and
acLion lhat rnfl rctUfTI ll5 lO lhe modcJ uf lhe inlUiu\'c scicncc.
We mUSl no\'! consider cen:ain characlerisdcs of the Lhird knd of knowledge
underslood as individual wisdom, and parriOl larly as both a knowledge I.haL is
fr<.--ed from lhe condi tions ol' duration
1Gt
and a movemcnt lhal t.ends lO be i rre-
\'cr.iiblc and sclf-pe rpCll.lating, lo)
Ordinarily,lhe mind ideas \\1lhoUl bei ng an adequale cause. This is
n01 always lhe case, however. since lhe lhird kind ofknowlcdge passes 'OI11 Lhe
plime uf d ur.uioll 10 thal of clcmily. We can undcrstand singular lhings as sub
s/Jtm llI!l'niJ.aJu
l 06
ifwe consider rnem as di reCl expressiol1!; ofthe po\\'er (po/nI -
tia) orC-od, l07 l"alher than as 10 dlC iofi nilC causal cooouenal ions lha l.
delcnnine N:.uu"e as a \lJhole,l08
The human mind therefore accedes 10 lhis ne\\' level by det..'lching itselffrom
eondilions of knowledge subjee[ed 10 lhe logic of dur:ation, T11 e Love of God
lha1 arises from the urd kind o[ know{('-dge lhere[orc has an eternaJ chaJ'ac-
u;r,l(19 Spi noza hcrcby cxplici lly nClllfalizcs lhe Ax.iom of pan IV in which he
claims lhal, "[t] here is in Namre no individual lhing Lhal i50 not su rpassed in
sl renglh and power (pOlet1tu.) by so me olher Ihi og, 'Whal.'wC\'er lhi og lhcre is,
lhere is anolher more po,\"'erful by \!Jhich lhe said lhing can be deslfoyed, "110 1-1 e
now asscns mat lhis axiom is o nly valid for lhings considcred rdation lo a
cenai n lime and plaee."1l1 The pracLce of lhe lhird kind of kno\\fledge a)ong
Wilh the Lo\'c of Cod from which 11 ariscs enables lhe mind LO havc a ccnain
"cxpcricncc" of clcrnily.112
Ho", can \\fe imerprel lhis charaClerisuc of lhe thrd kind of knowledge vLh
respecllo Spinoza's pol itical l,hought? The slate, ,-h e ronn orgovcrnment., ,-he
\'ery process by which lhe mulLitudc organiz.es iLSelf into a are all
c1crncnlS thal nccessarily position lhcmselvcs on t.he planc of duration. How
can ,,"e atsen lhal l he .science of polilia is an iOluili\'e .science? Whal does it
mean lhat [,he mind of lJle poliLical body can detach ilSclf from a knowledgc
bound 10 lhe conditions 01' durdtion?
We have already addressed the complex a nd mulliple natu re of l he poli ucal
body in which simi lar individuals are consLi luLOO lh rough convenience (cqnvt-
1entia) and nOl throug'h di lTcrentialion, If on lhe one hand, Lhe mind of lhis
body is less con.sciOll5 ofilScLfbccausc ofLhc d iffc rcnt way il integrales lhe indi-
\tid uals l har constiUJle l, on lhe olher hand, ilL in many ways aIread)' deta hed
16:! COl/jliel, Puwer; (/lid Mullilrule
from th .. dur<l ti on of thcsc singular" individuals. Thcir dcath, foro cxampl c. d ocs
not .:ausc the dcath ofthc politi cal politi cal bod)' can continually
renel\" itself much helt er than th e human boell', although fol1 owing n1 0d el. , ..
In a way thal is anal ogous 10 th e hum:1I1111incl Iha! knol\'s with Ihis Ihircl kind of
knowledge . Ihe mincl of lhis coll eai\"e bod}' cl oes nOI "fear d ealh amI beeallSe
of lhis o f il remains. whi eh is
Howe\"er. we musl be eauti o us willt litis anal og)'. The fael Ihal the politi cal
bod y and il5 mincl are effecth-d)' dClaehed from lhe dUnlli on of lhe singl e
indil'iduals Ihal it is composcd of cl oes not illlmedialdy mean il can reach the
plan e of eternil)". This is a manel" of "imtllortalily" mo re than o f "ctemir)':' ami
therefore a dimensi on l.hal is sti!1 hOUlld to that of durati on. Spino"l."l, ho\'.'e\'e1'.
speaks of th e of he council as opposed lO Ihe morlalil }' of Ihe king,
ane! seems lO be o f fllndametllal impol"t."l nce."' [1. is preci sel}' Ihi s elernit)'
thal allows a re,,'ime 10 approximat e an il/llH!liulII 1111' multitude-
and its absolule fonn in Ihe il1/('15m IIIlIlIiludo--seems \O be abl e lO reaeh nOI
o nl )' illllll onalit)' (insofar as il is detaehed frolll dunHio n and, lhus. fmm the
Jife of the singl c indhidua!s thal lIlake it up ), bUI also elel"n ily. The impen"rllll
olllnino absolu/ulIl reaJizes il5clf in some way sub specie ae/e/"/Ii/tlILs.
\\'e ha\'e not rel entire\y eliminaled Ihe probl em of dUl"alon. An}' impnllllll,
even one lhal is organi7.ed in the besl possibl e I\'a)'. falls IInder lhe conditi ons
posed in lhe Axi om o f parl IV. [Iowe\'er. e\"en lhe bod)' and mind o f lhe wi se
indil'idual who is abl e 10 feel amI expe rime nl wilh a cenain eerni l), are, in Ihe
same wa}', Il ecessarily subj ected 10 I.he condilioll s of durat1oll . [1 mar be argued.
therefon:, lhal the eemil), Spin07A1 sllggests for lhe impf!111l111 011111;110 (lbsolululIl
is analogous lO Ihe etemit)" Wilh whi ch Ihe human mind cxperimelll5 when il
knows acco rding 10 he third kind of knOl,ledge . The cxpcri ence of lhis Clel"
nit)' for the mind of lhc Illultitude is no 11101"1: paradoxi cal lhan thal of he
human mind. 1I is nOI a \1ll
b
>ar irlllll ort."llity ofthis mind in dlll"ali oll, but r.lth er
lhe concrete amI actual d evelopment of il5 Ihal is. lhe conslituenl 111 0' e-
mell l of lhe absolut e st:He. 01" lhe d emocrati c self-organi7 . .1ti on or Ihe
ll1ullitude.
We can now reread Propositi on 39, part V. whi ch stal es thal Mhe whose body
is capabl ..: of tit e grealest amOUlll o fan)"il}' has a mind whose greatest p:<l1"I is
e lel"nal: The body, whi ch 1S ll ccessarily bound \O the logi c of durati on, is sub-
jected \O the cond iti ons of lhe Axi om in pan IV. However, this situat on no Ion
ger poses an obstade, bUI l"ather helps us arrive al th e pb lle of eternit)'. This is
so nOI for all bocHes. bUI only for those capabl e of man}' Ihings. Th e scholium
o f this propositi oll offers sli11 anoth er poitll o f \'i el\' wilh regard 10 lhis realit}'.
The body o fa bab)'. fOI" exampl e, is capabl e o f\'e ry liltle aCli"i t)':] : " [IS mind is
conseqll eml )' linl e conscious of il5elf. of God , amI of Ihings: "In Ihis life, tll ere-
fore, we lIIainl )' endea\"or thal the body of childhood, as far as ju; nawre all ows
and is conduci\'e th erelO. should de\"cl op inlO a bod)' lhat is capabl e ofa great
many aclvit es and is 10 a mind Ihal is highl r co nscio lls of il5clf, of God.
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163
and of This same path wh ich carries lLe fmm infanc)' lO aduhhood
ando as much as possible. lO wisdorn. is analogous LO lhe rnullitude's mOVemenL
of \Vhcn lhe mind uf lbe politi cal body is guidcd by a single
man, for example, we e ncounler a situation very si mil ar LO lhal of me new-
bOfl). I:: In lhe extreme opposil,c s enar'io, we find lO lhe illlpgm.
muLJiJut!(), free and organized in a democracy, lhe body capable ol" many aClivi-
ties ilnd its wisc mind, In
In shon. just as me Axiom in pan IV LO apply when lhe individual
mind becomes capable of comprehcnding Lhings fmm a pcrspcclivc lhal no
longcr rel ates to time, in the samc \\rdY, tJ1C mind of thc lTIultitudc claoor:Itcs iO.
power (poJentia) on me level of eLcrnity. The pracce of democracy, and only
t his practice. Con"esponds LO l he experience of eLemily.
"rhis does not mean LhaL C\'CI)' socieLy. once organizcd as a dcmocrac:.y. auto-
maLi c.. 1.lly reachcs me planc of cLernily. On lhe conlrary, me proccss of sclf-org'"d-
ni7..aon (a.1! in lhe case of Lhe indivi dual conatus) is more democraLic and more
abl e lO approoch eLernily lhe nWt'e il dc\'elops in lO a '"egime Oraulonomy. The
more procc-ss dcvclops n lO a hClcronomoWi rcgirnc, however, the lessdcm-
ocraLic il. is and me less abl e il is LO reach .he level of cLernity. Any for ce of affir-
mati on of !"he roU(lttH, individual or coll eclive, is airead]' in ilself a fOI"m oF
selforganization. I n absol ulc ICl"mS, il i.s thc'efore posiLive. Nc cnhe1css. this
same force docs nOl have Lhe sarne cJTccts on Lhe hislori co-political lcvel.
d iSlinclion moreover obsen'es lhe d ifTerence o n lhe political plane be[\\'een
A mor erga deumand A niur dei intdltattalis. Onl]' democratic seLf-org-anizaLi on. lhc
of lhe <;olle<; uvc COfW(.Wi, con-esponw to lhe experic ncc 01' ctenlity.
In tJlis Ighl, "le can inlerprcl, among other mi ngs, the affi r mation in lil e
Thl!ol{)gicftl.-Politic( 1l eal:tse lhat. allhough I.heory con VC 11 (".8 wilh "aclual pI'3C1.icc
and can il'lcreasingly be realized i n r ealiLy, Lit] must ne,lcrthelcss remain in
many rcspects no more lhan lheory."lt ..
The acLiviLy of Lhe multitude ach ieves a kind of elernily in a , ... "ay lhat is com-
pleLCly analogous LO the mind l haL kno\\ls \\'ith (he (hird kind ofknowl(.-dge. Thi s
knowk-dge both comprchcncb G<xl and na ture, as dcvelopment and scU:con-
sdousness. and also il look-s on Lhe essence of singular lhings and on Lhe con-
creLe dynami cs of polities. Thcsc are precisel}' what fule OUl any rorm of
transcendente in Spinozism, 00 the contrary, this "feeling"l2S Ill llS1 be under
stood as an ncrcase in complcxi ty, j usI as ctcrnity is me conqucst of one's own
individualil)' and, al lh e same time, of common and col lec"e powcr (IKJl.entia).
The ll1uhiwde does nOllranscend "he single individ uals lhat rnake il ul>, bUl il
rathcr integrales lhem in an imrnancnt way lhrough a
of democrac organizaLion. More spedfically. lhe science of politics is conceived
as an inwiT.ive sdence onl), insofur as il is:a political praclice of democracy. l2:D
From s perspective. \\fe must emphasize the importance of "pinoza's
cxplicit valOl;zaLion of lh e muUitudo Wi lh a1l me c1m)'3clcl; stics of mul Li plic ity
and heLerogeneily Lhat difTeremi aLc iL from lhe modern nOLioll ora people. 1!7
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1&1
ConJ/;t l, fuutr, (mt! Mulliltuu
The aClj"ilY o f lhe multiturle as a complex individual is based on a posilive j udg-
mcnt-rathcrthan a reducLion or diale lical nculrali1..aLion
'
:l--of Lhe J"elalional
lTlulli plidl)' of lhe simpler inwviduals lhal COlls t u tc lo
Once seL in mot.ian, lhe process mal )eads lhe mind (O know Wilh lhe lhird
ki nd orknowledgc SCCIllS lO ha\'c an in'cvcl'8ible As we have secn,
eterni ty is 11m dcfincd by lhe indefinitc cominu3lion or duration, Spino7.a
lhcrcrorc cxpliciuy defines thc Love of God t11fough i1.5 inability to be climi-
nalcd, 1'" and lhererore, lhrough exlracrion fmm lhe condions oflhe Axiom
of pan N. The more \\fe comprehend singular lhings. lhe more wc understand
God, and tJ1C more we are cap4:lblc of difTcrcnt activiti<."S. th e grcalCr our dcsirc
LO kno\\!' ,\i th the Lhird kind of !-I ow does Lh is siLuaLion manifesl
ifse lf in l.ernlS o r the rclal..ionship bClween pol ilics and ,he inlUi li\'c science? In
olhcr \Yords, how (.'31'1 ,l/e atnnn lhat lhe imuiti\'c science--lhat lh e proccss of
dcmocratic sclf-organization-is irrcvcrsible for Lhc rn ulti tudc?
It is preciscly in iL'i irrc\'crsible charactcr lhm lhe thi rd kind of knowlcd gc
connccLS LO l he specific a1fCCl of ruquitstitnSia. 'S'Z On e again. lhe wise person
who aua ins - lrue spirilual conlcntrnclll [J't1lljier vera ",,mi acquil'l'amJia polilm'j'"
i.s difre rent from the ignofam person. -who ves as if he were uncollsciolL'i of
himsclf. Codo and Ihings."
155
111i.s ar'llJiesrientia hclps explain how lhe inl.l,l iLive
s ence - nourishes itsclf." lL is not red ucible lO any mode of contemplation,
undcrslood in lhc m)ostic..'1..I scnse, but inSlcad suggcslS an "activc and I<uional
participalion in lhe collective Jife of
111e lhil'd kind of knowledge. which has ilS origins in lhe second (.c .. in
rational ity), leads into a - rcdiscovery'" 01' Aftcr marking lhe irn .. ....
versiblc characler of lhe inwi uve science
l83
and lhc aITect of aClluil'..Saent.ia mal
accompa nies Spi noza speaks of lhc fhird kind of knowlCC"lge i n lennlii of
wnafu$ SI'II C11/)iltilas,l36 This facl cOntri bulcs lO an intcrprctation lhal chal"acter-
lhc p roccS.'i Icading lo thc intuiuvc scicncc as irrcversible, panicularly in its
relation 1.0 politia. ln omer word'i, Spinoza :\uggeSl'i an endeavor lhal is enlirely
analogous lO lha< whi h he uses lO dcscibe lhe ama/tU in pan III of lhe Elil ics
as the immcdialc csscncc of cach thing, l!19
ll1C reali7 .. auon of the movememleading LO lhe dcmocrauc self-organizauon
of Ihe 11lultitll.dO 3ml ils clesire a company ancl rci nrorce onc anol.her. Democ-
raey. ' ... e might sayo is al lhe \'cry same Li me lhe desire for dcmocr.lcy. In this
scnse, l hc polidcal scicnce as intuitivc scicll cc proves to be irrcversible a nd, in
a way. "cternal:"
No\\' ifany stalC can bc c\'crlasti ng, it mu.st be onc whose constitu uon. bcing
once correctly established, rcmains n,,olale. [ .. ,] Bm a consumon cannOl
sta)' il1tacl unless il is uphcld oolh by fcason 3nd by Ihe common scntimcnt
01' lhc pcoplc [wmmuni homintl'm affectuJ: olherwisc. ir fol' inSUlncc law8 ate
dcpcndcm solcly on thc support of rcason, thcy are li kcly to be wcak and
easi ly o\1crt h rown.
1oIO
{dividufI( MulliPle Bei ng 165
&th reason and the alrects h elp maintain the multhude's desire for iL, own
libeny. Poltical as imuitive science therc!ore has the chal<lcter of a
concrete, irreversibl e pl-acce because it develops throllgh precisel)' (he same
mechanisms as lhe rO/ml us. ILdoe., nOl impl)' "!inile time, 1>111 incle!inile
Le! us 11Irn once more 10 lhe scho1iu11I Ihal d efines Ihe Ihird kind of kn owl
edge. uses he famous example of lhe four1h proportiollal \O i!1usl rae,
in a ver}" co ncise "<lr, he dilTerence between Ihe kinds of knowled ge:
[ shal! illusr::ne al! hcse kinds of knowl cdge br OlH' single cxal1lp1c. nlrce
numbers are gil"Cn: il is required 10 find a fOll nh which is reblcd 10 the thinl
as he second 10 he firs\. Tl<ldesmen hase no hesi tati on in llmlliplring lhe
seco nd by [he [hird ancl clividing Ihe procl ucl by Ihe rs1, ei[her because Ihe}'
ha\'e nOI rel forgouen Ihe rule Ihe}' learned I\"ilholll proof from ther teac hers,
or beeause Ihey llal"e in faet found 1.his eorreet in Ihe case of l'el"}' simpl e 11 t1111-
bers, or elsc frorll lhe force of lhe proof of Proposition 19 of the Sel"enth Book
of Eudid, 10 \\'i l, lhe eOl1l l1l on propeny of proponi ollals. Bllt in lte calle of
vel")' simple numbcrs, none of this is neccssatT- For cx:unple, in th e case o fthe
giyen nllmbers 1, 2, 3, c\'erybody can sce thal the fourth propor tional is 6 , and
all th e lll ore dearlr because we infer in one singl e intuiti on r 11/10 /I/IIi/u1 the
fourth l)llmber frolll the ratio we see lhe !i rsl nlllllber bears lO Ihe seeond.""
Ir, on lite Ol1e t\flnd, tite examp[e oflhe fourtlt proponional illtlstrales lit e sub--
dil'isi ons oflhe various kinds o f kl lOwledge, on lhe other hand, il is 1I0lieeably
ambiguous Wilh regard to the Ihifd kind of kll owledge. adding liul e \O its defi-
lliti on. Whal does il mean. ill aClualily. 10 discern Lhe founh propon :i onal
thl"Ollgh an infercnce, or a "single ( IrrlO inlui/u)?
The scal'city 0 1' informal.on lhal Spino:r.a olTers, howc\'e r, does nOI impede
our undeulanding Ihal the intuili ve science exceeds 1<lIIOllal knowledge. The
Ihird kind of knowledge is posed as a praclice lltal no need for lhe media-
tion o f general, abSlraCI. 01" independenl eondilionsY" In essenee, 1 is nOl a
matter of applying a for mal sclt ema 10 a of particular cases, like the
mercltan I who smpl)' appl ies 10 numbers the rul es h e has mechalli eall)' learned
fl"Om he master. [t is inslead a maler of he implementation itself of a practice
that, in the case of politics, is the eoll eelil't' pl<lClCt' of democraey.
"'th the thrd kind o f knowl edge, the human mind understands the "el")'
esse nce of singubr Ihings. I1 is a malter 01' co ncrete ideas, dislincl fmm l<l uonal
rul es, dl<lwn from Ihe C0I11I110n notion5, amI represented in an abstract and
independenl way lhl"ollgh lheir app1ication to singular cases. In Ihe same wa)',
tite dellloeralic pracli ee as inwitil'e sci ell ee al10ws democmey 10 assemble nOI
as a s}"slem of abstracl und formal rul es, 01' as a panicular fonn of go\"ern ment
among others, bUl mther as lhe ve]")" praeliee of he mulliple individual-lhe
mullillulo--that organ:r.es itsdf 10 del"e1op il.'; pOll'er (pollmlill ) and, bus, its frer-
do mo ,.,., This t)'pe of kn owledge assumes lhe form of a \'c ritable political
Cowrighted Material
166 PorlJT, tUtti Mult.ude
"wisdom" aClI.mli zing ilSelf \\>ilhin the sinb'1.1 larilY of detisions lhal are lhe very
expres.sion of the power (polmlia) of the multitude. Freedom, wisdom, and
democracy are mus brought together- ex UIlQ inluil u--3s diverse aspecls 01' the
same aClUalizing process or lhe 11i'U/titudiJJis potimtia.
Science and aCl ivily are nOl opposed 10 one another in Spinoza's philoso-
phy. lt. .. On [h e basis orwhat we havejuslseen, it can be affirmed Lhallh ere is no
(inLUiuvc) science wi lholl t acviLy and witholll acti on . Polilical science and lhe
lhird kind of kno\\'ledge lhcreforc encounlcr one anomcr precisely al lhe
crossroads of concrete, political practicc. This praccc consislS of lhe incrcasc
in r.he powcr (1)(J/(tIltia) and aUlonorny orlhc rnulliplc individual. Thc multilude
thal organizes inlo a dernocra(J liber.ues itself frorn lhe need for the
mal mediation of a poli ti cal rational ily thal tnmscends this .same dynamic.
Power (polenlia) and freedom c.,nnot be form.lly . nd abstr.ctly deduced from
a spedfic kind of govcmmenl. Ralher
J
lhc)' mUSl be underslood iI1luiLively
lhrough the concrele devclopmcmof politi cal dyn.mies. This is lhe on ly lvay LO
app"ehend the essence ofsingular things both on the objcctivc level (the singu-
lar political decisions produccd by a l'r'Iulliplicilous rationality) and 0 0 a
tive level (the singular individuals lhal make up Lhe multiLUde) . 146
Now we willLUm lO a final considerauon regarding Spino7.a's cxample of me
fourth prop0rLional. This example does nOl have lO makc us thi nk of thc
cal deci sion as arising from a spontaneous and quasi-mys ti cal ori gin wilhin lhe
multilude. In this sense, the irrcversibilily of the inLUili\'c dynamic- lhe same
thal Cha rtiClerizing lhe conatus o f e'"dc h si ngular thing- is lhal which conneClS
democracy and l he desire for democracy. It is the refore a continual practice
and a real exercise 01" critical confronmtion between the individuals thal make
up lhe mullilllde. Hi
Moreover, [rom the perspective of pol itical science, the prevalence of the
noLion of practice in lhe formal sU' ucture of democracy helps lO at least par-
lially dissolve lhe ambiguily of lhe dcfiniLion of lhe inLuilive science and lhe
example Spinoza uses LO ill USltalC il. In lhe case of si mple numbers. we can
glean lhe founh proportional by intuiti on alonc. The power (pOlettlia) of Lhe
individual mi nd lhat i5 conncC:;Led LO Lhe powcr ( PQ(/JU(J) of lhe hod)' cannOL
appre hend more complex numbers in every insmnce.
For lhe mulLilUde, however, th.is diffi cult:y can be considered in a difTerem
""ay. The concrele movemenl of democracy is direclly li nked. lO lhe idea of
the conatus of lhe polilical body. We mUSl reLhink lhe Iimits cncounlered by lhe
bod)' and lhe mind of lhe single individual-foI' example. in conceiving lhc
faunh propanional for large numbers. The power (poleluitt) of lile mind is
ci eterrnined in .-elation 1.0 l he b(Xjy's tapadlY LO affeu and be affeclcd in \'arious
ways--Lhis 18 the Clse for lhe single individual as much as for the palillcal body.
And thus, it is in the body uf the multitude that we fnd both !he origi n of the
inmiti ve scie nce of Lhe multipl e individual, and lhe power (poltJ1/li a.) of its mind.
And nothing has yet determined the power (pot""l) oflhis body.
Notes
IIll.fOducti on
A. /o. ICl1Zcl, "Ho mo suijuris"; Eine Studic zur Sta atslc hrc 7..eil.,r:h riflfiir
da.\'- Privil/- " 1It1 y/ni/lid" H.N:III, 32 ( 19tH), pp. 77- 98; A. M" l1:ret, "Soz<h'<:rtng
bei Spill o za ," bitsr",.i!, flirdm- P' 11111 /- 1.1"1/ Qjfrnllirh, Hl'ChI, 34 ( 1907) , pp. 451--460:
A. /o. lenzcl, "Spinom lIlld das Vlkerrechl ," 7.;ilscluifl jii,. dS- I'n',,(,/- ,,,uloJfmllir',
Rn:hl, 2 ( ]908). pp. 17- 30: t\ . " Ienzd, "Ikitr:ige ZUI" Gt:schichte des
JI 1. Di, S/rwlsldu-,. SJ';'WZfIS (Wie n: J-I 51de r- Pichlcr-Te mpsky a . .g., 1929).
A. '\knzel. "Machi,,,d li slUdie n ," Gsriillh uls 7LilMlirijl Jiir //IS p,.iml l !/nd
Ot//I'lIllidus RI'(II/ Ii/!/' Gegnmm/'I, 29 (1902), pp. 566-577.
G. Maggiorc. "Due anniI'Crs.'\l; ( /o.hu;hiavclli e H Critica b.sdsla., 5 (1927).
<JI"r in Un WI"jxx:ll (Milano: Treves, 1929), pp. 199- 209 .
A. Rad, contribulo ag li slud i spino zi:l.IIi : Spin07.a c in SIl/di
jiIlMjim-giurid;ci '/1'11;01/; a G. J),.I ',>(CM" (Mode na: Mode nese, 1931), \"01. 11 ,
pp. 299- 3 3.
L St r;l uss. Spill07.n s C!-i/iqUf oJ Rrligio/l (New York: & hocke n Books. 1965).
C. Signorile, Po liuca e l"<I.gione, 1'01. 1, 5pi ll0:11 primll/o /lrI/, polilica (Padlla: 1-lar-
sili o. 1970).
C. Gallice t Caheni. 5pi lw:1/ del Ml/chillVFlli ( Milano: \'ita e Pensiero. 19 72):
C. Ga llicel Ca h"e ni. interpretc del I'rinc ipc, " in Sil/di ill O/lO,., di ti. Chi"ri,
1 ( Brcsda: Paideia. 1973) .
C. Gebh:o rdl. "Supp lementa. KOUl n1enlar zmn Tra(lat\ls lheolo:,>ico-politiClLS.
Ko rnrnelllar zu de n \duo la liones .d Ko rnrncn tar
7.11m T,-.lClalllS pol iticus. Einl eitll ng Zll d en beide n Tra ktatc l1 : in O!m ll v.
1m AuJlmg dtl" ,."iddbngrr Ak,lIIFmi, drr Xlii e.m'!
Gtblumll (He ide lbe rg: Carl Winle r. 1987) .
A. Negli. The SlIllI/gr A /10//1(1/)'. 71M Power oJ SPimr'l s M,/llph),Iics (11U1 ( M.in
neapo lis. Oxfonl: Uni l'crsity of Press, 1991).
'" L Bo\"c, L" slmligiF fu amll lllS. l l/finr",I;"'1 rl dlfz SPlw:(/ ( Pars: Li brairc
]l hiloso]l hi que .J . Vrin. 1996); L. Bo\"c, Kl mroduction: in B. Tnlil; poli
liqllF (l'aris: Librairic GCnl"alc fr;ul<;:ai sc. 2003). pp. 9-10 l.
I1 V. Morfino, I/Iem!", e /'onfl . i olle. L 1IrolllmS!,i ",Yl.(/-J\/fldflVdli (Mi lano: 1.[1),2002);
V. Morfino, h!f:lIY1iio1li (Milano Mimesis, 2002). Seo: :lIso 1-1 , & heuino.
"Po litica e I m!mm e n Maq uia\"elo)' lJimwl. 47 (2002), pp. :'17-56.
Copyrighted Material
168 No/es
[mroduction lO Part 1
J Loui5 Althusser. fOf example. describes and pino'l a as authon ""ho
consti tute a true "underground currcnlofthe malcrialis.m of the encounler," See
L Althus, .. e r, - L'uniquc u-.. dilioll ruatri.dislc," LirltS,18 ( 1993) , pp. 71- JJ 9;
1... Al thl Ls!scr, "The UII(lergrol lTld Current of Ihe Mal.cri al isll1 of Ihe Encoufll.cr,'"
i l'l Philosphy 0/11v Em;Olmltr. LfllLr Wril;" gs, 1978-1987 ( Lolldon: Verso 20(6).
Anton io Xcgri $poke inSlead 300Ul an "ac(:ursed" ( lIrrcm lhal mns antagOl SIi-
call)' Il lrot lghout philosophicallllodenli t . See A. Negri, 1,lSltrgtmat..f: C()7JJtiflll'ftt
P(}tUfftll ul IIti! Modml SUlld ( Mi nneapolis: orMinnesola 1999). In
n1)' ani le .... Disputare .. e "combaue re": Modi del conil iuo nel pelUicro politico
di Niccolo Mac hi'l\'e lli," Filruofia Po/itica, 15 (2001), pp. 71-95. when analyzing
lhe lheme of conlliCl in I alluded lO lhe possibility ofi n\'esLi gali ng
possible similarities wi m Spinol.l on lhiJ theme. See also F, Del Lucchese,
"S' \ccottlumer a La diversil, Figures de la mllh..i lllde chez MachiaveJ
e. Spinoza," M,UlitluU3.13 (2003). pp. 11 1- 1'19.
t er. P. P. Porti naro, JI 'rloli,smQ po'iJico ( San-Roma: l...i.ncrza. 1999)
Chapler 1
I B... "scd on P. Cristofolini's beaulifuJ translalion;.scc me "lntroducQn- lo Bafilch
Spino7.a, TmtlfllO ( Pisa : E,TS, 1999) . e.'\p":t':ially lhe "ShOfl analyucal gloo-
sal')'," pp. 24 1 fr.
t Tht Discour.st:5 1, Pteface. 011 Mach ia\'ell i's Lh.'Ory' of imilatjon see especially
R. Polin, "Platon el ArisLOle dal\S la pellse poliuque el j uridique au XVle sil'cle:
les I'gimcs po li tiques el I'i lll it.auon des aflciens che? Machia\'e l," in PIIl Um 11
Ii)tl. ti la I lJmaiu fl1l.ct (I'aris: Libtai rie philosophique J. Vrin, 1976), pp. 15.?-.- 162;
and, more reccmly, L. Gcrbier, "La rccpLion paradoxalc de la philosophie poli-
Lique a ntique chez Machiavel," lJJ.temaJionak Zei.lsclmJl fiir Philosopllie, 2 (2002),
pp. 228-2!Y1.
s T'he 1. Introdllction, pp. 98-99 .
Ibid .. l.Il. p. 1'12 .
.. Ontological rcalism is me expression rncd by L.1.lIrent So"e 10 describe the cITcclS
lhat pinol'l"s reading of Machia\'clJi had 011 his philosophy alld o ll lOlogy. TIle
clCIllCflt tlle 1\'1'0 Ihi nkers share b a polcmological" pcrsp(."Cli\te frorn which lile
existence of caeh flnite mude is describc.-d, parti clIlarl )' Ihal of lnall . Al tllC: cnl 1"
of lhis JolitoIl of W<Ir, n .. "Call ing thc n e<:cssit)' for a gelluillc 51ra1Cb')' ill the Struggle
for cxistcllcc. we fi rlcl the: noti on of mnfJJu.s. a "vital anct irnmanent- elernen I Ihal
conneclS Ihe IlIlder'S12ndilig of the rlecc::"ssily for relations of force \\'ilh lhe plae
or poliLical acuon" 11 connects, ",e Ol ighl say, lhe realism of me poliLical d imen-
sion Wi tJl Lhe broadcr omologi cal concepl 01' man and, in general, of 1l3tlLrc as a
""hole, "' Omo logical rcalism ," lhe refore, assens lhe necessily of a lypc or virtlle
lhal iJ underslood not as cOllsen'ative prudence, as a reacl..ion lO lhe lInfa\'orable
circumstances of Jife, but as an active, "adcqualc" slfiltegic c lernent lhal afflmls
cach individ ll&lJ'.\ power (polentia) 10 acto This js not an art of prudence. Lhen, bm
COPl/fighted Material
No/es 169
ralhcr agctl uinc cLhical and Str,ucgic project. Through hi s readingofMachi a\'clli .
says Bove . Spinoza \'laS able lO iJ1lcgralc Lhe olllologica l plane with LI,e poULica l
plane \,tjLhi n h is OVt't1 conception of realism. L. Bove, " Le ralisme onLol ogique
de l a dur<'C ehez Spinoza !ceICur de Maehiavci," in Priparer 11lgnfga'" eUe CAPES
dephilosophu, 1, (Midi-I'yrnes: Ell ipse./ CRDP. 1998), pp. 91- 105.
(i This is lhe mai n topic of Anlhony Pal"eJ's The J\1.achiavellian Cosmo.s (New I-r.wen,
London: Vale Un ive rsit}' Press. 1992). which maintai ns IJ, at fo r Macl,iavelli imita
lio n is madc possiblt! by the cau.sal actio n of lhe stan and plancts On lhe OurSe
of human afIairs. in linewiLh a premodern vision ofcosmologya nd amhropology
lh al is high ly innue nced by lhe aSlrological Lheones o f lhe time. Hm,,"e\'er,
Machiavelli 's concepl. of lhe causal seems decidedl y remOle from l.he rigid asU'o-
logical framework lh at Parel evokes. For Machiavell i's relationship \\'ilh the
oontcmpol'al'y cosmological culLul'c of his time see aloo L, l..'\ nzi , I "stgl" dtll8
natura. t i "'Jxl1'(u:ligmi " della storia, il11letoM di Machiatlel/i. Riccrche sulla logica sc;nli
fial llegli tt.!t1I1anisti
H
1m medicina e sloriograjia Lacaita, 1981); r.. Gari n,
Machiavellifm po/itica eslona (Torino: Einaudi, 1993); L. Cerbier. Ifisloirt, mtdeci",
politique, Les jigurtJ du. lemps dil lU Le Princc t l hs Di.scouf'S lit Maclilvel, doctoral
.hesi, (Tour,: Uoiversi . de Tour,. 1999)_
7 The 1.39. See also Ibid. , 111.43.
i For the thernc of fonune in lhe modcnl cra, sce G. Nicolcui, "Caso-caus..:'1 o for
LUna nel machj avellismo," in II lema de/la. Fortuna l1tllauUtmtum frmlcese t italiana,
del RinascimetJto. Sludi in 71leJ1WJia.lli t..1JZO Giudici (Firenze: Leo S. Olsch ki . 1990),
pp.
9 'f7U! DiscOU13'ts 11 , 1,
.. bid_. 11.1. 5
11 Instead or conlingenc)', ' 't'e should lhus turn Ollr lhough tifo lo a phlosoph), or con-
juncLUrc. UndcrSlood from this point of view, lhe pi votal role lhal Allhusscr
assigns 10 me enCOllnter in hj s semi nal interprewuon of Machi:weUi 's work 15
highly signi ficam. Scc L. AlLh usscr, Sul /I /Gteria.lislf/o aleatorio ( Milano: Unicopli,
2000).
12 For mOre on Lhis nolion of causalily as it derives rrom the Atomisl philosphy, see
my anide '''Quando a!tri non ci insegnasse, che la necessi ta c'insegni ': SU"alegie
dell a vi rtu lra ll ecessiGi e li berta in Machi avelli," QUfldemi lIlaUrriali51i, 1 (2002),
pp. 41-67.
" 77 .. Prince XXV. p. 85.
H TlU! Discoursts 11. 30
" Ce. Ibid . [1. 29
1/'; See 1... Al lhusser, Madawlli af/d Us ( Lndo n: Ver:s, 1999), p. 36: "1 believC:." il i.s
no!. ha2..:1. rdous lO venture I.hal Machiavelli is lhe fir t l heori t of the conjuncture
o r the fi rsl lhinker consdollsly. ir nOllO lhink th e concept of c.onjuncmre, if nOl
lO make illhe objCCl oran abslf'aCl and s)'Slcmalic refleclion, lhen al leasl consis-
tentJy-in an insistenl, extremeI)' profound way-to lhink in the conj unclllre:
lhat is losay, in its conccpl oran alcalol")', singuJ ar casco Whal docs it mean to l/link
in the cOllj'uJcturi? To think about a political problem under lhe calegory of con
junclUre? It means, firsl of alJ , laki ng i.l<:counl or aU lhe detenni nations, aU the
exisLi ng concre le cirrumSlatlcts, making an inventolY, a delailed breakdown and
comparison of lhem. "
170 Nu/es
17 A. I'are l, 1'he \/'lcllWf!liflll Cosmos, puts fOlward the contrar)' idea that the re is
a \\'e ll-d e tined concept of prol'idellce in 1\ lac hia\'t: Ili's \\'o rks, inhe rit ed fmm the
cuhur,d atmosphe re o f Flo re nce nd fmm M'lrsilio Ficino's Neopl" lo nic acad
em)' in panicular.
l. See also 1'111' Discolll'Si'-5 1 U. 3 1.
E/lu 1. 28.
' H Cfr. r. Machere)'. Inlrvdllc/iml 1'Elhiqul' de S/Jin01..(I. (ti Im' mim par/il': la MI/I " " 'e.s
c/wSII( l'aris: l' resses Uni\'ersitairesde France, 2001), p. 181.
t I 1:/lIic-5 1. 29 .
.. Ibid., 1. 33.
1) EIlIiQ' 1. 33 Seho lium/ Note 1, p. 236.
" Ibid .. 11 .31 COIo llar)'. See also TIII'OIogir/t lPufi/iCflI Trmli.se 11 .8: "So, if somethi ng in
Na[u'-e "ppe"l'S 10 liS as ridiell lo lls, abSllrd, U I- e\; l, litis is due lO he fael [ha\ Ollr
knowledge is o nl)' parti!. lha! we are fo r Ihe most pan ignor.l lll of lhe o rd er amI
coherence o f Nature as a whole.
w
'" Tlleologiwl_Pofitiml Trr.tI/m IV.I .
.. Ib id., p. 426.
: ' Il'i.
TIIl'OlogiClt/-Poliliwl T'lll/m I [1 .2.
!'I Ibid., 111 .3, p. '1\7 .
" Morfi no. fI {nI/IN! f m"illlains lha!. the M,' chial'el!ian !iCheme of the
inle l, \clio n between \'jrtue md fortu ne cOlTespo nds to Ihe Spinozisl di ,ulio D,i as
inte raction belween lhe Il1lxi fillm ill/n"11I1II and the Il1lxilium t'x(uullm. 011 fo l'tune
in ge neral in see P.-F. Moreau, SpillOZlj. L 'tXpnl!Ilct t / l'lulIi/' (Paris: Pres-
ses Uni \"ersimires de France . 1994). pp. 467-486. Moreau po illlS OUI Ihe
importance for Spinoza o f Humanist ronnulatio lls of lhe Ihe me of fonune . stal'l-
ing as earl)' i'c u'arc h's works, i11 additi 011 10 that of 1\ l achial'dli. On fOI'l11 nc in
Spinl:' , partic ularl)' On the dilTeren t cOll ception compared 10 SIl ;Ll1sh ban)q ue
SQurccs. St:e S. Ansaldi, S/,i ,mw f, btl111fjl'" "'.Ji" i, "isir, lIl ultiludf (P"ris: Ki mc,
2001 ) .
.. t;tltir,s Il .'l 9 Scholiu m, p. 276 .
., Cfr. E. Giancolli, in Baruch Spi nola. 1'mlllllo lrofugicv-I'uliliw
(Turin: Einaudi. 1972), p. 95. note 12, whic h re fers to K. 1-1. E. d e J o ng. SjlIOU!
en de Sloa (Leiden. EJ . Brill. [939). See a lso F. De Brahander. SpitWUl ami /11t S/oics
( Lolldon, Collti11uum, 2007) .
., 'f1lffllogiI:IIIPoli /it:ol T1w/ise I [1.5.
). Tht DisCOUl'Sl'S I. 19 .
Ib id., .
.. Sce also 1\ lon:,,", SI,im'w. L'n;pitmN! d 'i/nll i/i, p, <1 85.
Chaptcr 2
Sec R. Esposito. O'Tliu" col/jlillo: Mltchim"lIi e 1ft /el/em/l/m politica <Ir! RiIlIlSci lllt'lI/u
jillimlo (Napoli: Liguo l' i, 1984).
A,istotle. Nicom(ldl tWI ,.;/, il'.$, I.J \, l lOOa.
ArislOtle. Poli/ies. 1. 2. 1252;,. 30fT.
Copyrighted Material
Noles
Ibid., 11.2, 1261a, 1 SU'.
l bid., 1.6, J 255b, IOff.
ti See especial1y Nicom,achea'li IX.6, 11 67a, 22fT.
, Ibid., 11.9, 1270b, 17ff .
Ibid., 111 , 6-7, 1279", ISIT.
171
g Girolamo Savonarola, Pl't diche sopra con il 7rauato t ina il rtggimenlo t gotlUt/o
de/la cill di Firenu (Roma: Angelo Belardet" Editore, J 965) , XIII.
U) bid., XV. See also 'Proltillo cirta I ngg7fTumw f goverrlO tlella al/ti di Finmu, JI .
11 Ibid., 1.
" Ibid., XIII.
" lbid., XJV.
Ii f7ormli71e His{miI!s 111.1 1.
); bid., 11.34.
16 Ivi.
" Ibid., 11. 35.
18 lvi.
" Ibid., VII .II.
100 Ibid., Vl LJJ.
!I Ibid., 111 .25.
ti lbid., 111 .26.
" Th,DiscQu",, 1l .2.
':-4 l'7orm lille His(lJ1"ies (VA.
Jbici ., rv.7.
ft Scc airo thc aCCDUIll uf Caslruccio CasLrdcani 's failcd allack on l<'orcncc, bid.,
11. 26.
27 Ibid., 1V.7.
!.'l lbid., 1V.1 4.
!9 lvi.
XI lvi.
'1 J"i.
32 CoI'Tlpare lhe wrds f the "wis.e man" l\1icl da Uzano, Cosirno de Medi's;
opponem, in bid., rV.27.
'" "On lhe ).'leLhod or Deali ng with t.he Peopl e o r the Valdichiana," in
CJlie! Wqrk,s muS Others [of MachiavclliJ, transo AlIan 1-1 . Gilbcrt, 3 \'015. (Ourham,
Duke Univer.sil)' Pres.'i. 1965), V. 1.
.. 11Ieological-Poli/ical l r.alisl! IX. J 4.
'" [bid., Vl1.3.
-'G bid., VBI.II , p. 727. See tIso Ibid., VlI 1. 26.
" 77l1!Ological-Polilic(I/ 7l.alise XX, p. 572.
,\.'l bid., \/11.29, p.720 .
. " See C. Deleuze, Expressonis," ill P/i/osoply: SpillO%a (New York: Zone Books,
1990) .
., $ce El/les lll .39 Scholi um .
., bid., 111.9 Scholium.
oW Elhics IV, PrefitC.
.. 77U!Ological.Polilic(I/ Trtalisl! V1.3.
+t lbid'
J
VIl .4.
,-.,
,-
" Ibid., VIII .2-1 .
'" Ibid., HU .
., Ivi, p. 690 .
..... Theologirfl{-PQfilical XVI.
" Ibid .. IV.5.
"" Ibid., VI l. II.
" Ibid., Hl.I i .
" Sec II/m. m .l.
No/es
Ttltll i..;, XVI , p. 529.
'" Ibid. , J [.] 3, p . 686 .
., A. s pt:. ks "bOIlI "insl;,n(;l1le ist consellsu,lislll." See A. Matheron.
Anlliropologir fl IHJ/iliqUf 1m XI' l /, si'd, (Paris: Libr.liri e philosophiquc J. Vrin.
1986).
'" Throlqriwl-pQfiliml Tmll is, 11 .16.
" Ibid., 11 .15.
lntTod uction to Pa rt 11
See N. Tll r Vivid,,, Gily: O" Mmun, mili Fvrgdl"g ;11 Allriwl f\/lI ms
( New Yo rk: Zo nt: Boo\:.s, 2(06).
Ibid .. p. 102.
See U. Curio P6u-1/IQ$, Fifruofitl mmr glll'lTIl (To rin; Bot' inghicri, 2000).
Sce J. Rancie n: , Di.mgul'IlIl'Il/: Polilies ami Phifosoph)' ( Minnc apo lis: Un i\"cnity of
Minncsol.' Press. 1998) .
M. Foucault, Disci"fi", (/lid P,mish: The Birl" o/ I/e Priso" ( Nt:w York: Vi n tage,
19i7) .
Chapter 3
See Tf" Discoll rMS 1, 2.
Sec ThrofogiC/lf-PofiliC/lf 'f)."lIlist XXI.
See n " Prillct XVIII.
See IA/n 50 and in/m.
See G. Abrambcn . 1101110 s//u,: Pmil" /Uf BlII"I' Lif, (Pa lo Alto: St.'l.nfo rd
Unil'c rs it)" Press, 1998).
See also Z. Lb um:"" \/lJl},nlly (!Id 11" ( [lh;1(.:;I: Comell UlIil"ersil )' Pre$,
1989).
1" " IU:e VII , p. 26.
See I-Ie rod o lus, n " !lis/mm [ .30.
Flor,," I;',e !lis/miel VI.9.
'" [bid., 11 .37.
u [bid., 111. 6.
" Tlu P .. i)lu XXV.
1) TlulJiswul"ses l. 1.pp. 100- 10 1.
11 Ibi d .. l. 16,
" 1 "i.
1'; &e s"J'w,
" Thr Discow"Sl's 11. 2. p. 278.
71IeDuww"Ses 1.46. pp. 223-22'1.
.. Ibid .
173
1<, Sec )1,1. l\lrc he lti, '/)"HUlnit. rl dt l i l " ll"ili ( l'ari5, P,' esses
Un il'ersilairesde Frailee. 2000).
' 1 See Tlu P.juu XIX .
1 nlP Dis(m"Sl',s I, 4.
>l [bid .. 111 .1.
.. In [bi d . \'. 37 & holiul11. wriles th;1I l\",iom in Pan [V is concem ed
",ilh particular Ihings insofar as Ihey are conside red in relalio n 10 a dcfinile time
a nd place, of", hich I I.hink 11 0 one can be in doubl:
" Elhies JV. 7.
:< [bid . 1Y. 3 .
., Mo r/ ,no's ",ork, 11 l"nllO t ne", lighl Oll philosophy
fmm lhis poinl of \it: w
E/J ic.s rV.5,
... See nove, La slmligi, ti" cona!lls .
.. , EI/i(,$ 1. 24 Corol1;uy
SI Ibi d .. 11, De fin ition 5 .
.. [bi d . IU.'I .
., [bid . 11.6.
[bi d ., 111 .37, Proof
" Preface. For more on Ihe peculiar clmraetcr o flh e trans-
fere nce in sce C. L..:17.7.cli, "Les lois de l"obis.'iance: SIIT la
Iholie spinozisle des de drojl," Eludes 4 ( 1987), pp. 409-
438: C. L..:' 7.zeri. Dmil.j,O!moir flm",.,; ( I'alis: I'res..-.es Uni\'e rsi l;jres de Fr:mce, 1999),
'" Thrological-{Jo/iliwl Trf'(jliM. Pre race . p . 393.
' 1 [bi d .. XVI.
M f'oWim'lh:/lI;";' 11 .9 .
... [bi d .. IU O.
'" [bi d .. IL7 .
.. [bi d ., 111 .18.
" f or more 0 11 Ibis poinl see L. Ik:>\'<:,
" Elhir.$ m.5.
" Ibid., V, Axiolll l .
., L. Bo\'C, "Illlroouc lio ll:
f6 See ibid.
n So"e draws alle n tion 10 lhe [.,\CI lhal Ihese IWO principIes work s)'nergislicall)' lO
conlinual1y d isplace Ihe COnniCI ",hich may arise in 0111 ind ividual.
.,. Elhir-d IL9 .
[bi d . 111 .25.
'" [bid . 1V.7.
Ibi d ., 1Y.38.
[bid .. IV.20.
li' l No/es
" Po/ilim! Treulis, X l. Tmnslatio ll ;leb plcd .
... Ibid., VIII .20.
"' Ibid., VIII .23.
'" Ibid.,X.2 .
, Ibid .. X. 3 .
.. Ivi.
.. Ibid., V.6 .
.., Theological_l'oliliml XVI.
See also Ibid., XVII I.
. , Ivi .
, Ivi .
... Ibid., XX,
., PQli/;ml '/i"tli.y IV.4.
"" Ibid., 11 1. 9 .
, Sec A. M,nhcron. "L'indignation e l le t:Ollalusdc ['Etal in M, Re \"ault
DAlloncs. 1-1 . Rizk (cili.), Spilwz.//: l'uiss/wCt. el ( !'aris: Kim, 199'1)
pp. I 53-\ti5 .
.. I>Q;ml '/i""uliy VI.I .
.. Ibid., VI.2.
,,, Ibid., 1V. 6.
Chaptel' 4
See Mo reall.
Theological-Po/iliml Tllalise IV, p. 429.
Ibid., XVII , p. 537,
See i\ loreall , SjJilwZ(,. L'expni/mud /";1"1';/1, p. <129.
Thmlogirll/-I'oliliml TIMII:" 111 , p. 4 18.
f o r more 011 IlisjlOsilio see Lu sl mligi,. du COIlO1IUS.
"f1u Disrmllvs l .55.
Ivi.
9 f o r more 011 lh is lopic, see m)' arliele e 'cornballere': Modi d el con
flino ncl pc nsiero pollico di Niccolo i\ b chb.vclli:
]U "f1u 1.2.
" AriSlOlle, PI>I;lic..\ IV.I J.
" I' o lybi us, Tht Histmif.s VI II.
IS t\rislo tlc, 1V.9.
" I' ol)'bi u . . Th ,. Hislmic. V I 18 .
.. Set: "Iso F. B"l1agli'l. "l..;. dottrill" ddlo 5[;110 mislO ne i po litici fi o re ntini del
Rivisla i"ln7ulZ.imla/' di fiJsofin. d,/ ,/,.lIo. 7 ( 1927). pp. 286-301.
,,; On Ihc mancI' o f :\lachavclli's Imowledge o f book VI o f I'olybius. see C. Oo n i-
1I011i. Aln.chiavdlnt! (To rino: Eillaudi. 1980) : Garin. M(jchiav,m 1m poliliaj e s/OIi a:
G. Sasso, MlIChin.u,lIi t g/i Iwlid,i e /I/Iri Sljggi (Mi lano: Ricciardi, 1987- 1997):
G. Sas.<;, NiI:w/o MIl/:hilwd/i (llologlla: 11 Mulillo. 1993).
" I' ol)"bius, "J1" tlislmi,s VI.'I.
,. "J1.e DiswUllil's 11. 2, p. 109.
" Ibid .. 1. 2.
fU See Thr p,1IUer. Dedicatio n.
.. TI, ,, 11 , Pref:iCe .
.. [bid,. I.S7.
"' [bid .. 1.58 .
bi d .. 1.5 .
.. , [bid . 1.6 .
... [vi.
: ' [vi .
[bi d . 1.17 .
.. [vi.
175
,,, See G. Bock. "Ch' il Discord in Mach iL\'e11i's Islmit: in G. Bock. Q. Ski nne ,-.
M. Viroli (eds.). Mllrhitwrlli mul Rrftublicm, ism (Cambridge : Cambridge Un ivers il)'
PreS!!. 1990 ) . pp. 181 - 202; G. Cado n;' Crisi {tl/(! mr,lim. ioue poli/ ica ,
ro/ljlil/; socir(i (Ro ma J ouve nce. 1994); /1 [. Sc nellarl. "La cri se de I'idee de con
corde che z !hins jhilosojhiq! r dI" S/msbowg. 4 (1 996). pp. 11 7- 133.
)1 Thr 1.37 .
.. Florrll/inr Inlrodllclio n. The hislor}' o f l h is perspecli"e goes back mllch
fUflher. howel"e r: man)' historieal eeounlS, sl arl';ng fro111 andenl limes, see 111
10 sufTe ,- fro lll Ihe same "wiUful oblivi o n" o f conn ic t. This is lhe starling po in! fo ,-
N. Lorall )('s slUdy U . /ir wh ich slIggests thal the idea o f sharing whic h li es
al lhe b.'lSC o f ,\mwm;(J is "lhe figllre II\" Ihe colleeli,'il)' o fllle d lize ns desires fo r
itself in Ihe reassuring g uise o f lhe illlerchangeable. Somehing like a uto p ia. in
o rder 10 cO"el" up wh,1 lhe dt)' has no desirc 10 sce o r e"e n hink about: Ihal I"irtu-
ally-and some tirnes in rcalil}"- Ihere is COnniCI al Ihe heart o f po lili cs. hat Ihe
division inlo IWO. ealamil)', is Ihe Olher EtCe o f he be autiful Cil)'-Ol1 e. "
" Florro /illF Ilis/mires 1\'.26 .
[bid . 1\'.!.
" See Gerbie r. mh/ulu r/lmli/i'lur.
,. Horn" i" , 111 . hl!roducliOIl .
' 1 Thi s h,s bee n argued cOll\"inci ngly by A. Malhe roll. Illdividu , / CQlIII/W'WUti ehn
SP,wU! ( Paris: Les Edilio ns de /IIin uit. 1969). who describes he functio nillg of
{he mime li c c)'cl es o fhuman afTects in re latio n 10 ci"illife a nd po lilics .
.. E/llies IV.34.
"" [bi d .. I\'. S5.
"'" [bi d . 1\'. 40.
" nrro{ogirll{ Polilia!' TIl',/i.v. XVIII .
" " j.
" [bid . XVII .
H [bid., XVIII .
" [vi.
"'" x e Ibid . XVI I.
" f OI" cxample, scc /l lalhc ro n. hrdivi<lz f/ COIIWWIUI1I/; e/rn Spillm.I, p. 46 1. This o pin-
io n is echocd by E. Ualihar. Sj,imxu! r/ I" Iwlili'l"t ( Paris: Prcs.>;cs UUi"cl'Silai rcs de
f rance. 1985). f. Zoul'abichl"ili e xpn:sses a mo re comp\c)( I"eading in his L,
,1{!/i5mt. lmmdoxlllr tir Spilrou. (Paris: I'rcsscs Unil'crsilaires de Fmnce. 2002).
'" Zoul'abiclwili bre a\;, ,1I\'a)' from lhc mo re cOI1\"e nl io nal inte rprClalio n al tbi s
(Jo inl, lho ll gb, c!ai mi ng Ih.1 pruvides a gCll ui ncly reading
o f lhe l"e pub1ic<ln
iti
" Po/ilim! Treulis, \1.5.
"" Ibid., V.4 .
.. Ibid,. V11. 5 .
., Ibid .. VI.2 .
No/es
., Ibid .. IX.14. As Bo\"e re marks quite rightly regarding tJlis passage in La slmligit tlu
eonalUS, p. 2ii: "In praisc o f c xchange, bU{ especi all )' of resistance and d iscord
whie h. in the wake o f l\lachia\"e llis Di.<icoul"sa 071 Ih , Firsl Tf'n Books of Lill). Spi nola
redisco\"crs as lhe eonstiluli\"e power:
... Po/i tiCtII TU'IIL'iI' IX.I 'I.
" Se.: / 1IIf)i.m"'rYS ].l ti.
"'" Ibi d .. 1.I7: "( BJecwse. if o ne considers ho w corrupllhc king:; had become, il is
clear lhal in lhe cour.;e OflWO o r lIuee gener,llions lhe cOlTuplio n inhen:rH in lhe
kingsllip ,,"u uld ha\"\: bcgun lU lO lhe members. ami, whe n Ihe lllembel'S
had becol11\: corrllpt, il wo uld no longer han! been possiblc 10 reforl11 Ihe111. BUI.
since lhe hed "'as 10Sl ",h ile lhe trllnk re mained whole iI was easily possible 10
brillg il bac k 10 a free and ordered mooc of life .. Ro me . th ClI, was eXlremc1)'
IlIck)" in Ihal killgs bceame eo rfllpt, witlt the result thal Ihe)' ,,"ere
e"pe!led before Ihe curruption had 10 lhe bowcls uf lhe eil)'. This
abscllee of corruptio n in faet, Ihe reason why t he mune rolls IllmullS ",hieh
look place in Rome, insti gated b)' ",e n o f good inlellt ions, did no harlll, bUI, 011
lhe COlllruy, we re lIl 10 Ih' l re publi c." &e (EUllIlI)' fll. Tmili
l/i%giwllO/i/iquf' ( Paris: Presses Uni"ersitaires de France. 1999). p. 778. nOl e "1
by Ihe translalors: "For Machia\'elli. lhe Ro mans eeased to be eorrupl lite instanl
lhey ehascd o ut lile Tarquins, Ihercb)' Iheir frct' do m. On Ihe con Lrar)'.
after lhe dealh o f Caesar o r Nero lhq' were no Ionger epable ofwinning back
Ihe ir freedom. rejeelS thesc dislinelio ns and maintains a negti\"e view of
Ro man history. [n lhis passage, as in the Politiul/1)mliM, he sccs Roman poli ties as
animaled by viole nte fro m ori,';ns, :lnd unable 10 e\'e .. escape from il. 1\)' chal'
acterizing lhe cOlI suls LS 'sc\"er11 I)'r.'nt.s in b ee of o ne,' he pie!;s "p again 0 11 lhe
pejora lil'e mode o f \ topos hal "i ews Ihe eonsuls as the SllceeSSOI'S lo Ihe ki ll bTS:
See liso Droeuo "li d Gi.ncotti"s comnH': nls in lheir 1I 0 1.e 10 Spino"l:"s n",,!ogiml.
Poli/iml Tml/w (To rino: Eina udi, 1980), p. 459: "Such a bri ef. super ficial accounl
oflhe Ihree phases o f Ro me's po lilieal h istor}" shows lhal Ihere W,IS an abyss divido
ing Spi no7A'I fmm lhe lII ost reeent gelleration of hunmnists in Lhe Nelherlamls
frOIll Ih is poinl of"ie\\' as ",el 1. ... Ralher than looking 10 Ihe quiek.wiued Maehia
\e lli. his onl)' leache .. in lhis regard scellls 10 h:t\"e been the slowwitted Ho bbes."
" Po/il ienl Trmlisf' IX.I" .
... See TI" /Ji 5CmWf .... 111 .:N.
" Politi,,,l Trw/ist X 10 .
" JI' i,
Chapter 5
"A Disco urse 011 Rc mCKlcling Ihe Go"cmme lll of Flo re ll c<o" [ 15 / 2. L(I mgioll'
tldl"mlilum:ll. do", "1 si 111lOvi. rl 1,ut du biSflgni f mr Posl in ehi'f ]\'0/;".'
ami Olhen; [ofIl 1achiLI'ellij. \' 01. 1.
TI" /Ji.sCOWY.<i I l .
I\'i.
Copyrighted Material
No/es 177
, n", Diseou"" 1.58.
& See T. Berns, Vio!ellct de la In; a. la t'tllai-ssonct. L'miginain! (luIJO/iUque chez. JUachiavel
el M01llaiglle ( Paris: Kim, 2000) .
6 $ce L. Baccclli , "'Machiavclli , la ttadizionc I'cpubblic"lna e lo SlalO di dirillO," in
P. eruta, D. Zolo (eds.). Lo S1alo di dirillo. Sloria, leona, critica (Mil ano: Fel tri nell i,
2003), pp. 424-459.
, This also ex plains why I-he idea or recursivity is preferable LO ci rc;:ulariry. Circularity
recalb a linear, teleolgical de\'elpltl erll in the rel ationship blwen lhe variolls
clemcllls. whereas lhe idea of recur h1ty is intended LO underline lhe endlessly
open, never definithrely del.ennined characte r o rthis relaljonship_ The reciprocal
influence between poliLics and law, ando ultimately. between la,,", and conflicto is
nOL a peace ful . li near process: il '1er ks" alo ng conti n uously, llnexpecLedly stop-
pi ng in itS tI"acks al limes, or suddenly leaping
8 17u: DiscQu1"ses 1.2.
'ji Por mure On 1h e "cncounler," se Allhusscr, Sul f/wlmlls11Io akal.orio.
lO 'fl,e DiscQurses 1.2.
11 ror a more in-dcpth disc ussion on lh is topic, $Ce m anide flI Disputarc' e com-
battere' : modi del conl1i uo ne1 1>ensiero poli ti co di Machi avelli ."
12 The Di.scoufSl!.s 1. 2: "lhe ble nding of these estates made a perrect cornmonwealth ;
and . , . iL \\'as fricLion bClwccn lhc plebs and lhe scnalC lhat broughllhis pcrfec-
lion abou1. ...
13 Ibid., 1.4.
11 See AJLhu.s.se r. Mnchinvelli lUId Uso
15 See T. BenlS, Violence dt i. loi a III nmessmu:e, who spcaks about lhe .. t:ircularit uf
lhe relalionship belween law and conmelo Bm for lhe reasons given aboye, Lhe
concepL is preferable in lhis COll teXl.
Hl TIte DiscQursts 1.37.
17 TM Prillee XV! 11.
" 77", Diseou"" rn .1.
" Ibid . 1.9.
'i'O i'7lJrnll: J-/iHtm.ts 111 ."1 2.
" Allhllsser. Machiavelli O"Iut Uso
t2 77v. Dcou1"51!S 1. 34.
"U As. Plato does, for cxamplc
J
t..h rough Callieles' words in t.he (483b-484c) .
!1 HorenJine 1l i5f.mi.f.s 1 JI . "1 3.
15 G. Sasso, Nieco/b poillt.S LO an AugusLinian undertOIlC fro111 Tite Cil)\ 01
Cod IVA.
" L Al thusser, crils pllilosophi,!"" el poliliques, Vol. 11 ( Pan.: Slock e l 1M EC, 1995) .
., Tile Disco""", 1.21.
'lS TJ'IL Pri.nce X II l .
., 11", 1.43.
Ivi .
" Sec Arl oJ War VII.
" One lhal speak.s for.1I of ,hem is the Riforma wlleta el "'diosa by Fri.r Domenico
Cecchi. See U. MazzQne, "'El hllon golJeYJw. Un JnvJJltUlI di riJonna 1lell
Fwell1.' savolllllvlian" (Florcnce: Olschki, 1978).
M 11U! Disc(}une$ JJ .IO.
178 No/es
,.. The tmt h is quite the opposite. Se ibid.: repeat . the refore: b'O[d is not the sin-
bUI b"ood soldiers,} re. Gold is nect:s-.a ry. bUI isof seconc\ary imporlance.
ami good soldi<;:N can gel il fOf lh<;:mseh'es:
" Ibid .. U.18 .
." Ibid .. 1. 6.
" I\"i.
.. On lhis poinl. see a[so G. Cado n i. "Macha"elli teorieo dei connilli sociali: S/mla
t Poli/iea, [7 (1978). pp. 19 7-220.
'" 17u 1.6.
I\"i.
" f orexample, lhe qll;lnlilyofmotioll 01' lhe fael Ihal"iflwO me ll come wgdher
,md joill forces. lhe}" han: mo re powe r o"er Nature. ,md eonsequen tlr mo re r iglll.
th"n e ither o m: ,llolle; "lId lh<;: gn.:al er the l1"ml:><:]" who fonll a lI11 iull in lhisw:t )",
Ihe more r ight Ihe)' wiJl tQb>elher possess" (1'oli/im/ 11 . 13). musl be lInde r-
slood as disLnel fmm lhe law b), wh ich me n decide to u<lllsfcr a par! oflhei r righl
10 sel up a stale .
., 17uoWgiml-Poli/ir:a1 Ttlllli.\t IV .
., I\"i.
" Tht LPllers XIX, pp. 809-810 .
., Once :tb<ain, \\"hal is mea!)1 hr ",o""no n 0 1" Ihe plebs is 11 0 1 a soc ial
1\lnt bul n ' lht: l". fOI" e xal1lpl e, a religiolls so;:el Ihal illsisls 011 influeneiug lhe bws
oflhe slale wilh its re ligious precep ts all d rites. Iril happens lO be lhe pl ebs who
fo nn lhe slIperstitious masscs led b)' lhe theologians in Spinoza's time, lhe causes
for Ihs. whi ch based solel r o n social and hi swl"ieal faclOrs, require an e xpla-
nalion. See, fOI" exa mple, lhe f'olilieal Tuml ist VII .27 aud belo\\' .
... See T. Hobbes D, Gil' X. 8.
,1 l1JeolngiCfII-Puliliml 11"f'fIl i.\l! IV, p. 0\27 .
.. 1le \\"ho knows, fOl" inSla nce, Ihe necc&si!>' of Ihe bel !hal "if 1\\"0 men come
loge lher and join forces, !hey h,,'<;: more powef ol'er NalUre, . ud con"-C(IUe n dr
more right . lhan e ilhe r 011e
., "l1uolog;ml-P(}liliCII! V. One of Ihe of Moses, for exampl e, l es pre-
cisdr in Ihe faCIlh;l\ h e led Ih<;:Jcws lO obedience wilhoUI resorting 10 fea r.
'" TIIw!ogiwl-Polilim/ IV. p. 428.
"' fJoliliCflI TrellliM 11. 19.
"' Ibid., VA.
'" "l1"nlngir:IIf-Po{ilicol IV, p. 429.
In lhis respect, allho llgh Velthll)'SCu is a philosophe r, he is typieall r crllde ami
ib'1.IO'<I"I, in the Spinozisl sellSC o f [he word .
See ne uum; XLI I.
JI; See Ib id., XLIII .
1 Ibid., pp . 879-880 .
.. Sec C. DdclIZC, Spino;..lI: I'melical Ph ilosoPh)' (San Francisco: Cil)' Lights. 1988) .
TIIl'OlogiCflI-Poliliwl Trt'alis, IV.
"" See Ib id., XVI alld Polilie/l/ 11"mlis, 11 .8.
"' Sce 1!. <libar. Spimfi." ,11" po/il i,/z/t, p. 72 .
, Ibid., p . 7-1-
., See fJolitim! "lin'l iM 11 .9- 10.
COPl/figllted Material
Notes 179
6i "Uniqudy>l in Balbar!,s. \\'ords.
(6 Sce p. 75: "''"'le must be careful n Ol LO interprellhis del1nition exclusivel)' Lhrough
LIl e mode of con nicL or course. it exisl'i., and what Spinoza calls a ' Slate of natufe'
is an extreme situation in which individual powcrs are practicall)' incompati ble
with each olher. '"
" Salibar, SpilloZIJ ella politiqu .. pp. 75-76.
61 II ma)' abo be added fhal. in Balibar's hller wril.i ngs, up lO his \\'ork on lhe "tran-
sin.di vidua)" in lh e sccnd half of lhe 1990$, lhis intetpretatioll ",as l'loLi ceabl y
revi sed. The ligid dicholoffiy between posive sum dynamks and negau\'c sum
dyn amic!i in lh e inte raction between righ L" and powers \v-mi reconsidered , for
example, and replaced by a more complex notion of CaUs.,Ii LY able LO explain.
among other thing.!>, lhe virtuous d)'namic.s of self-orga nization and resolution of
conflict in the multitude. Sec especially E, Balibar, Sfrillo1.a: m m l lUlitlittllaUl)' (o
Tm/l.l'i/ldivid"Uo/ily (Delfc Ebu roll. 1997).
(oS DeleU2., J::xpP1!ssitmisfll in PlUlosoplry: SPl.Ow ..
69 V,rilh no di.fference belween humans and nonhumans. For example, il is bad for
Adam lO eal forbidden Ii'ui l. BUl it is good for me tO l ove lhe person. \I/ho loves
me, so LhaL our joy may increase and our perfection and power along wil.h il.
70 Deleuze, ExJ1rP.'iSionm in Philmoplr),: p. 23<1.
" Ibid., p. 258. Sec 'l1,eologiealc!'olilical 1reatist XVI and Political '!'rtl1tist 11.5.
" Poli/ieal "fuatw X .9.
7" Deleuze, in PlUlmoplry: Spinm;.a, pp. 237- 238.
7i BUl also from lhal ofCrol.i us. In an imponant article on "Spinoza el la problma-
tique j uridique de Crotius," MalhefOlI dcscl;bcs Lhe fonllation ol' Spinoza's
phjlosophy oC law com pared LO lhose of J-I obbes and Grotius, ror Crotius, Lhe la""
ha.o al leal'll three distincl meanings. In the ftnt sen.o,e, law meanL a "quality" of
actions. qualifying Lhe JUSl or unjusl. lhal which can be done \\'ith or wiLhoUlj llS-
liceo In Lhe second. law signified <l Uquality" oC peopl e, meaning a "Cacul ty." This
.sccond aspecl is close .. lO what we no\\l' cal! a "sllbjecLive la\\," (propcny, t.he power
fO order oursehres or Olh ers lO do somelhing, and the facult:y lO demand what is
owed). In the Lh iru sense, it is undr'Slood. a.s the la. \\' r rule of a ma.nda.lory
action, lhal is. a law in lhe o bj ecLive .sense, No",", according to Malheron, Spinoza
incorporates lhese bases while significanuy transforming l.he Grotian conceplion
by Il'laking chMJ. ges tO each of tllCSC lhrec meanings of lhe la\'I lO be lound in
Grotius's work.
75 See MOl'cau, SphWUI. L't xjJmimtt el l'iltmili, p. 11 5.
M Poli.t:ical Treatise fU 5.
7' And i' possible, as Bove in La stmligie du conaLus, "lh e ",hole o' lhe
multiLUde."
78 8ove. 1.0 stragie du. conatus.
10 Dyn<lmism, then . is a form of resistance and "lhe SLabilily of delll ocrauc inslitu-
Lions depends paradoxically on lheir 'willi ngness lO engage in ralional criticism
and change. rcsponding lO lhe needs and dcsires ohhe pcople in its incrcasingly
perfeel self-orga ni zalion, that is. in an arra ngemenl lhal is ever more sui ted lO
me 'l.SSertive stratebrr of ule colleclive body, " See lbid.
80 "An onLogcnctic poil1l of vie\\i' of natural rigl1l and of lhe law, polen/io, and 110l
power," in the wurds of Bove, Lo stmJigie du on<J.lUS.
180 No/es
.. Sec NCb,,-i, "/'Iu Srnmgt ti nmnll l)' and NCb'd , Jnsurw,t.f: Pmlfff.
"" BI)\"c, La slm/igil'''' conatus .
., Ami, inasmuch as ;1 is rel, il is al lhe S<l I11<: lime coopcralh'O! "nd cOlln iclual,
with 0 1l1 e ithe r of these aspeclS bcing able (O p re\,!iJ o \"e r the o the l".
'" Politi wITrealiseVI I .16.
"' bid., \/11.1 6-17.
"" Theological-PQ/ilical 1)"('(llw, )\'VII . Sec Zourabichvili. Lf ronserofllistn, jmnu/Q:mlt
ti, Spil1ow.
bid., p. 545.
AA bid., pp_ 54'1- 545.
"" nuologinl l-I'olitia' T'Nj/iS#' XVII ami Poli/iml Tr/'illi:;, VI I ,28.
"" L Mugn ie r-Po llel. LII phi losoJlhi, pofi liqUf drSpi llU'J/ (Paris: Li brairie ph ilosophigue
J. Vrin. 1976) . p_ 186.
I! biel .. p.187.
"', Sec slIjml U. 2 and 1I/"lo/W/I,. I.4.
" PIJ/ilical TrtllliY 11. 1 S .
.. Sec Ib id., 11 .1 3- ]'1.
Chapter 6
QuinlUS Curtius Rufus. Thr llislOl )' of L\ In:fmd,.,. ( Londo n: I' e ngui n. 1984).
Francesco Gui cciardi n i. 0 11 Ihe Discourses o f Mac hiavelIi: in
11111 Swul/I'.ss of Powrr: ,\'lldlilWtllis Discow"SeS (# Guiaitm/illis tr:1IlS-
laled b)" J. B. Atkinson ami D. Sices (De Kalb: Northern 11lino is Uni" c rs il)" Press.
2002). pp. 58 ami '122 (slighlly adaplcd ) .
R. Esposito, COml1l1l11itas. t dr.;l i/1O dt l/u COI IIIt/li/t) (Torino : Einaudi,
J!198).
1lo bbes. Dr Civr XII .8.
See Bo'e. La slmligit IItI COllaIUS. p. 26 1.
Ibid. , J 1. 33.
11l r Discolllv.s 1.57.
Ibid .. I.'I .
! Ibid .. 1. 29 .
]U "I' rocli\"ius eSI iniuri;c, quam hendido \"icc m exsoll"e rc. quia b'Talia o ll e !"i. ullio in
questu
11 I"i.
" Ib id . 1I1. 29.
" Ibid . 1. 58.
" Ibid . 1. 58.
" Th r p,.illf:r IX.
1'; I"i.
" "..
l. This is Ih e conclusi o n of A. Bonadeo. "The Ro le of lhe Peo plc in Ihe Wo rks
ami Times o f Machiavd!i: Bihliolh"IUt II"/Jlllnflllis/ll t tl/mllisSfItlCf. 32 ( 1970).
pp. 35 1-370.
IQ non'''/;/le HislOlP-s 1\'.27.
181
fU See [he "Descriplion orlhe Wa)' Used by Duke Val entino lo Ki!l Vilcllo lzo Vitelli.
Oli\'erolLO da Ferl11 o, Messer Pagol0 aod [1, c Duke of Gnlvina Orsini," ;11 CM,/
II'm'ks fl nd Ollin'S [or r. lachi ' l\'elli ] \'oL l .
, Th, p,.inu VTI .
." bid .. XVI I.
., T/t 11 1.6 .
Tllf. hiT/u XIX.
T/, DMow"Sl!s 11.24 .
.. r Ol" more on he civil p,"inccdoTll, seo: espcdall)' 1-1 . l\aron, Thc
Repuhlk1ll Citizcll :md he A\llhor of Ihe PI1"" Ct: /;,'"gli.{h 1-h{IQrim{ Rrvin", 76
(1961), pp. G. C;doni. \f"r/ifw'li. Rrgno di !'nBlrill ' "!"i"rilml,t;vi/,."
(Ro ma: Bulzoni. 1974) .
1 Tlle J"'?ince IX .
8 [vi
... [vi .
..., Thcy also pl"Ovidc c\'idc ncc tha! herc is no break bctwccn Pri,luam] Tlu Dis-
as far Ihe ll1aill hemes of Mac hial'e lli's political ph ilosophy are
concerned.
)1 See Bonadeo, "The Ro le of Ihe I' eople ," pp. 375-376 .
.. Ibid. See :tlso t\. Ikmadeo, MThe Role of the 'Gralld' in the Po ltical Wo dd of
Machial'c1l," S/lUli,s il! // , RnwisvHlu. 16 (1969), pp, 9- 30,
., J .C, ZlIIcarini. MGl IImo ri del coq>o politico: 'popo lo' e 'plebe' nelh.: opere di
'\'I<lchial'elli," in A. Pontremoli (ed.). Lf! linK1U1' {illgur di Ml1c/ il1l1FIli .. 1 11i lid
WllVfg'110 di s/wli ( TUrill, 2-4 D/ambl':!' 1999) (Flo rence: Olsch ki,
pp. 01-70.
bid .. p. 61.
" Sce F. Del Luccl ,esc::. "'Disputan: ' c ' co1l1batten:.'"
.. ' Zallcarini, "Gli umol; del carpo po lti cO: p. 6!l. If the dcmands o f the Ciompi
re n ccl Mach ia\'c11i's cllllHeh.:nsion o f :tn extrcrm: ly econornic md
social complex ity, in Zancarini's \'i .:w Ihis cornpr.: he nsio n '<lnishes in lhe speech
and words o f lhe ano nymo us p1ebei<ln. causing il 10 lose its co nceplual d eplh.
Z .. ncarini bd<;;\'.:s Ih:,\ lh.: Ci o rnpi 0,"101" is acl"aH)' ex prcssing "Machi:L\'e ll's
\"Oce. lone. and lho ugh" ralher lh;U1 his own demands,
sr NCI'c ,' lhcless, Zancarin i suggests hat his would at lhe salLle lime imply a loss of
he cOlllplcxity thal ]\1ach ial'clli's reasoning had laboriollsly gained in he carlie r
pagcs of T/lr P11Jl(e alld Tlu> l-/i.,'/(II1P.$. By sp(!:tking l\ lach:wdli's languab'e, ';;I)'S
Z:;ul<; ;orni. Ihe ;\IIonymous plebei;", is ;t bl e 10 ex press he po litical philosophe r's
realist cOl) cepiolls. J-I owel"er. he is not able to tho"-C or the
>eople" and (he "Iowcsl ple bs" o f which he is a me mbe r, n:,mel)'. he
"uruusl soci"l-econo mic mechanism thal oppresses lhe See
[bi d .. p. 70 .
.. For more on Ihis lopie $Ce especia]])' I'ontremo li (ed. ). L" lillg!!l! e k ling!!, di
MI. c/i"vtW. ami, once again, hc illlpo,tanl re lllarks by Fo urnel. Z-"tllc"rini. /.t.
Imlgue du I'rince .
) Sec "Iso G. Sas..oos I"Cmarks in Nicww M"ch!lI l1tUi. who Slresscs lhc "restraincd
tone" or the :tccompanicd, howel'er, b)' a "lheoretcal becausc
!l1C spc.: ch is IHcsellled in a Mpllrel)' rhelo ric:'[ dimensiun. a1\(1 f,lils (o out.
Copyriglrted Material
182 Notes
ifnOllhe specific difficulties (which would nOl have applied here) , even l he
cal. problcmatic aspecl involved,"
40 f7l)Pr.r"ti1I.l HislQri.es III.1 3.
4 1 It "Iso expresses the principie lhaL al! poliLical order are necessari ly contingento
The an!'iilOCratic logos, wh ich demands re\pect and obedience by vi rtue o f a nalU
ral arder, is UI'ldcnnincd by lhe rccogniti o'1 of the comOlon (ature of mano
Philosophy cannOL assert a nalUral inequaliL)' bel,\'een people withoul assening,
ul lhe same time, lh e crisis of lhe very concepl of inequali l}': lhe assertion bears
its own ncgation. Sce Disflgrtemt"l: PolUics aJul Philos()ph)'.
4!! See M. Fin ley, Demacro!:)) Andent ft.nd Modcrn ( London: Chatlo and "''''i nclus,
1973) .
See Eth:,s liI. Appendix. Ceneral Defini tion ofthe AfI'eclS. Explanation.
+4 Ibid. , 11.1 3 Scholium .
.. l bid., rV.38.
46 See the Note LO Lettcr66 in which Spinoza bnLSquelyends his dialogue Boxel
on tbe lopie of spirilS after lloullg lhe compl etely close-mil1ded bias of his super-
st.itious cOrTe!5ponrlenl.
-47 &:c P. -r". Morcau, "f.picurc t Spinoza: la physique," Arrhives dI! philosophie,
57 (1994), pp. 459-469.
48 L Rove, "Epicure isme etspinozisme: l'Lhique,'" Af'Chives dr- philo..wlJhU:, 57 ( 1994),
pp. 47 1-485.
-t!I Ibid. , p. 474. See aIso Bove, LLl sl mligie dn conatus.
5(1 Sovc, l'Epicul'cismc cLspi llozismc," pp. 47---477.
31
:So2 Ivi .
3! Spinoza's discOtl fSC on mis topie can also be made clcal'cr by disti nguishing
between his vafious works. In the TheolQgical-Polifical Trootise, for example. the col-
lective. political dimension of freedom is suboI'dinale lO lhe ovetriding
importa nce of individual paLhs loward rreedom from fea r and superSlition. In
lh e Polilicttl 7h!1lIist, inslcad, it is t.he political centralilY of lhe 't1/:ulfit utlo lhal bIings
lO me rore Lhe need lO joinLly conceive individual freedom and colleclive
rreedom.
!tI Lucfe tius, De rtrum ntllu11l 11 , 586-588: "; thc more qualilics alld pO\\fers a thing
posse.'iSes, the more illell:'i- lhal it has a great q uan uty of difTerent aloms and of
vancd shapes." Scc also M. Zanatdi,"Il corpo ngencrato," /1 e.tlla,,"', 5 (1982) ,
pp.5(Hj6.
55 See especiall}' E. Halibar, "SpinOl.l, l'lllli -Orwell. La cmi me des mas.ses," in
La cmi"le des IIU<SSeS. Po/iliq""1 philosplli. a!XI,,1 el apris Marx (Pans: Ga1i1c, 1997)
and Balibar, Spi,ww: Frvm 'ldividualiJ)' le 1hmsindividu,alit).
'" 'nIeologicalPolica/7realise XVII.
" Ethics lll. 31 Coro1I ar)' .
.ss Ivi.
!09 for more on Lhis, see ,"V. Momag, &lies, Masses alla Power. SpillOza aua 1 lis Dmtem-
f)()T(1ries (I.ondoll . Ne", York: Ve=, 1999).
toO Balibar bclicve.s lO thc cOIllrary that it is pn.>ciscl)' in this fi nal \"ork thallhc apo--
nas in Spinoza's poltical thought come complele ly lO lighl. un resolved
"3
importan! iSSllCS li ke lhe "nalUrar sulxlluinllion of Ihe [emale gcnder. 0 1" lhe
rdaton between lhe power of Ihe nlultitude and Ihe constanl dallb>"ef of revolu-
lio n ami SUbH! rsion of lhe established m-de r. Fo r t!u:se qUI:'stions, see "Iso
r. Cristofolini. Spinma tliOll ish' (Pisa: ETS, 2002) especially chaptc r 3. "Aporie
dclla libcrt.'i. "
. , Scc Morfi na, IIltmpO f /'occ/lsiOlu .
, TllfologU:(I /-HJliliml J)1!/lli.v XVI.
"1 [bi d .. XVIII .
.. T/,DM:olll"Sl's I11 .9 .
, Poli!irnl'Tl f flti,I,VI I .27.
0'06 I\-i.
Fr.mcesco Guicciardini. /\/a.Yims /l/uf Rrjlfcl io/ls (Philadelphia: Un in: rsitr of
I'ress. 1972 .
.. See mpm and also Zourabiclwili. Lr ronsf'nllllism, jmmdoxlllf dr Sj,illQw
.. E/li jes 111 .59 Scholiutll.
,,, Polila,l VI [.5.
71 E/ir.s IV, Axio ltl.
" p"miml r ' l'tllivVII ,3.
7) [bid., VII . I.
" [hid . V[l1. 3.
1. [bid .. VI.5.
'c I bi d .. XL l .
Chapter 7
I J.-L. [\'''11')'. B"g Si"gulm'l'luml ( [',,Jo 1\110: St, . nford Univl:rsit)' [' 1'1:"". 2000).
Ibi d .. p. xv,
[bi d . p. 32.
[bi d .. p . . 1---'12,
[bi d .. p. 42.
For Machia"dli's biography. O. Tommasini's LII vi/(I 'gli se/iui di Nccol "'"chill-
velli IIfll" 10m reltuio",. co/w<l c';'lVd/islllo (To rillo: Locsc hc r. 1883) is slill c xu'Cll lcly
userul. bUI R. Ridol fi' s I'i/'I di Nicco/ \[lIrhi'J!Jelli (Ronl:': A1110n ;0 lkl;rdeni.
(954). rcmains irrcplaccab1c. rcccnl works Jikc Viroli. 11 SOI"tso di Nce%.
51",il1 di Mflf:hi(jil,lIi (&tri-Ro ma: Laler .... '1. 199R) afld 1.. Villari, Nicw/O MfU:hiavflli
(Ca,,:;le 2000), do 11 01 "dd :1I1)'lh ing !le\\' 10 Ihl: fidd.
Lene r 10 Fr.mcesco VI:1to ri. d a ll:d J anllal"}' 3 1. 15 15. On lhl: Mac hi,,,,d li-Vetto ri
cOlTesponde nce. see J . M. Najemr. Belutee/I Flie/u/s: o/ Pome/' (11111 Desire;"
Iht ,\lIlchimtelli l'I!uOli Lmm; o/ 1513-/515 ( I' rillccton: ['dllcctoll Unil'c rs ily I'ress.
1993).
A "Wo rds lO be Spo ke n o n lhe Law for Approprialing Moncy.w in Ghi,/ \\\nXs (mil
[of Machia\'clli ]. 1"01. [11 .
ll'i.
In [I'i.
" Thr. Disrollrst's [.6.
COPl/l"ighted Material
184 Notes
HQrlmfine -listones V . .
u See also Cerbier, /-listoirt, midtci.nt el poliUque; M. Caille- "A la recher-
che d' une dfiniLion des institllLions de la libert. La mdeci ne. langage ctu
poli tique chez Machi"vel: A,trioll 1, (2003), hup:! / asle.ion.fevlI es.org/ docu-
men Lh tml?id=14.
" 'n" Disco!l1'S<s 111.49,
" Ibid" m ,l, Slightly ada pled,
16 bid., 1. 2.
" TI" p,.""e XV,
" Ibid., XVIII.
l'i.l Ivi.
'M l bid. , XXV.
I I TluDiscou'm!s IIJ .9.
':!2 Ibid., 1.20.
'23 V. Morfino. "L'evoluzione della cal,egoria di causal iu'i. in Spinoza," Rivis({l. di simia
de/la filosofia 54 (1999) , PI', 239- 254 and V. Morfi no, "De.- SaLZ vom Gntnd
Spi noza und Leihniz. Ueber eine rndikale Ah.ernative der
in H. Poser (Hrsg.), ihil sine ralionc: MI11ISch, Ntllu'f'lllul "Jecll.nik im Wirlum 'iJ(m
C. W Leiblliz: Vil III/emarionaler Uibllh-KolIgreji, Scilinlll,emd/Ofl: Der Regier""de
Brgermei.der 1KJ1/. Rerlil, (Rerlin: Gottfried \\"i lhelm Lebni 7. Gesellsc:haft, 2001).
pp, 838-845,
'M Ethics JI 1. 51.
" 'I7"olbgical,PoliliCllI 7nat;,e XX.
'lfI Ivi.
" EOlia IV.33.
,. POlical Treat;", n, I 5.
'l9
!M.l See Bove, La stralgie llu conalUS.
" Ibirl., 111.] 2.
32 1 , .. ill lirnit rnyself in Lhis coutext tO sinlpl y indi cate the diflerence between the
(Wo temu scientia and rogllititJ. U Spinoza uses lhe second teml much more fre-
qlle nll y rJl an l he Ii.-sl, he defines lhe lhird kind o r knowledge alone as a "science. lO
S. Shirlcy tranSlalS lhe c. prcssion scmtia intuiti.va, in liJliics lI AO Scholimn 2 as
"il1luition," which utterly obscures lh e meaning of lh e Latn origi nal. G. H. R.
Parkinson (Oxford, Ncw York: Oxford U Press, 20(0), inslcad uses "imu-
uve knowledge," an expression lhal is albeil closel" lO lhe original. bUl which
nevenheless does nOl allow u.s LO di.scenl lhis linglListic difference and the philo-
sophical problcm il implies.
" E/mes UAO Scholillm 2.
,. See Eil!ies U, Definitions 3 and 4. If in lhe neal;", o)/, " .. Em",dali"" oj/ile IIIIe/kc/
Spinoza argues Ihal the true idea and the adequate idea merge nlO true
knowledge, in t.he Elides he rnakes a disti nctin for ",hat concems th e cnvt."'-
nience (conmmienlia) of the idea wilh lhal of which i L is the idea [ideatum) .
Lhe tme idea is lha L which c.om'enes (cOIwieflt!) , .. it.h iLS own objecl (an
exuinsic denorni nation), thc adequation is inslcad a fonnal characlcrislic (an
intrimic denomnaton) of Lhe idea considered "in l<relf relation lO iL ..
ObjCCI:
185
,. Poliliw/ Trw/iM K l ,
... c'lhics 11.40 Sc ho li mll 2 .
., &e Macherc}', In/md'If:I;ol! li I";Jhi'lllr SI,il!oa, ,,, rlrwrmr Imr/ir; /1' ,,,,,lit; mrl!t"lr
( Paris: Prcs.scs Unh'c rsi ta ires d e F"ancc, 1997), p. 297.
'"" Sce YOIC1. "T hc T h ird Kind o f Knowled ge as Alte rnati,c S.-ll,,, tio n" in E. Cmlcy.
I).-F. 1>I OI'cau (cds.), SpillllUI I",tus 111111 I)illx lious. Tlu Procurling". o/ l/Ir Cltimgo
!)l'llrdl Ctm/er'l'l!{f ( Le idcn: EJ. Uri!!, 1990), pp. 157-1 75. T his is Yi rmiph u Y(>I'el"s
interprelatio n, in whic h he considcrs 10 Ix- thc "marrano o f reason ."
'" See ibid., pp. I fi9-- 1 70: W:l.S no t a Tllystie, bU! he recob'll ized in Tll)'Su cistll
" misgui<h: d fo nn ofye;lming "od e ll dea"or I\' hi eh, corrcetl)' by rea-
son ;uld lhe t h ird kind ofknowledge and s"ided la ils prope r o bj ecl, will bccome
lhe ratio nal phi losopher 's ""y o f s."I\"atio n . a reward as rare a nd high in ach e\"e-
mcnt as tlml whieh mystics ha"c bce n pretend ing- to auain by irratio nal me ans.
In o l he r wo rds. il will be a secular (ami !nll)' un in:rs."\1. as dis!inguished from !hc
Ca!ho lic claim 10 u nh'c rsal ity) form ofsah"o n."
.., Ibid ., p. 167: "Lmc phi losophY---Cl'e n aL the ICld of mlio--is ne"e r fo r a
maller fo r the multi!ude ."
" .5I:'t:, for e xa11lple, S. S111i 1h, SI'"'r..o; LiI"""lism, ""d o/ Idenlit),
(London , New 11;,,en: Yak Un\"e rsil)' Press, 1997), & t: ;llso S, Smi t h Sj,intn.l
B(J(} oJ Lifr: (wtlllt t Rnif"' jllim. ti Ilt r ( New .];ll'en : Vale Unil'e rs il y
I'n:ss, 2003) .
., See Slrauss. SI,intn.11 s Criliqur o/ Rdigior!. p. 219,
., R. Bode i, Grom,I,ifl pIIssioni: Pmml . sfJmwUI, Jelicilli: jilosofilt , liSO poliliro,
( Milano: f dtri nc ll i, 1991).
H See B. Ro us.<;et, ho mini dues, :l. ll l h ropologie el humanismc dans II l1e con
cepuo n spinoziste de r etre: in L'immtll,nrf el le Sil/ul : Regaras (l 'aris:
Ki rll ,2000 ) .
., Elhirs 11.4 7: humalla ad ae(l u:tlam h;Lbe! egniLio llem :te te rnac e t in fi nil;le
esSt: n t i,lC hUlllan mind h .. s an "dcqu;I!e knowl cdg.: of (h.: e lt:rn;,1
a nd in finite essence o f God." ) See also, Ibid .. \'.2'1: "Quo m .. gis res sillgul ars in tcl-
ligilllus, eo magis Dcum in!e lligi mus." mo rc wc unde rsland singu lar t ll ing,;,
t he mo rt: we umkrsmnd
.. Ibi d .. 11 .47 Scho lium: "Hence we sce Lhal God's infinite esse ncc and h is elc rnil)'
are knowll to a l! . Now since al! things are in God ancl are concci\"ed through God,
it fo ll ows tha! fmm Lh is knowlcdgc \\"c can deduce a greal rilan)' Lhinb'S so as !O
kno,," thc llI :tclequatelr and !hus to fo nn tha L third kincl of knowledb'C I me ll-
lio ned in Scholiulll 2. l' roposilion 40, ] l. of t.he supe rio ril)' ;l1Id lht: u:l';,fulne ss of
whieh we shall hal'e occasion 10 speak in Pa rl V."
H In lhe 1"lm,i tlc/io" I"Ellti'lur tir Sjli.tn.". 11 , l' ie rn: l\ b che rt:r ,lIso e mpha.size s lhe
cxp;msh"l! ami usually char" cle r o f l' ro posil io n 47 o f part 11 amI ils
scholium .
... ElhicsVA2 Sc ho lium: "Ifthe macl ] have po illled o ut as Icading to th is go al scems
\'cry dillic uh, )'e t il ca n be In und . Indeed, ",hal is so ra rel)' d iscOl'e red is bOll nd to
be hard . For if sa ll'alion ,,"e re ready to hand and could be disco"erc d wi t ho m
grcaL to il , hol\' could it be Lhat it is almosl ulli\"e l'sall)' m:glcctcd? Alllhings e xcel-
le n! are :b d iffkllh as the)' are
.0 See Matht: ro ll 's I>/ ;I)/lI/I pi cOIJJlJtlowuli duz S/Jillow. ]J;,rti cularlr chap te r X IV.
186 No/es
'" In thissense, Elllir.s VAO Scholium is of pl' im,uT ill1po1'I,1I1ce; "1I i"clear [" .] lhal
our l11i1)(l, iT\saf:.r it understands, in an ekm:,l mode o r Ihinking: which is
delerrnined b)' :onolhe .. elcm:ol rnodc of thin king:, ;tm[lhis ag::.ill by "nolher. "nd
so o n "d infinitulll. with the resnl t that the)' ,,11 togethc r constilule the eternal
ane! infinite intcl lec t o f God:
Scc Mae hcrq', 1llllUl/Zlelioll li /'EIII;'/II, dt S/li 'lOla, /tI dtllXihnt /l11,.li,: 111 ,in/ilt well l llu,
p.29i.
" philosoph)' makes a cenu-al distinetion oclweell IWO difTercnt cOll ceplS
of l)Owel' thal COlTespoml to lhe L"ltin IlOl nllil/ am[ pol esllu. Polnlli" is power or
ri ght lhal is eoc);lensi,'e wilh actual. !Hale ral rea!i7;. tio ll (.';Ce "(JlI'o{og'{(/'
Po/ilien! 'nmlis, XVI. for ex:omplc), whe n:as JJOI,sl l/s, is lhe mcdi;lI cd arlculalioll
of /,oltmlin in Ihe form o f polilical amhoril)' amI instillHions. The distinction
octwccn enactcd powe r (pon lll ) and formal powcr (POlt.sIW;) eorrcspo nds
respec ti,t:1y lo Ihe !talian le nns JJOlmla amI IJOlnl'. bUI ha .. e no corresponding
distinction in Eng:lish (for a lcnglhicr discllssion of lr:anslaling thesc le rms illlo
English, scc Miclmcl ' laJ'dl's in Anto ni o Negri's Tli t
SnvIIK' tll/OIIW/)'). To eladr)' this diITerc nce, 1 have Ihel"Crore simpl), inclndc.:l the
correspondi!l g L"llin Lerms in p;nelllhescs ll eXI 10 Ihe English. This dislillCtioll is
partcu];lrlr impo rt' Ul! in the fo lJo,,' ing essay, sincc il sec ks 10 sho\\' ho'" Ihe fo rms
o f kll owledb>"C "'Id comple x ideas Ihat accompan)'" of
sac el)', arisc ;IS ,lll eXlension of lhe re,tliwlion of inler.lc t.ions betwee n
bodies '1IId forces and Iheir singular. mal e rial combinaLo ns. thal is, willlill the
\"el1' "aulo-organi7."llio n o f Ihe multilude in a ;1IId nOI as Il-anscen-
denL, elile, 0 1" , j P'10/1" formu laLo ns .
.. f."l lIir.s 11 .<11.
)< Ibid .. V.28: MThe cona lUS, 01' desre [cIIIJidi/asJ. to know thin,'"S b)' the lhird Kind
ofknowlcdge canno t arise from the firsl kind ofknowlcdgc, bUI can indeed ali,.,.,
fl"0111 lhe scco nd:
)., Sce L\latheron, hu{ividu ./ eOl//IIIlHl/l/,li rhe. S/li'I"UI .
... xe B;llibar. SPi)j(JUl: FlVI/Illlllividunfil)" lo Tml!silldil,ilflWlil) .
; Elhies 11 .38.
M Ibid . 11 .38 Carollar)' .
... "The Iheor)" (of eommo n nOlio nsJ has an immediale eLhieal d ime nsion l .. j.
This mtio nal know1cdg:e is inlrinsically ethi cal i11SO["lr as thc disco"ery ofthe rc1a-
lio ns ofheing.i n<o m1l1o n is i 1.'iC Ir thc actor amI produeer o f com 111 U1l i tr re la tions."
:\. ToS::1. "De la mlio ,1 ];. $#;iI'Jll, inl uili'JlI o u J,. tr..nsiti on lhique infillie selo ll
Spinoza : in I'IIi/Qsoj,'lq'" (1998). p. 193,
(OO In lhe "hiolog:kal" scnsc, Dc lc l17.c lIuderslands it iu SlnlIm.a: "me/ira/
Phi{(Jso/l"J.
0 1 EtlJir.s 11 .39: "Oflhal which is C0Il11110 n ;l nd proper lo the human body ;l nd 10 an)'
eXlemal bodies by whieh Ihe huma n bod)" is cuslo maril)" a/Tecled. a nd which is
equaJly in lhe pan as well as in Ihe I,' hole o fan)" o f thcsc bocHes, lhe idea also in
lhe mind wil! be adequate."
. , Ibid., V,39: "I-Il- whose bod)' is capable of Ihe a111011111 of aeli"il)" has a
mind whose b>TCatesl pan is eternal: On lhe anal)"si.s of this proposi Lio u's
scho tiunt, sce r\. l\lathcron, "1_'1 "ie le rllc1le el le corps scJou Spino7."l: R",ut
d, b, Flwlre,/ de (1991), pp. 2i-.-40, and C. R"111011d.
187
"Un .seul acco rnplisscmcnt ( J-[)"]lOt he.ses sur Ellliq'lt V 39) ," Philo.sophiqlM (1998).
pp. 161- 184.
"' [';11<;(".$ IV.38; "T h:ll which .so dispo ses lhe human 1:>0<:1)' Ih,,1 il can be .. ffe ctc d in
more 0 1' which re nders il (apable o f;ffccting external bodics in mo re warl!.
is adl'atllagco us to mano and prop0rlionately more ad"Illt.'lgcous as Ihe !xxI)' is
hcre b)' rcndcrcd mo re capable of bcing afTccl cd in mo re ",ays and of alfccling
o tll er bodics in mo re mlrs. On he o thcr hand. thal whic h renden; lhe body lcss
capable in heS(; rcspccts is harmful."
.. Once again, according 10 Delc llzc 's Sllg,,'Cslion, Ihis OCCUI'S bccausc o f lhe more
"biologi<.: .. r nllhcr Ih,lIl "mathc1Il:ltica1" 01' he common 1101;0I1S. Sec,
fOT cxampk, 's LP/II'J$, XXXII .
.... f>oliliml T,.(lItis, 11 .1 3.
"" [bi d .. VI. l .
, h' i; follo'>'S lhat men by llalUre slrin: for a ej,'i l ordel', alld it is impossible thal
mell sholl ld "ver lllle rly dissoh'e this CrislOfolini e mphasizcs Ihe fact
thal "In this limit-sitllation. co ndenses the existential panic thal 1 lo bbcs.
illstead.lo.:ali7.cd aro ulld Ihc me/lis mortis, f1'om which Ill ell come b)' eohabilat ioll
through necess;I)'.M See '" I'iceol o lessi co ra gionato
H
in 5pin07;1's '1".11"/(1 poli/ir""
p.246.
011 the (Onlrar)'. fOI" I-Iobbes. bi o logieal sur,,; \"al rCJ! n:sented simply by Ihe ciren-
!alio li o f blood was o f gre .. 1 1I1ill)' in Ihe fOllndalioll of pOlilic;,J lheoly. See
Mo rea\!. SI/;'lU'Jl. Crxpmnl Cf , llflf71u'/; .
... Poli/iml Trm/i.-;, 11 .1 5; "il is searcely possible fo r men to SllppOrt Jife ,Hl d c ultivat"
lher minds wilhout mutual assist:l.nee," See a lso Thrologiclll,Pol!tia1 V,
where Spillom ,,>:plieitl )' relates the uni OIl among l11 e ll in sociCly amI thei.' per,
fe<:lio n ami beati ude throllgh art and sciellee; "T he formalon of a socicl}' is
;\cll-antageolls, c ,'en absolutely cssc ntial. no t me1'el)" fOT against e nc mi es
bUI fo r lhe efficie nl OI-g:1I1 ;7; llOtl of an econo l1\ )'. Ir mel1 did 110 1 alTo rd one
lIlo lhe r llllllU .. 1 .. id, Ihe)' " 'ollld I .. d, halh l he ski11 Uld the time 10 supporl md
IHescn'e thc msch'es 10 he gre .. test possible e>:tent. AII mc n are nOI cquall)' suited
10 perform all [ ... ] ( Ihe [ nUlllerous t.asks IOSlIppOrt life. no! 10 lllenli o n the arts
md sciences which are ,liso indispens:abl e for Ihe pe rfcclio n o f hUIll m l1,ll llrc
ami its blcssedness."
'" Politictll '/)-ea/ w . IX.H.
" T his is also wh)' it is Ulllv1."iC to impcde Ihe libert),ofjllstice amI spe:,ech. See Thf'(logiml-
Poli/irltl 'w,tw XX: " For we ha,-e sh<m11 Ih ... il1 (which comes closesl lO
Ihc natHr .. 1 slalc) al! lhe cili7.cns 11l1dcrt;tJ.:.c lO ael, bllt nol 10 reL"oOn and lo jlld:,oe, by
decision made in common. Tha! is to "'1)', sinee al! men eannot think aHJ.:.c , they ab,,-ee
Ihat a propo "'ll sllppo rled by a m'tioril)' uf shal1 hl\'c Ihe Corcc uf .. deerce,
Illcmwhile retaining lhe ,Hl thoril)' 10 rCpCllhe s;lme whe n he)' sce .. beuer "Ilcma
In:. T his he less freedom ofjudgmenl iseonceded 10 meno Ihe furthe r lheir distance
from lhe most natur,ll Sl.1le. ami conseqllcntl}' tlle mo re 0ppl"Cssi,'e he 1'egimc."
" Poliliml '/I-ea/istVII .3.
" I"i.
, . See Bo\"e. L" !/mUg tlu eonal lLS, p. 25'1. On the eoncept o f qualltit)' in 5pnozism,
see C. Ramo nd, Qrum/i/i t / qllflli/; tI(w.' /11 philo,wphif 11, Spilww ( Pars: Pl'esses
Ull\'ersilaircs de Fr.lHce. 1995).
""
NolO
" Th is ifi es "the ab...,lllld)' :tI".;,I"I <: "ffinll;tl;<)n u f )Vel''';!'>lll)' ha! cal! 011 1)' be
realizcd in actualit}' by lhe ",ha le o f the constitutke multilude o r [he collec!"e
bod)"; lhen. lhe affil'lnalion o r a degr"" o f <.Ilionalit), (of po",er 0 1" perfection)
lhal "' al! mm" realero lhe mo re he body politic is produced b)' a
d c mocratic Illo,-eme nl c llgaging he great"st Ilu",ber o f citizens (and ir
possiblr lhe whole multitude)" (Bow, La . Iml,;g.', fin con"lUS. 1' _ 225; m)'
u", ,,.lalion )
lO Eth j('s IV35 Sehol""o: r,,,d soli';tI)' lifc """reel)' cnd"",blc . .o Ihll fOl"
"'<;1 1'<:01'1<: I he de r. "ilo n '",an is a ,..;oo.:i" 1 ""i"",]' mccl. wi lh strong "PI'rO\:l1.
"ud lhe (,,'1 of ,he ""Uf,T is lbl lhe >IOeial org;mil:uio n uf """, sho"'<" b,'ancc
of lllueh mono prof;! ,han 10"'_ So lel ,aliriSI, daide as ",,,eh :LS Ihe}' li kc Ih.::
do iu;:s of mal1 kiud, lel l tl<' o togiau" r.::, 'il<- ,hem, 1lnd lel ,he mi,.", I h ['"'.
m ocho/in] beap I",.i .. , on Ihe tife of rude n",icity, despising Ill''' ' "ud admiriul{
beasts. Me" ",in .tin discO\"" fro", e"pe"icne" Ihal Ihey C:l11 mueh mo,,, eas il)'
mcel Ihei, "eed. h)' mutual help and can ",ard off e,,,rthrcalenil1g peril. ( 111)' by
joining forces, no l lo Ihal il isa mueh mo,.., excellent thi"g and ",orlhy
o f o 'u kno",ledgc 10 .Iud) the <leed. of men Ihan Ihe deeds of beasts.-
n See r. Crislofoli"i, ..J, se;'"", ;,wliliw, ,{; SPifl/j%(' ( N"poli: MO'OUl O, 1887).
" E/hu.s IV. Appendix SI: 'supcrslition ( .. . ] secms l "<Serl lhal ",hal brings pain is
good al1d wh"l brings pl e"",,re . b,,<I. BUl, as "'c ha", alreadY5:'id (Seh. Pr. 15 ,
IV), nobod)' b" 1 lhe "'I'"ion. la ke. plc;l1iu"" in Ill)' and !ll}' mi.lonul1e.
For Ihe mo re "'e are alleCled \\"ilh plcas"re, lhe more "'e p"S5 10" .1"le of grc:ua
pe rlCCliol1 . al1d conscqucll1ly Ihe lIlore \\"e parti" ipat., il1 lhe d i"ine n:un,..,. Nor
can pl"3s"re c' -er be e"il \\"he l1 ;1 is (onlrolled b)' lrlle regard for our ad'-anl:oge.
No\\" he ",ho o n Ihe other h:II1d is I{lIided h)' lr ami doe. good in order lo :1\'o d
e\' il is not gllided b)' re"""',,. "
" Ihid .. Seholi,,,,,: 'CeI'",i"I)' nnlhi"g hUi gl'''' ,,,,d gloo,,')' _,upc::rslitio"
frbid, enjo)'",elll. [ ... 1 11 0 deil)', " 01" "n)'lle el"" blll lite " ""iu us. L, kcs plca,ul"C
in "'y ",,,,, km:,,-, "ud ,ny ",isfoI"IU"c. "
Ibid .. \',20,
., See Slrau" ... SIi ,WUl Criliq'u oll/; Iigi",., p. 24{;.
'" \Ve ""'SI also remember thm "m)1<tieal" de ri"". from both the Gree k mJ,ikos.
",hieh means areane. or myslaio n,,;, and from myrill, "'hich means 10 elose, or
lo shlll: " scm"nle arca lhat ",ems lml)' dillkult lo aS5ign to an)" part of the
spino/ist ')'Slem, ..,.-en the most e lliptk"l. sueh as Ihe lhinl kind of kno",ledge.
See P. Chantr:ne , ilymoWgiq'" ,/; /11 grfcq"': Instoi"',, mols
(Paris: Klincksie . 19611---1 880), 111 . p. 729 .
.. Eilt irs V.N.
.. 1'"/i l i,,,1 Trml;'Y l. 7,
'" Ths is " 1,,, ,he r.'a",,,. howe"er. fi jr which "nu men are " 'gardt"(1 ' " til for
gu\'\:rn ing a "",1<: litan 11":ol'rticians ur l' hilu""phers." (",,ii ml '/"";,,, 1.1 )
.. See R_ Capon.li. ra I ,,/;In"ia, {,II';ml",i",,,, ,'i<'ggiu , ' ti SI'"=' (Nap"li: UgunT . 2(00).
See "1",,, bul fn)lH a td)' diflcrelll pcrsl'""li ..." Cri,lofol ini, I..JI ,,,""'"'' i ,,u
;VII di SP;'W:'II .
., l 'olil",,,1 T,..lIl iM IX. l ' !. On the in lritlsically de m""'"<tic eharacte" f al1 the fO"m<
of go,,, ,'nme tll in Spinol"'s Iheo ,)', ..,'" S. Visentin. La l ibn-/t """'5S/",-". Trori"
, pmlim {, II .. '"n/x"," i" SP;',Ol ,. (Pisa: ETS, 200 I ) .
.. A mind, the,e fm", dilTerellt from thal ofthe human indi,idu,,!. Among Ihese inter
",hieh ha'" quite dislinet dilTe,e nee. between Ihen,",-'" M. GlIel"OlIlt .
Copyriglrted Material
Notes 189
Spinow: l'amt (elhiqut JI) (pais: 1974); Mathcron, hu.v.lu el
commutlattt c/uz SjJitlour, S, Zac. L'idt de v;.e dans In jJJilosophit de SjJitunll (Paris:
Presscs Universitaires de Frunce, P.-E i\'loreau, L'ixlmmce tt l'tnnil; Bovc.
La Slrt11tg;e du cOn3tUS; A. Malhcron, "L' lal sclon Spinoza est-i) un individu
au sens de Spinl .. a," in M. C1.elinski e L aL ( Hrsg.), Tmn.Yonllalion eler Mflaphysik
in die Modernt. Z'Ur GtgemvilrJil.4teil dtr Iheorelllischt" utd prokJiscJttrl PhiloSb/Jllu
S!Jinl)!.I1S, (Wr'Zburg: K nigshausen & Neumanll , 2003) . pp. 127-145; r. 831ibar,
"Polell/ia 111Ullitudillis quae 'una vetuli lfIL-n(t lillcilw: Spinoza On the Body PhLic,"
in S. H. Daniel (ed.), C",,.,,f Cot/li"'"fOI11/Uiry olld Mod"" (Evanston:
Nort11western Univcrsiry Press, 200.'. pp. 70-99; \oV. Montag, "''''11O'S Afrairl or
the Multitude? Beu\'ccn lhe Individual and t.he State," Soutl! AlwnUc Qua,terIy1
1 (2005), pp. 665-673.
" Sec R.j. McShe-a, 'I11t Polilical P/ilosophy 01 SPitloUJ (Ncw York: Columbia Uni,er-
sil:}' Press, ] 968) D. den yl , PalfJet; Slafe atd Fretdom.: Au l nfn1J1'tlnt-iotl 01 SpinoUls
Po/iticalPllilosophy (.A.s.sn: van Grum, 1983) ; L. Rie, and Cmmu-
n iLy in SpinOL1.' Social Psychology," iLl E. Curley, P.-F. Moreau (eds.), Splnoul
lS$tUS a7ul DiTtc/ions, pp. 271-285.
00 For a critical reCOnSlnl etion of Lhis problern, see Rice, "Individual and Commu-
Il ity in Spino7.a's Social Psychology," as well as Moreau, SpinO'lLl. L'afJri.enu el
l'ilemiti.
91 See again. SPill0Ul. el l'/emit. and Bali bar, Spi1l.0UZ: Ftom Irdi-
vidulif)1 lo Trllllsimlividualily.
92 flltit;.S 11.] 3 Scholium. See al5O, "Mcnti dellc cose e imclligclll.a umana," in
Cristofolini, La se?/ul intuitiva (ti SproztL
" Erllics 11. 13 Scholium.
See Moreau, SPi1U1Ul. L't'J:jJir;ellCl! ell'il.emili.
re. E/bies II Postula le 1: .oThe human body is composcd ofmanydiffcI'Cnl individuals
(of diffcren t nature), cael1 one of which is aIso cOl11 posed of many parts."
Ibid., 11.14: OiThc human mi nd is capable of pcrcciving a grC3t many things, and
this Ol. padry win vary in proportion to lhe VC\riety of sta les whkh its body can
assume."
97 See Bo\'c, La slralig;e du conaLUS. pp. 252- 253.
PoliJir.(1.l 'n eatl:y 111.7. See also Ibid., 111.2: "the righl of Lhe state or o r the sover
cign is nothing morc than the lighl of Nature it.sclf illld is dClrmined by the
power nOl or each individual bm or a people which is gl.lided as ir by one mind
[1/.011 Qludem uni-usc-ujusque, Stlt molUlulltis. qUM utW ve/uli uumlt dtlcilur) , That is
LO say.jusl as each individual in lhe natural state has as much rightas the powcr
he posses.ses, lhe sarne is lru of thc body Llnd rnind of the entire state." 00 tite
contrar}', CrislOfolini (LIl sdmz.a. ;nluuiva. di Spinoza, pp, ] 25--126), emphasizes
the r<tct that "the len"3in on which [Spi nozaJ examines Lhe pO.$Sibilityofa politio)
based on rcason and the foundati ollS oftlle state does not coin cidc with the ler-
rai n 011 which [he] analyJ:es indi\ridual man; if the all al)"sis of lhe individual, lhe
milld-body ncxus, and lhe d)'narnic nature of lhe affecLS, are comple Led in the
EJltics in Lhe foml of an ilineraf}' ofself-perfeclion. on lhe lCrrain ofpolidcs il is
precisely the self.per recling subject that comes la be lacking'"' [m)" u--;:ulSlation l .
" Sec Dcleuzc, Ex/,ressiQnism in PMlosoplly: SpillOU/.
100 $e J\'loreau, SPillfJU1. L'ttxPrilmCl! Thal is, lhey entirely simihLr indio
viduals. Thi <loes not. negate lhe fact. lha .. , in lheir composit.ion, tbcy also cover
very diverse roles and funcLions from one anolher. However, in principIe, thei r
''''
NolO
diffne ncc ;, 110 1 d,,:: '","'" a. j, is "';tl the 1>0.1)" ... nrgans, which <:annol be
o lle wilh "notller.
lO' XVI. Se" ,,so I'aliliml Ji'mUM VI [ A.
Jo. Se" af.lin Ik,.. .. . L<J llmlrg du conalus.
,o> Se" B.'llibar. SpinOUl, /'anli-O","II. Lo. <lts "'",,,' .
1", E/hu-.; \'.29: "Whal,,''',. lhe m;nd llndcrs lands "nder a ror", o f etc...,it,. ji does no l
n"ddsland f rom he rae l lhal il conceh-.,. lhe l're"" lH actllal existenee of he
bod)'. b"l fro", lhe r"el lh,,, ji concciH" Ihe c,",, !l ces uf ,he bod)' Il"de r a fo"",
ofctcmil}', "
"" [bid .. \'.26: 1'h<: mOH: c;l'"blc ,he mind is 01' undc","",cling Ihin&" b)' lhe lhird
k ud 0 1' ); now\cdg<:. I he mOre ;, lo IlndcnwII,d lh; "b'" b)' lhe .",,'" kud of
(1'''''SI''li01' 1l 1Odi ticdl
w. Ibid .. v'22: "Nl'\-.:nhclcss. Ihnc is I1 ce"".",;I) iH God aH ide," whid, expr, '''''''" ,he
e,;seHee of Ihi< o,. Ihal hn",an 1>0<1)' nnde,. a fonn o f de,."il)' (,,'" ,"",
("/",,i/Mi>] ."
LO' [bid .. 1.1 6: "r ro", Ihe " eee.sil)' of Ihe di\'i"e naln", Ihe"" musl follo,," infinile
Ihin .. ", in i"f",ile " "a)" [,. odi] (Ihal i<. ''''e')'lhi''g Ihal can eo",e wilhin Ihe ""opt:
of in fin ile i"le neel)."
,", [bid .. 1. 28, "EI'e,'Y singula,. Ihing. i.e . an)'lhing whale,"C ,' whieh is finile and has a
exi<leHce. exi'l or be delcrmined lo ;,cl "nle,",, ;1 be deler
mined lo exi .. al1d lo "el by al1mher cm' "" whieh io " loo tin;le has
dela", le ex ;", ence. ami Ih;. c,,,,,'e a",l" 11110 1 ex;" o r be d eler",;ned (O "el
IIl1less;1 be dClerrnined lo exi" a",llo by aHolher can.., which i. "Iso fiHil e
and ha" a delen,,;nale and 00 "d inl;nil""':
lOO [bid .. V.3i: "There is 11 01hinR in Nal"re which is conlra')' lo Ihi. inle Ueen,allo'e .
or whid, ca" <le<1ro)' il. " This i<. ",urcO\cr. wha , JI m", ,1,; i,, /tl/N/''''
/[, fru ,n :1 """ ng" 11",,,,. ",1, iel, e I,a"'c.len,.c' ,1,,, fi,.,;, propo,;lio " of 1'''1'1 V.
,, ' [hi<l . IV'\ppen<lix.
'" [hi<1 . V.37 Seholi",n.
' " [hi<1 . V. 23 Seholi U111' 8,,1/; ", !l.' ,,,pn,,,, "''1'" ""., a<l, 0" Ihe i"'l){lrla" C" o f
,his ,Lllin,,"lio n fo,. 5pi110>.i,,,, and f", Ihe rol" a"d ,he differenl meani,,!, 'S of
experience. ""e /I[o rea". Spinff',JI , L 'rxp;rin!rt l"iln.,ill,
'" [ c" n. ho",e, -CT. cause" slo'" and decs;'-e in oolllcth;ng 101,,11)"
diffe ren 1. See t:thics IV.99 Seholinlll : " 1 undersland Ihe 1>0<1)' lo dic ",he" i lS p"rlS
are 00 dispo""d a< lo ",,,inlai,, "differellt proportioll of lll0lio 'h"l.lld-reSllo o lle
,,,,otller. For 1 do " 0 1 ,.., nture lo den)" Ihal Ihe humaH 1>0<1)". ,,-hile rct.,illing
blood cireubtion and ",hate'"Cr el"" is regarded a. cssential lO lif". can "c, ... rthe
le", "11"1 Io cr ,,"Iure '1 "i,,, d; fferen' from oWn. 1 lo;"", no re"",,,, 1(> Io old
11];11 " Ix>.:\)' docs nol d; e ""IeS_;1 iUl o" cor!'",,; indeed. <:x ]'nience :<ce,,'s
lo lead, o llo" ,w; ... ,. h "-, ,,,,, limes h,,]'I' <" "s ,hal" """, "fld<"OWK" sud, cI,;", .. ",;
,ha, I w0 \11d uo ' be pr"l",,"Cd "-''''')' lloal he i< ,<.,ne pn"-,,,:
Ll! [bid_. 1I Posn,I;,' e IV, "Thc 1",,,,,,,, bod)' nee<l< ror ; LS a &real ru:u,)'
ol her hod"'s. \\'Ioich. il "'<Ore [q,,,.,.,l. il i, (o111in""II)- re!,"Cnen" "d:
L" [bid . V.38.
11 . [bid .. V.23.
", Polilical Tr",liv V1I1.3: "kings are lllo rt.,1, ",hcr""s eouncils are c,-c ,sting, ""d so
Ihe so,,,,..,ign power [;"'fin;; pot,nli"j Ihal has once has once bee" eonfer,..,d On
" con", il ,,,,,c,, l"C,-crlS lo Ihe people , TI,;< i. no l ,.., "'11t Ihe lllo narchl':
191
11. Ibid., V[[[. 3, "\\'e ""')' thcr<:fO!1: condude tha, ,he _""'Cr<: ignl)' co"ferred On a
co uncil of s"fleienl size is o r comes doseSl to being f o r if
lhere is ."eh lhing so,'Cr<"gnty, il i. reaU)' k'hieh is held by the
people as a " 'ho le { N(I/II ,,; quoo ,mpn;",n "bwJullllll ,"I",; ,1I,ui " '''",iI u/, quoo
;"Itgm mllllil",lo 1""11 '"
, ,. Analogousl}', Crislo fo!ini of "iutelligenee. life of the mi",l: in Cristofo-
Hni. LII .<eimu. inluUiv" di Spilur.., . See "Iso 1'. Mae here}'. lil/lJ<lurIiO// /'Elhiq/ u
d, Spimrz.". /" e;'/lI"i;"" f",r/i,' h, ""i,_, !I, 1" /i/l;",/imo (P,,"s: 1'",,.,,,, Un iyersiu,ire.
d e r",,,cc. I!!!H) .
, .. Ethie, \'.39 So:hol;llm.
'" See' he tI", ,, ,,, uf inl,,,,C)' in ZOll..-.bidl\'i \i, L, c,,,,,,,,,,,,tism, 1"" ',,,It,,,,,/ ,1,
,.. l'o/i/;mI1i",t':'" VII ",h,' puwn of" sin.;I, """, ;, t"r from he;n" eqll"llo bear
in" lhe whnle bunkn uf lhe )U'lTnmellt. 1, .. j, 1'he rllle uf lhe kind i, uflen
precario"", by ,"Cason ofhis minorit)'. siekuess, old age, ami fo .. othe.' eau""o."
'" [n lhis """"', the idea of the diITe re ul degr<:es of eo,," pl" "it)' 01' of th" compus;-
tion of boclies seems eomplete l)' eSlra"ged from Ihe mess. ... g'O' of EIMcs v' 3!l
Seho!ium. R;unond "ihtl)' " "'phasi,,," th" faet th" bod)'of th e wise mal! has
a eomple xily "up".'iOl lo tlo"l of the ig"oralll matl. Aeconli"g lo Ihe e"i<lenee,
howewr, lhis ca,,",o l be proved. I-I owner, fo llowiug Ihe a''gume''t I am making
here. can "egue , "'ilh lhe "peci[icnt;ons, j", the bod)' of the multit"de ha" a
dq;rce of compl exil)' aud compos tion grealer lhau fhe !XXI)' 0 1' bolh lhe ",i se
persou "nd lhe i,,'no,,,nt persono From lh;s perspect;'e. thcrc fore. lhe idea 01'
he de"1'ee. of complc"ty ,,,,d eom po,ilon ofbodics can contribu le lo 1 he in ler
p1'"I:uion of lhe seholi1l"'.
", '/'hffl/og>m/-Pa/il iclIl1l",riM XVII .
' .. Hili"" \'.23 Selo ol;1I"' .
' .. See Mo"'''g, fiotl "-,, 1'0Wl'r:
," Tite tlistinclio" betwe"u the two lenns. in h et , is airead)' ""I,lici ll)' lh"",atizctl
0"''" lh" e01l,,,,, 0 1' Ihe ",,,eu h:" nth cenulJ"}'. I il ;,; o" e o f t h" sll""tegic :'1);u.
n'"ut. of ,he ,uN le n, reaction to ,he remhai""a1)' discOl'er)" of lhe cOllce!'t of
;m",;n\e nce. See, for exa"'ple, T. Il obb""" 1'1"'''Ii,phi,"III,,,li''''''l! Omumillg c."".
rnwlPnI an, So;-,",!), "it's a greal hindr..ll ee to Ci,-il Go",rnment, especialty
lhal meu di'tinguish no t e no ngh bet"'cen a 'eople and Multi-
lude. The l'eople is some",hal thal is o ne, ha'-ing o ne wilt, and to ",ho m oue
actio n ma)' be auributed; none of these can properly be -",id o fa l\ lultitude [ ... 1
""d (however it seeme a I'"",do,,) lhe King is the l'eople. The eommon son of
men, "mI o lhers who liule eon,ide r lhese trUlhes, do al"""les "peak o f " greal
"'1",ber of",en, ,,,. of lh" !'cople, Iha, is lO S")', lh" CiI)'; lhf")' ""r lh", ,he Ci!}'
h"th rebelled "g.,in" ,he King ("'hiel. is m[",,,-_ibl ,,) "nd lh:u ,he w,
" "d "i\l, ",lwt 111 ur",ur"g ,,,,d di ,.,;o"te "tt:d wuu!d h",,". ur wo"ld nut
h:"1:, ,,,,der pn, t" nr_c of the <tirriug "!' the Citi,,,,, . "b",iu" Ih" Cit}'. that
s 10 s"j'. ,h" M ult ;tud" "g;,ins! Ih, P'uplc. "ud ,h",,' "re ah",,,,, al! ,h" Opin iu ns
... 1":,.,, ... ilh b<:ing laimcd due " ,,,;I}' 1'"",,,IL ""d in ,,
manner of Govcl'nmenl M'!"st}' i" to be p,..,serl"tI b}' him, or lhe m ",ho ha'<
lhe SlIpr"m" Authoril}', llw r>;,nn, !t"..,,, Mnjt.t"li, naturan)' clea,.es to thes<:
Opinio"." (XII .S).
,,. H",.." it seems mo re apIlO .peak of "multipl" indi"idual- or lhe "comple"
indi,id"a]" more Ihan Ihe "eol1ceti"e subj ect."
192 Noles
,,, E/hies \'.26 . T his 111 0\'(:111el1t is self-l1 o urishing. See Mache rer. IlIlm,/ucl iml !i
/'EI/u"I"" de SpilW21l, /11 ri"'/" ihll' I",rlie.
' '''' Ibid" V.37.
' 01 See Mathe rol1, /ndillidu ti ('(I m"lII'lIIlIli duz. 5pi mr..fI,
",. Elhirs V.27: Ex hoc /n"lio eognili oll is gmnl! SWnm(l , qruU' dari po/es/. men/is fl equifsun-
/itl , OI /w' [ From Ihis Ihi rd kind o f knm,' led gc Ihe rc arises Ihe hghesl possiblc
conlcnttncnl o f mnd] . On the mcaning o f IIfqui,g e"II, !Il: e P. TOlaro ,
Ullli(1 dans la Cinquic me paltie d e l" Elhque de {lt'Vu, pllilosopll irJ" f, ft
u. muu e/ de / iI/mllgl!l; ( 199<1 ) , pp. 65-79.
,,.. E/hic.\V.<12 & ho liul11 .
,).< See Crislo folini. L" sri,,,w i"/ui l iv,, di 5pil!()1.fl, and Ramo nd. "Un seu! acc.o m-
pli sserne nl (I-I )' po theses sur E/hi que V 39) ." The fl r.qui,srim / ia in the &ho lium of
Propo sitio n 36 o f pan V is associaled direcl l)' wilh glo rr. ami Ihe rcfo re , accord-
ing lo Mathero n . ..-ilh ..-ha! indicates an irHerind h' idual de\'cl0lllll e n l o f lhe
Ihire! ki ll d o fknowledge. See P.-F. \ Io reau. "/. Ietaphrs ique de la glo ire. Le scolic
de la p roposilio ll 36 e l le 'Io urnanl' du li\Te V," I/rollt df. /a Fmllu t i dt l'/I"O."gt'1",
IR'I (1 994), pp. 55-()oI .
'" $ce /. 1 ,che rey, hl/I!H.lu(:/i flu /,E/iqll(' f, 51/1' " mil. 111 1m ,-tipo
,,. El/lcs V,26.
m Ibid., V.27.
, .. Ibid., V.28: "The o rdesirc [cUf'idi /m], 10 kllOw Ihillb'S by lhe Ihird killd
o f knowledgc can nOI arise from Ihe [irsl kind of knowlcd gc , bUl from lhe
second."
,,,. Ibid., 111 .6 : "Each Ihing, insofar as il is in ilSClf, e ndc a\'o rs to pcrs isl in ilS own
being [il! .,.,w /JnliiM'1w" w lwlur]": l bicl. , 111.7: "The conalUS willl which c adl
thing e ndeavo rs to pe rsisl in ilS own being: is no th ing bUl lile ac tual essence
o f lil e Ihing iL'iCIf." FOI" a 11I0 re nuanced 3l1 al)'sis o f Ihis Iheme and ts po l tical
signifi cant e , see 1\<)I"e , I.fI .,/mIPgi' tllI COll aIIlS.
,,,, Poli/i m' Trl'l<l b, X.9,
,<1 E/hies 111 ,8.
lO. Ibid" 11 .'10 Scho lill111 2.
m See Mache re)', /"/,,,lfllclirm ti /'Elh iqup J, 5jl"lO:fI, ((, (puxi;,,,, IHII'/j,.
'" See Ban: , Lflslm/igi, du conalus.
'" See Cl' islOfo lini, LfI scitllUl i11/ll i/ivII tli 5pill ow Ihal refe rs 10 Spin07.a's lelcer 10
Oldcn b llrg. Spin0 7.3., '-, lIn'S, XXX. See al so Tosel, " De la mfi(l la SClflllill i/llld/iIJfI
o u 1" InLllsili o ll lhiquc illfini c selo n SpinM;'," pp. 204- 205: "Scie nce 1, . . ] is Ihe
agcnl o f liberalillg acl io n fo r i! ide n tifi cs iL'<Clf wi!h lhe lo\"e o f kll owtedge fOI"
a thal is al o nce inside :lIl d il'iClf. I..ol'e Ihe aftirmalio n o f hcing.
l . .. ] 1l is lo\'e Iha! opc ns us IUW;ll"d knowlcdb>e l1ld is itsdf constitut",d like
knowledgc; it re\"eals 10 us Ih1\ knowledge is ac ti o n hal Ill odifi es iL'<C lfand lhe
wo rld acco rding 10 certain conditio ns alld limits. "
, .. Knowledge o f Ihe Ihird kind, Ihal is, of singlllal' Ihings, is superi o r and "mo re
powe rfu l" Ihan uni"e",,1 knowl edge, o f knowlcdge o f the second kind. I-Ience,
E/les V. 36 Scho liurn: "Thc mind's imdlectllallo \'e IOward Cad is Ihe 10\'e o fGod
whercwilh God Im'es himsclfno l insofaras he is in fillile , bUI insofaras he can be
c"pl icaled thro ugh Ihe es.'iCl1 ce o f Ihe hUII)"1I nLlId COl1 sidere d unde l" a fo r m o f
Hl3
e te mil )'. Thal is, the mind's inle lleclual love toward God is pan o f lhe infiui1e
lo\'<: wherewilh Go d lo\'<:s himselr, M Fo r au anal)'sis o f this scho liul11. see Mo reau,
"1\1 laph)'siquc de la gloi re."
'" xe " oli/iet!1 IX.I <1 : "by discussing, liste ning 10 othcrs. ,lml deba l.ing. Ihe ir
[ men'sJ wits are sha1' pened,M This specific meaning o f irreversibi1it)' linkcd 10
Ihe concre le practice and 10 Ihe d)'namic of the COlwlllS, sccms LO confirm Ihe
mod el o f a praxis witho ll! leleoIOb,)'. suggested b)' Allhu;;...er, "The Undergrouud
CU1Telll o f the I\hlerialism o f Ihe Enco unter. " Sce also :\ Iorfillo. 11 Iflnpo t

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.. 1 de: c.."ill.-l ... M.nd"" 1992.
--, (o::d,), Sp;...r.n} t;,pm;.,.' """" M Cimr= ... '"
Spi"=,, ' N"'';'' (Afa.W" >-7 ............. 1992A C;nd.d IHio'n", ,k l.
de ea.tiU.1JI MancI"" 19'14,
..", S. Spi= A>chen<k..-f. 193>-19.'16.
Fe""'. S. L SpiIttJUJ alUl lI" fflM oflj[)ffo/i" ... 110<1"" (.\\Al. Ikocon 1''''''', 19M.
Freudemh. l J. OS?i"o,. ln>d di< Scloolastil: in A.\.VV. AtifJ4W
M .. ",d Mln. I,dpZ;. Zen..-.I-A>IUqll.ri>1 d, 1)" U .. ",\okr:ilL Reput.lil. 18117,
pp.
Giolli<<t C. S""""" ,,_ <1-1 ,lt""I .. ",.u;. Mibno, \ j ... Pm';"ro, 1972,
___ , "Spinola interprete (kl /'n...ap..: in S/wti '" """'" di A, C.\.ian, 1, llre><ia,
P.idcia, pp,
Gio rT"" , 1), "SpinolO'.lroryuf Me"ph), k .1 Indivi<h .. tion: in K F. Il>rber,J.J.
Gio",i. (<<1>.), "';;"'"oliorl n"'; M",'#) '" fmf:/ M"'"'" A1bo"y (:-"1,
S"'-lc of " ...... \'", k P"'", 19').1, pp. 01.
___ . ;" s,;,,0I ",1 I:" d)' b,,,,,,.li,m, i" Il ' '''"''''''.
C. 11"""om.,," (edo.). ,\'"" t:....y, ,. IN llalio..am:.. oxr",'d, 0 <1",,1 Uni''',,;ty
1''''''', 1999, pp.
''>Le''-'. ),l. , IJ.'<I, G. laag;.i"ll>' 5/,<""'" 111>' aotl 1.""1<", , 11"",_
" ""g'" V.uI, 19')<J.
e iancolti , (. eue> di),!>pi"""'''' J'so ' ""nh"""';" t//t n""I6, Mti drl ""'P"'"
"""""""'lo' UrlJ;"" .,-8o<w". 1982, :.:.poIi, lIibHopol;',
ei>.nn;ni, IL MOfC.U, I', F" V<m",,,,n, p, Sf>tw= " lo poIiIlIj"" AlU>
u.,;, 8-- 12""; 1m, P.,.;", L'HmTl .... n, 1997,
eueroult, M, Sf><"""'" /Jitu 1' ."" 196I'!,
___ , S".OO<a, (BIuqu" 1' ."" Aubiet'<Mon,.igne, 197i,
___ o "Spi"" .. , " ""e ' (ln",.I",,;"n gr.n<",", n ",uh;'! rl u I"cm;",
010>1>;''''): /Itvw d; lo ""''''' " d; rf;tm.1l"' ,H (1977),
pp.
en;","" I\. "D<: .\I"",, ;.,'rl i Sl'h",,., ,1<: I'" lA 1_ d;
1 J:'f"il I , ( I 966), Pl' -1 1---(,1.
I I. nlt, "t'a ... ,1< "' '''ok:W<l''''' <:1 "11<''' '''''''"''
poliliqLld eh .. S>jnou: tW"' ""tmru, 7 (1!l'J1), pp. I1 !\-H3,
IlIumin.ti. A. Spi""'" ),1110<>, Ghibli (2008).
""",,1 , J. l. 1i<ldit:dll.'nligltt'.wN. alUl ,'" M""'"" o{MoMrn#) 16'1!-/7W.
Oxfot-d. Ollfonl Uni"""il)' 'reJo, roo l .
l>r>C1, " , SfJtMUL 1-, """" tU '" ,<giJ<In, hri" t.di tioru " ;'''lI0', roo!,
Jame>, S, -"""","n<l [)iffcrencc, Spi!107'" Cooception uf r"",Iom: '"" p.n<aJ of
l't>/iJiroI. !'Ioilmoplt, -1 (1 99&), pp, 207_228.
J"'I""" C. In d; lo f!t<W(lJIa d',.,... """ Spo""", ".no, ok l.
Sorl:w,nnc,2OO.'.>,
K<.>l.k""''y, l. 1M r .... t,., of S".""", aod Ot ... f:""" ... 1'II;'mf>i>'n. So",h Il<nd
(11'), So , "'''gu-''inc', r003.
"'-"'r-.'. A. "1" chien. a>ns<cll.,ion 'Ic,,<. e' le chien. an;rn.1 at-..>y.n': Hn_''
-""pIo,,"I"""'' -.k (19!>Ol. pp. !>Q...Y.).
K,;",dk,. p, O. "S,,,,, ."<1 ';""I'I.,on;" So ... ,;o,> o Spi!K>l ' I))'i",,:" 11"""" '"
h",*", Jd,a, } (19&1). pp_
.;ogr. 1- (M.). Sf'i'u= " " _. Ilc"'rl(o<o. p""""" Un;'",,,;,,,;,c, ' .... nc-
Gom'oi"". 'lOO2.
I",,,,,. 11. /""'1&""""." 'Wigi<J>< 'M Sfri"""'_ 1""""0' M", I'/Wu; .... 1'",;" Libt-.. i,;"
pbiluoophiqu<J, Vri". 19'13
I-=<eri. e "1". Jod d< 1'obI;w.,,,,,,, lho'orie >pin",.;'''' dd , ... n!J'"" de dro;" "
I.t, (19!!7). PI'. 4O!J-1:l<j _
___ o "Spinou el le prob'me ,le 1.> ... iK>n d' I' "",," 1" Y. e l.:u (<'<l.). l/oisom
" MoOO."" d))", . . n 'I .. XI'II, "",k, 1',,,,,,,,, Uni,,",,.iui,,,,, de 1':,,;'. 19Y 1,
PI" 3)9..393.
___ o (<'<l.), S/"""",, ..",.",,"', '" " m""', ... ,;". p"""", Uniw .. i ..
;""de Frmre. 1999.
___ , i:W. />i>U"""''' ;",.,; .... ,;". Pro""" Uni", .. i .. i,c. de r ,..nce, 19'.
___ , "Politk:> of Re.",n {>f' Poh,ic> of p""ion'? !loblx> ,nd Spin= I(c.;,;tcd:
,," .'<ri</ ,""1<.,. 28 (:!0021 , pp_ fof, 1---(086
M:><l><"'Y. P 11'11 .. ,<;pi"""" !,,, ..... M>"I""". 197')
___ o JI,,.., s,;-.,: ItIUlt!. "" .. 11Ii>_ d. 'fri.uill_. p"",,,,,
'" """,1,-,,, F ... 1 99'<
____ l.'''';''''''''' IHiliqut dt Sfri.u=. Id ,i><q ...... /"',,;.: ", wib dt Id_..".,
P . ..... Pr< ... " ha,",,<, 19'J4_
---, i.trod.m.. ,; mlo;,w Ik 8friMUi, " .",;w- f>m1i<: la "" l'.m.
l'reMe' Un;"e";",;,c, de 19Y1.
___ , i.,,,.;ua;".'; /'J-JIo;,w dt s,;"""" " pnrlit: "'''''/iU ..""aI<,
l're ..... de r ,..'Ke, 1\/97.
___ , J.Irodtu1""' '; /'IiIMqw'" ;fri""'-", la "",,,,,,- """,,: la 00II4;';"" lo ..... ,,"'.
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---, pohtitw Gil XI'I!,u,-k (ir"1ID 'u, P.n., Libt-.ufi<
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___ o "1-" eh""". l:I ca .. ..: '" r "nlt de uribu"; f!"""," """"" /JIu"""P/o;'-
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.lld",m K. O. ,5"""",, no "J" Oflng, n", lbS, .... M.n;m" 1896.
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___ . S"-':. ;,...hit-" l'","*iJJ, , ..... 1',,,,,,,, Unl,"", .. !,,,, "" fr. "".,. I9'J4.
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M"' ph),.;.q ne de l. gloire. Le ",01 .. de la proposi(!on S6 e,1e -(o",".",
du I;"'re V: &"" M la fm>l" ,,. "itro ..., 18! {199-1) . PI" M_M,
(d. ). M la".,.,.",. MM"I!" rfforu <i Altmnd" MaIAmm. f on"'n.)'"
aux_Ilooe>/ St. Qoud, !:dilon' , 19')6.
___ o Spt"""'" , ",...,....... P:1.ri _, Uni,,,,,i!>.ift'> de hn<e. :lOO!\.
Mo,fi"". V. t""",. poIi(;';i , .... Spi"'''i e AI'h""",: In P. IYAIo,.."rl" , (. <ur.
di). 1""", Allb.'-"", r..-I,.." , "'''''''''';Io"m.
M.""", r M:",,,,,. 199'. 1'1'. 62,
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11_"" d<iJl ""Ii'"di .. , Rorni . 1.t .nlf",!OIIb1'I. .
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A, 1:,,_""- "h"'l?JJ"' . . '" "'*" ,. ..v.o", m funu:Jo Ipi<r=.
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PoplJn. JI. 11. spi""", Odoro. .. l.'(I(I.I
Q . "M"w"" 1..,.., />mi"." .oil,; 1l<1I' <.>p<:r. di Spinw,,; ;,"'"'
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T",,:I. A- SpinlrJ> ... " '-""f-."r. ", "..,,;,,,,r.. 1::'-"" 'u, " "mili
I'.ri,. '\"';,,,_\I" ""' gn<:, 19t1-l.
___ , /Jo _;, ... Ih SfJt!U!"'. 1'.,;.. Ki m, 199-1
Ve, t....,t , 1: :>P;,",",.a' 'llIOOgro- / 'oWka! 'ti",,,,,: ."" Il'iIl ofGJ.
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siuires de Fr.1.Ilce, 2002.
Index Nominum
Ac hill es 9 1
A(L-l", 10,1, 179
A), ',,,,, be ". G. 4(:, I 7'1
171
AI1>i,.,.i. \ 1. '11'1-'J, 3 1
Albi,",i . R. degli 3 1
,\ lee u, .'l!l
Al exa"dcr lhe Creat 180
AlthusseT, L. 89. 9 4. 168-9.177.193
A""" ldi . S. no
Mislo tl" '1:1--5,12, 1.L 67. 7'1. 168,
m 171
,\ se",i, G. di i1
,\I \; i"",,,.J. 11. I tIO
l.. 177
P,,,ld,,cc.io di Ang hi",.i ,.fi
Ba libar. E. IOH. 101'1, 1 '19, 131, 17;; ,
178-9. 182. 186. I !lO
Ba rbadoro, N. 123
Baron. U. 181
Ba ttaglia. f . 171
Bauman. Z. 172
Bcms. T lii
81) embcrg. C. de 107
8od. G. li5
Sudei, R. 185
Bon;,deo.A. 1'15.180-1
Bor.:-i:l, c.. (i1 Val er"ino) 1!!. 12'\ . 111.
''''
Hosco li, P. ill
1'.0"'" L. 4, al!. 109-10. 121>-9. 167_9.
17'\. 176. 179--80. 182. 184, 187_9,
.l2Q. 192
Hoxe!, II 182
8",<:<: io li"i .l'ogsio 7"
IImni. l....o""rdo 71
C.,do ni . G. 175, 178, 181
c.,,, ,,,,; j. 17G
C.,lIicl"s 177
C.' I>orali, R. llIlI
C.'p>o lli . A. !AO
C, st",cani . C. '1.!;i, 171
Ceeehi. l). In
ehan!r" i"e . 1'. llIlI
ehiari. A. llii
Chi ron. the Cem" "r 90-1
Ci t>"'l'i. ""0" )''''0 ''' (>",Ior of lhe
"'
P. 177
Ce",n, " g 01" t )xlia 16
Cri'lofoliui. l'. 16R. lR3. 1l 7_9.
lQL 1!)'1
Curi . U. 1!!:::.L 172
Cu,.lcy, E. M. 189
Cleli"ski, M. 189
1)""ie l. S. U. 189
I)",id ing o f Is,,,,el 91
I)c la Conrl . ,!, c 1'. t.:l7
De \Vi u . .!. ,,,,d C. liQ, lllJ
1)c8r"b""dcl; F. Ul)
Del Lucche"", F.. 168. 18 1
Del \ hchio, C . .llli'
I)d cuzc .C. 35, 105, \07-8, 171.178-9.
18fi-i.189
De" Ul L D. j. 189
Descarte. 83
OiOll i""ui, C. 17'1
Il roc!to. A. 17G
Ou<ll<o)', Ro be rt. Counl of Lcic". le ,. i G
'" pi en .. " s UR, 18'1
&poSilO. R. l1!1 1t1O
208
F c;no . M. 1.10
finlc-y, M. 182
Fo ucallh. M. 12. 'II!. 172
FOIUuc' I. J.-L. I SI
Fredc-rk k 11. kiu& of Pr"",ia Z
Ga illc-Nikodimm. 1\1.
Gali k i. G. 83
Gallice l C._a lye u; , C. 3. Ui7
Garin. [ . 169.171
GebbaHII, C. 4. lI.i2
Ge rbie r. L. 168- 9. 175, II.
Giancou;, [ . llllD.. 176
Gilbel'l, A. U. 17l
Giudici, E. 169
Goliath 94
C".cch; 71. 97
Cm tiu" LL 81. 179
Cualtie .. i d i d i
Atbens 2t\-j, 8D. U9
Cuero lllt. liIl!
Guicci;tHlini. F. g1!., 83. 1.11. !11.
11>0. l.i!j
L. ;:. 9-1
llardt . M. 186
Ibrri ngto ". J . R3
I legel, C. W. E ,10
M. '1 0-1,
I \c r . d ilu. 40-2
I lemd u lll' 171 _2
Hobbes, T. :l:!. 67. 'J.1. 83-4. 102,
105-6. 108. 11 7- 19. 130-1. H8. lM!.
178-1!O. 187. 19 1
J o ng. K, Ii. E. de l.1D
Ladislao di Dumu.l>, l ing uf
Napl ... 31- 2
I .... C. 173
Leb"i " C. W. 18[
Lipsiius. J.. 11.8
Li\"iius, Titlls J. 82, l..2.k2
1..0d:e. J. SS. 105, 1.'\0
l..ra ux. N,
l..orqua, R. de .46
Lucn=tiu., Titll. OllU. 182
LyCUI'bTUS o f Spal'ta 68, 87- 9. 98
,\I ache""r. 1'. lL l1ll. 185-6,
G. 3. l..!l1
.\ Iare ll ' W
.\1;ux, K. 182
l.lella S<:; ,,1a ID
.\ 1alheron. A. ji2, 172. 17I- S. 179.
185-6, 189. 192
.\!aun ne . U, 177
MeSb" ", RJ. 189
C. 123. 171
P. d e' 2ll
\lcdici, V. de ' 2l!:::\!
A. 3, Lfi]
\ Ionta&. W. I S2. 1119, L.!lJ
\ Iore,,,, , P.-E U!L llQ, 174. 179, 182,
185.187. 189- 90. 192-3
V. 4. lli. IJIT, i.1Q. 173.
183-4.193
178
1 " S'1e r-Pollc t, L. II 3. ] 8()
N.mcr . J.-!.. 1.'18-40,111.'1
N" g" . A. 4, 110, 167.... . 180. 186
Ncm, Cblldi"s eIC ...... ' AUgll' " lS
Ce n ... " " ie u'. e lllJ'eror of ROll'" I 76
Nicole tti , C. 169
Nl " "a Ponlp;li" . ki1l &of R01"C 48
Olde llbllrg. LL 192
Fermo 180
Ol":m gc, HOll"" o f 76
Ol"a ngc, \Villia", of B.l
Orlalld illi . B. 4.ti
Ol",i,,; , F., d"l e 0 1" en",;"" 181
O"i,,; , I'. 18 !
O",d . e. 182. LXI
P,"'Cl.A. j. 169-70
P" r kinSOll . e. u_ R, 181
Plato 10-2. 168, 1 ii
PIlltal"C h l.S
Poli". R. 168
Po l)'bilL. 67-8. i2, 174
Index Nomil/lIl1/ 209
Po n trellloli,A, 181
I'o rtinaro , P. P. ](iH
P1'Ot;goros 128
Ramo nd. C. 186-7.19 1
Rancib'c, j. 41-2. In, IS2
A. 167
RCI<lu lt-D' All o llll cs 174
Ricc, L. C. IS9
RidoHl, R.
Ri zk. 1-1. 174
ROlllnlus 4S.91-2
Ro usscau. j.J. 105
Ro usscl. B. 185
Rufus. Quinlus Curtius 117.ISO
Sas..o;o. C. 174.17i, 181
5;" 'OIl<l1'Ola, C. 23--6, 28- 30, 171
Scht: llill o. l-I .. 167
Scipio African us. I' ublio Gorllelius 59
Sell eea. LueilLS I\nllae us 2 1. 37. 57
Scne llart.l\I . 175
Shirle)', S. 184
Signori lc, C. 3, 167
Sices. (). 180
Skinner, Q. 175
Smith. S. B. 152, 185
5010n 40,46
Stmuss. L. 3. 152. 157.1 67, 185,188
Tacitus. l'ublius Gorndius 75.121
Tho mas Aquinas 26
TOlllmasini, O. 183
Tose!. A. 186
To lam . C. 192
Turche tti. 1\1 . 173
U7.ano,N.da 123.171
VauI'cnargucs. L. d e Clapic rs de
11 5
Ve hh!!)'St: II, L. 103--'1, 178
VespaSiUlUs. TilUs FI;I"ills. e lll IH! l'QI' o f
Ro me 75
Ve tto ri. F. 23, 140- 1, I S3
Villari. P. IS3
VimlL M. 175. IS3
Viscomi, F. 30-2
Visc ntin, S. 188
Vile lli, V. I HO
Vitc llius, Aul!!s Ccrma ll icus
emperor o f Ro rne 75
Xe no phon 30
YOl'd. Y. 185
Zat o S. 189
7_'ulardi. M. IS2
Zanc;trini, j.-C. I 25---fi, ISI
Z;l1l zi. L. 169
Zol o. D, 17i
F. 175, ! BO,
183, 191
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_ 1n . C '4Sa", "-,.poIIIIuol q ' :1 ...... ___ 81 ... _
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pt " ' , " ..... he _"OtU ... rIch _ 7 ," al 01. cien e: .de __
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o
__ USA
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llZlo ,,"oo' Ja. po .r1uI.Ia'UU .. , .......... 01 EUI"lf EM
m,_IY: ' Al ' : of ............... b ... JIIOC .... " ", .... woc:Iontr __
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Q:n6c" PI: _, ..IdMulll..o.1f1 M .. c/Io&.""" &>nln .......... Srooras
IA .... ""'" by CO ..... Ob'll' _ lhII al f\k:ccIIO MdCl4. J' ni ,x. Del
lucd a;ord.r;tII ....",oI",' ....... ' ..... ...,$)n;>u
km. "",sa;b ... 11 once A ........ lostooul_ P 7 ..
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n'lOdeo ty, The _ COI\CII.' _ ... o/lI'Ieconoep 01 ' ..... tploQlf
and 'pi.>'''' e><) 223 : .... oIpoMa, aroSproozail
mulf,IWO. e>.-al, Ir-. Mi :h4l Spr'lo.uJ .... cfln lMI:f\.j .......... 11 ...
1IYooJC;I....tocn to8r"llltjW1hI' ' "'\SI1ip 01 "4Oda'0I,,
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