Disk: 90% of Galaxys stars, a mixture of young and old stars, lots of gas and dust.

Halo = 2% of Galaxys stars. Old, red dwarfs and giants with little gas and dust. Bulge = 10% of galaxys stars. Mixture of halo and disk. Disk component = all orbits circular. Sphere component (halo and bulge = random orientations.Blue O/B type stars = Live short lives. Emission nebulae = Clouds of hydrogen gas excited by hot, young stars. Most star formation in disk happens in spiral arms.Spiral arms are density waves. They trigger star formation. Our galaxy has ~200billion taars. Disk = 90% of stars, 100,000 lightyuears across, 2,000 lightyears thick. Keplers 3rd Law tells us the mass of the Galaxy. P^2 = a^3/(M1+M2), P in years, a in Aus, M1,M2 in Msun. Rotation curve = graph of orbital speed vs distance from center. The planets that orbit the sun further away have slower orbital speeds. This is because gravitational force drops with distance. Orbit speed tells us amount of mass. Greater speed needed to orbit a larger mass. Curve Shape tells us distribution of mass. 80% of Galaxys visible mass is inside Suns orbit. We expect orbital speeds to decline with distance, but they remain relatively high. Conclusion: Distant orbits enclose great amounts of unseen mass. We are unable to study the center of the galaxy, due to dusty gas clouds blocking the way. Must use infrared radio, or x-rays to see. There is a supermassive black hole at center of galaxy. ITs largely dormant with no bright x-rays. Edward Hubble was the first to measure distances to other galaxies. Spiral Galaxies = Disk component and Bulge (sphere). Disk = Spiral arms gas and dust, stars of all ages. Bulge = Few young stars light dominated by red giants. Barred Spiral Galaxies = Spiral arms branch off from a straight bar of stars that passes through the central bulge. Up to 2/3 of spiral galaxies have a bar. The milky way is a barred spiral with a 26,000 ly bar. Elliptical Galaxies = All sphere component and yellow-red in color, with few young stars and light dominated by red giants. Irregular Galaxies = Chaotic system. No disk or sphere. Blue-white color, dominated by O- and B-type stars. Very rich in gas and dust and tend to be small in size. Only spiral and irregulars have active star formations. Rich Galaxy Clusters contain over a thousand galaxies, mostly elliptical and centrally concentrated. Poor clusters contain fewer than 1000 galaxies. Many spirals few elliptical. Local group is poor cluster. When galaxies collide, stars do not collide. They are too far apart. When galaxies collide, they can distort each other and trigger starbursts high levels of star formation. Gianbt elliptical at galactic centers have multiple nuclei = galactic cannibalism. Spirals = no collisions. Visible portion of our galaxy lies deep in the heart of a large halo of dark matter. Galaxy clusters are filled with hot X-ray emitted gas. Very hot gas. Dark matter can be seen from observing their gravitational effects. Bullet cluster = Evidence of Dark Matter. Two galaxies colliding, but total mass is less than mass of both individual galaxies. When they collided, hot gas hit each other and slowed down dark matter went through unimpeded. We know dark matter exists because galaxies in clusters are moving faster than expected. Dark matter possibly made up of trillions of very faint stars. Massive Compact Halo Objects *MACHOs) = Black holes, neutron stars white dwarfs, brown dwarfs, planets. Most dark matter is Weakly interactring massive particles (WIMPs). Simialr to neutrino but heavier. Not yet detected. Quasar are incredibly luminous. 100 times brighter than entire milky way. Quasar brightness can change significantly over the course of a week. Quasars found in galactic ccenters, none nearby. Active galactic nuclei shoot jets of plasma that emit radio waves that can be 500000 lightyears long. Qusars vary on small time scale therefore very small. Quasars are powered by black holes. Material close to black hole forms accretion disk. Friction in disk turns kinetic energy into heat. Galaxies are built from bottom up. Spiral galaxies more common in rich clusters probably due to galactic collisions. POSSIBLE evolution: Protogalaxies -> Quasars -> Active galaxies -> Normal Galaxies. Newtons cosmology = Universe is infinite and static. Any finite universe would collapse due to gravity. Matter uniformly distributed. However Olbers Paradox: If universe is infinite why is sky not bright. Hubble found almost all galaxies are redshifted, which means they are moving away from us. HUBBLES LAW = VELOCITY = H0 X DISTANCE. H0 = 70 KM/S/MPC. Mpc = million parsec. Space expands galaxies themselves do not. Galaxies are not flying through space, but space itself is expanding. Universe has no center and no edge. We do not expand with universe due to other forces, such as atoms, molecules, planets, stars, etc. Big Bang was not an explosion of matter into space. It actually occurred EVERYWHERE. Was an explosion OF space. Measuring expansion allows us to estimate its age. Divide distance between galaxies by speed which they are separating. Large H0, expansion is fast and universe is young. SOLUTION TO OLBERS PARADOX: Universe is finite in age. Observable universe is finite, universe as whole could be infinite. History of the universe begins moments after t=0. It was incredibly hot, dense, and began cooling as it expanded. 10^-6 seconds after bring bang, temperature was over 1 trillion Kelvin. It was filled with high-energy gamma-ray photons and exotic particles. Afterwards, protons and neutrons started forming. Quarks combined to make these. 320 minutes old = First elements are made. Temp = 10^9K. Protons and Neutrons undergo fusion to form heavier atomic nuclei. Fusion only lasts a few minutes. Ratio of H to He at 75% to 25%. Very few atoms heavier than helium. At first, universe was hot, dense, IONIZED gas. Matter did not clump together. At 380,000 years old,

universe cools to 3,000K and neutral hydrogen atoms form called recombination. This neutral gas is transparent to light and matter and radiation are no longer at the same temperature. As universe expands, denser regions draw in more matter, forming clumps. 200-400 million years: First stars. Microwave signals in sky called Cosmic Microwave ?Background (CMB). CMB is light emitted by hot gas when the universe first formed atoms. Expansion of universe redshifted light to 1100x longer wavelength. Early on, universe expanded 10^50 factor in 10^-32 seconds, called inflation. Open universe = expand forever. Closed = re-collapse. Flat = expansion stops.Because open does not contain enough mass/gravity to slow down. Normal matter only 4.9% of critical density needed to recollapse universe. Darn matter only 27%. Greater mass = faster deceleration. If expansion slowing down, redshift greater than actual distance traveled. IN ACTUALITY universe is speeding up. Actual distance greater than redshift. DARK ENERGY drives expansion faster with time. Universe initially decelerated, then acceleration. In 10^14 years, no more star formation. Constellation = region, Asterism = structure. Sun/moon rise in east, go west. Polaris very close to NCP. End of Little Dipper. Parihelion = Near sun, Aphelion = Far-sun. Closest in January. Earth tilted 23.5 degrees. Northern Solstice June 21, September Equinox Sept 21, March Equinox March 21, Southern Solstice, Dec 21. As year goes on, sun moves south. MOON PHASES:

Umbra = total shadow. Penumbra = partial shadow. 3 types of lunar eclipses: Partial = portion of moon passes Earths umbral shadow. Penumbral Moon passes through earths penumbral shadow. Hard to notice. Total Entire moon through umbral shadow. Solar eclipse occurs when Earth passes through shadow of Moon. Only occurs during New Moon. Annular Solar Eclipse = ring around sun can be seen. Two conditions for eclipse: Moon must be new moon (solar eclipse) or full moon (lunar eclipse). Moon must be near a node (a point where its orbit crosses plane of Earths orbit). Planets move west-east relative to stars (prograde motion). Retrograde motion = Planets move westward for a little bit, relative to stars. Eccentricity (e) of 0 is perefect circle. Keplar Law #1: Orbit of planets are ellipses with Sun at one focus. Law #2: Law of areas Planets closer to sun move fater. Keplars Law #3 Law of periods: P^2 = a^3. P = orbital period in years, a = distance in AU. Newtons 1st law: Law of Inertia. Object at rest states at rest etc. #2 : F=ma. #3 Action-reaction. Gravity = F = G(m1xm2)/(r^2). Visible light = 400-700nm. Longer = infrared, microwave, radio. Shorter =UV, x-rays, gammarays. Blackbody radiation = thermal radiation emitted by hot, opaque objects. Spectral curve depends only on temperature. As object heats up, wavelength changes. Weins law = max wavelength = 0.0029K/T, T in Kelvin. Stefan-Boltzmann law = Flux = xT^4. Suns spectral curve about 5,800K blackbody. Continous Spectrum: Hot Opaque Body, such as dense gas. Emission = Hot, transpartent gas. Absorption: Transparent gas in front of a continous spectrum. change in wavelength/wavelength if source nto moving = v/c Refreacting telescopes uses lenses, reflectiong uses mirrors. Three powers = Light-gathering, Resolving, Magnifiying. Light-gathering = Area = pi(d/2)^2. Resolving power increase directly with mirror diameter. Twinkling occurs because atmosphere refracts starlight in random directions quickly. Only visible, IR, and radio wave reaches Earths surface. Terrestrial Planets Closer to sun, smaller sizes and masses, higher density. Mostly rock and metal. Solid, warm, few moons, no rings. Jovian Planets farther, large size and mass, low density, mostly hydrogen and helium. No solid, cold, many moons, all have rings. Pluto lies in Kuiper belt = icy bodies orbiting outer fringes of solar system. Mass of sun 2E27 tons. Energy output is (3.8x10^26) watts. Sun generates this energy through fusion. E=mc^2, excess mass becomes energy. Fusion only occurs in suns core. 15million Kelvin. Near center of sun, Radiative zone. Outer layers = Convective zone. Sun in balance y hydrostatic equilibrium and thermal equilibrium. Chromosphere = inner atmosphere. 1000x fainter than photosphere. 4.5-25k Kelvin. Corona = Outer atmosphere, temps up to 2million Kelvin. Very faint. Sunspots are magnetic. The magnetic field traps gasses. It suppresses convection and prevents hot gas from rising. Prominences = magnetic loops that extend into Suns corona. Cooler and denser than surrounding corona.

Solar Flares = Intense magnetic fields in sunspot regions release energy. Coronal Mass Ejections = Huge bubbles of gas ejected from Sun. Parallax angle (p) measured in arcseconds. 1parsec = 3.09x10^13km = 3.26ly. d (in pc) = 1/p(in arsec). Luminsoties measured in Lsun. Apparaently brightness = b = L/(4[pi]d^2). B = apparent, L = Luminosity, D = distance. Absolute magnitude = apparently magnitude if star were 10 parsecs away. Spectral Sequence = O->B->A->F->G->K->M from hottest to coolest. L = 4piR^2(Boltzmann)T^4. Herzspring-Russell Diagram = hot -> cold x-axis, dim ^ bright y-axis. Largest stars in upper right quadrant. 90% of nearby stars are main sequence. 70% less than 0.5Msun. Nebulae = clouds og as and dust.Clouds are very cold. Protostar contracts until temp reaches 10^7, when fusion begins. Brown Dwarfs = Failed stars. Less massive than 0.08Msun. Thermal energy from formation, not enough mass for fusion. Red Dwarfs = Hydrogen -> Helium in core. Main sequence lifetime in trillions. When hydrogen runs out in our sun, it becomes red giant. Core contracts while outer layers expand. Inert He core. When core reaches 100million Kelvin, 3He -> 1 C. Suns second life as helium fusing star. White Dwarf = nuclear fusion has stopped. Planetary nebula = final pulse blowing off envelope. Very dense white dwarf. Main Sequence -> Red Giant -> Yellow Giant -> Planetary Nebula -> White Dwarf. After supernova, if mass was 8-25Msun, Neutron Star. If star was >25Msun, black hole. Pulsar = spinning neutron star. Magnetic field so intense it creates beams of radiation by rapid rotation. Main Sequenc e-> Red Supergiant -> Blue Supergiant -> Red Supergiant 2 -> Supernova -> Neutron star or black hole