ECE 230B: Winter 2013

Solid-State Electronic Devices

Professor Yuan Taur
Electrical & Computer Engineering Electrical & Computer Engineering
University of California, San Diego
1/4/2013 Yuan Taur 1
ECE 230B: Winter 2013
Solid-State Electronic Devices
Prerequist: ECE 103 135A B or equivalent and ECE 230A Prerequist: ECE 103, 135A, B, or equivalent and ECE 230A
Instructor: Yuan Taur
Office: EBU1-3801 Office: EBU1 3801
Phone: 534-3816
taur@ece.ucsd.edu
Office hours: Wednesday, Friday, 11-12, or by appointment y, y, , y pp
Course website: http://ted.ucsd.edu
TA: no
This course covers the physics of solid-state electronic devices, including
p-n junctions, MOS devices, field-effect transistors, bipolar transistors, etc.
Principles of CMOS and bipolar scaling to nanometer dimensions and their high
frequency performance in digital and analog circuits will be taught.
1/4/2013 2
q y p g g g
Topics to be Covered
1) Band diagram, Fermi level, Poissons
eq., Carrier transport (1.5 wks)
2.1
2) P-n junction (1 wk)
3) MOS device (1 wk)
2.2
2.3
4) Schottky diodes, High field effects (1 wk)
5) MOSFETs (1.5 wks)
2.4-2.5
3
6) CMOS scaling and design (1.5 wks)
7) CMOS performance factors (1 wk)
4
5
8) Bipolar transistors and SiGe (1.5 wks)
Textbook: Fundamentals of Modern VLSI Devices, 2
nd
ed.
6-8
1/4/2013 3
,
Y. Taur and T. H. Ning, Cambridge Univ. Press (2009)
Homework and Grading Policy g y
Biweekly homework without handing in.
Answers will be posted.
20%--Two quizes (open book, calculator
ll d) allowed).
30%--Midterm (Closed book, calculator
d f id d t and one page of one-sided notes
allowed).
50% Final (Closed book calculator and 50%--Final (Closed book, calculator and
one page of two-sided notes allowed).
1/4/2013 4
History of transistors and VLSI
1/4/2013 5
Electron Energy Levels and Bands gy
Discrete electron energy
levels in an atom:
Broadening into electron
energy bands in a solid: levels in an atom: energy bands in a solid:
There are forbidden energy gaps between
1/4/2013 6
There are forbidden energy gaps between
allowed electron energy bands.
The Origin of Energy Gap in a
Crystalline Solid
1/4/2013 7
The Origin of Energy Gap in a
Crystalline Solid
(From Kittel)
1/4/2013 8
(From Kittel)
Crystalline Lattice
1/4/2013 9
Energy Band Structures
1/4/2013 10
Metals, Insulators, and Semiconductors
Insulators: E
g
> 4-5 eV
1/4/2013 11
Semiconductors: E
g
< 4-5 eV
Metals, Insulators, and Semiconductors
(From Muller and Kamins)
1/4/2013 12
Energy Band Diagram of Silicon
Hole
energy
Conduction band
e e gy
E
c
E
g
E
i
E
v
E = 1 12 eV
Electron
energy
Valence band
E
g
= 1.12 eV
kT/q = 0.026 V
@300 K
Free electron ( )
F h l (+)
energy

1/4/2013 13
@ 300 K
Free hole (+)
Density of States
N(E)dE : Number of electronic states per unit volume with an
energy between E and (E + dE) in the conduction band.
From quantum mechanics, there is one allowed state in a
phase space of volume (AxAp
x
)(AyAp
y
)(AzAp
z
) = h
3
.
N E dE g
dp dp dp
h
x y z
( ) = 2
3
where dp
x
dp
y
dp
z
is the volume in the momentum space
within which the electron energy lies between E and E + dE,
g is the number of equivalent minima in the conduction band g is the number of equivalent minima in the conduction band,
and the factor of two arises from the two possible directions
of electron spin. The conduction band of silicon has a six-
fold degeneracy, so g = 6.
1/4/2013 14
g y, g
Density of States
If the electron kinetic energy is not too high, one can apply
the parabolic approximation,
p
p
p
2
2
2
where (E E
c
) is the electron kinetic energy, and m
x
, m
y
, m
z
are the effective masses inversely proportional to the
E E
p
m
p
m
p
m
c
x
x
y
y
z
z
= + +
2 2 2
are the effective masses inversely proportional to the
curvatures of the band. For silicon conduction band in the
(100) direction, the longitudinal mass is m
x
= 0.92m
0
and the
transverse masses are m = m = 0 19m transverse masses are m
y
= m
z
= 0.19m
0
.
The volume of the ellipsoid in momentum space is
(4t/3)(8m
x
m
y
m
z
)
1/2
(EE
c
)
3/2
. The volume dp
x
dp
y
dp
z
within
which the electron energy lies between E and E + dE is which the electron energy lies between E and E + dE is
4t(2m
x
m
y
m
z
)
1/2
(EE
c
)
1/2
dE.
N E dE
g m m m
E E dE
x y z
( ) =
8 2
3
t
1/4/2013 15
N E dE
h
E E dE
c
( )
3
Fermi-Dirac Statistical Distribution
f E
e
E E kT
f
( )
( )/
=
+

1
1 e
f
+ 1
1/4/2013 16
Fermi Level and Thermal Equilibrium
Consider two electronic systems in contact with Fermi levels
E
f1
and E
f2
. The corresponding distribution functions are f
D1
(E)
and f
D2
(E). If E
f1
> E
f2
, then f
D1
(E) > f
D2
(E) for all E.
Electrons flow from 1 to 2.
E
kT E E
D
kT E E
D
f f
e
E f
e
E f
/ ) (
2
/ ) (
1
2 1
1
1
) (
1
1
) (

+
= >
+
=
E
E
e
E
f1
E
f2
Th l ilib i N t fl E E
1/4/2013 17
Thermal equilibrium: No current flow E
f1
= E
f2
.
Electron and Hole Densities
Conduction
band
E E E E
band
E
g
E
c
n

E
f
E
v
Valence
band
p

Free hole (+)
Free electron ( )
N(E) f (E)

n and p

1/2

1

( )
N E f E dE

}
( ) ( ) | |
p N E f E dE
E
v
}
( ) ( ) 1

2 8
) (
3
c
z y x
E E
h
m m m g
E N =
t
1/4/2013 18
n N E f E dE
E
c
=
}
( ) ( ) | |
p N E f E dE =

}
( ) ( ) 1
Electron and Hole Densities
Fermi-Dirac distribution: f E
e
E E kT
f
( )
( )/
=
+

1
1
Non-degenerate approximation,
For (E - E
f
)/kT >> 1,
f E e
E E kT
f
( )
( )/
~

f
For (E - E
f
)/kT << -1, f E e
E E kT
f
( )
( )/
~

1
Carrying out the integrations,
n N e
c
E E kT
c f
=
( )/
p N e
v
E E kT
f v
=
( )/
2
N
c
, N
v
: Effective density of states,
2 / 3
3
) 2 (
2
kT
h
m m m g
N
z y x
c
t =
V lid f d i fi ld diti
1/4/2013 19
Valid for any doping, field conditions.
Intrinsic Silicon
n N e
c
E E kT
c f
=
( )/
p N e
v
E E kT
f v
=
( )/
| |
Intrinsic silicon: Charge neutrality requires n = p = n
i
,
E E
E E kT N
N
i f
c v c
v
= =
+

|
\

|
.
|
2 2
ln
Intrinsic Fermi level:
Intrinsic carrier
n N N e N N e
i c v
E E kT
c v
E kT
c v
g
= =


( )/
/
2
2
Intrinsic carrier
density:
kT E E
i
i f
e n n
/ ) (
=
kT E E
i
f i
e n p
/ ) (
=
2
i
n np =
1/4/2013 20
i
p
1/4/2013 21
Atomic/molecular weight 28.09 60.08
At l l /
3
5 0 10
22
2 3 10
22
Physical Properties Si SiO
2
Atoms or molecules/cm
3
5.010
22
2.310
22
Density (g/cm
3
) 2.33 2.27
Crystal structure Diamond Amorphous
L tti t t () 5 43 Lattice constant () 5.43 ---
Energy gap (eV) 1.12 8-9
Dielectric constant 11.7 3.9
Intrinsic carrier concentration (cm
3
) 1 410
10
Intrinsic carrier concentration (cm
3
) 1.410
10
---
Carrier mobility (cm
2
/V-s) Electron: 1430 ---
Hole: 470 ---
Effective density of states (cm
3
) Conduction band N : 3 210
19
Effective density of states (cm
3
) Conduction band N
c
: 3.210
19
---
Valence band N
v
: 1.810
19
---
Breakdown field (V/cm) 310
5
>10
7
Melting point (C) 1415 1600 1700 Melting point ( C) 1415 1600-1700
Thermal conductivity (W/cm-C) 1.5 0.014
Specific heat (J/g-C) 0.7 1.0
Thermal diffusivity (cm
2
/s) 0 9 0 006
1/4/2013 22
Thermal diffusivity (cm /s) 0.9 0.006
Thermal expansion coefficient (C
1
) 2.510
6
0.510
6
Extrinsic (n-type and p-type) Silicon
Si Si Si
Si Si
Si Si Si
Si Si Si
Si Si Si
Si Si P
+
q
B

Si
Si Si
Si
Si
Si Si
Si Si
Si
Si
Si
Si Si
Si
Si
P B
+q
(b) (a) (c)
Intrinsic n-type p-type
1/4/2013 23
1/4/2013 24
Band Diagrams of n-type and
p-type Silicon
Conduction band Conduction band
E
c
E
c
E
E
g
E
g
c
E
E
i
E
i
E
d
E
a
E
f


E
f
Valence band
Valence band
E
v
E
v
a

Free electron ( ) Free hole (+)
( ) t (b) t

1/4/2013 25
(a) n-type (b) p-type
Fermi Level in Extrinsic Silicon
n N e
c
E E kT
c f
=
( )/
p N e
v
E E kT
f v
=
( )/
For n-type silicon with donor concentration N
d
, charge neutrality
requires n = p + N
d
+
~ N
d
(assuming complete ionization).
Therefore,
| |
E E kT
N
N
c f
c
d
=
|
\

|
.
|
ln
| |
Or, in terms of n
i
and E
i
,
E E kT
N
n
f i
d
i
=
|
\

|
.
|
ln
Note that np = n
2
independent of E (n- or p-type)
For N
d
> N
c
, E
f
> E
c
degenerate n
+
silicon. Need full F-D eq.
1/4/2013 26
Note that np = n
i
, independent of E
f
(n- or p-type).
Fermi Level vs. Temperature
1/4/2013 27
Fermi Level in Extrinsic Silicon
If incomplete ionization, N
d
+
< N
d
where
(
E
f
is then solved from
| | N N f E N
e
d d d d E E kT
d f
+

= =
+

(
1 1
1
1 1 2
( )
( / )
( )/
f
N e
N
e
N e
c
E E kT
d
E E kT v
E E kT
c f
d f
f v



=
+
+
( ) /
( ) /
( ) /
1 2
Condition for complete ionization:
N
e
d E E kT
c d
( ) /
<< 1
Requires the donor energy level to be within a few kT of
the bottom of the conduction band
N
e
c
c d
( )
<< 1
1/4/2013 28
the bottom of the conduction band.
1/4/2013 29
Donor and Acceptor Levels in Silicon
1/4/2013 30
Dopant Solubility in Silicon
1/4/2013 31
Carrier Concentration vs. Temperature
1/4/2013 32
Carrier Transport: Drift
kT v m
th n
2
3
2
1
2 *
=
At 300 K, v
th
~ 10
7
cm/s
Mean free path :
Average distance between
collisions, ~10
-5
cm
Mean free time t
cn
:
Average time between
collisions, ~ 1 ps
*
/ m q v
d
t E =
1/4/2013 33
Mobilityy
E =
d
v
1,600
40
1,200
1,400
30
V
-
s
)
t

(
c
m

/
s
)
2
Electrons T = 300 K
600
800
1,000
20
o
b
i
l
i
t
y

(
c
m

/
V
o
n

c
o
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
t
2
l
200
400
10
M
o
D
i
f
f
u
s
i
o
Holes
1E+14 1E+15 1E+16 1E+17 1E+18 1E+19 1E+20
0 0
Doping concentration (cm )
-3
1 1 1
1/4/2013 34
+ + =
I L

1 1 1
Resistivity of Silicon y
E
n d drift n
qn qnv J = =
,

1
=
n
n
qn
=
1/4/2013 35
Velocity Saturation y
1E+7
i
t
y

(
c
m
/
s
)
1E+6
a
r
r
i
e
r

v
e
l
o
c
E
l
e
c
t
r
o
n
s
s
1E+2 1E+3 1E+4 1E+5
1E+5
C
a
H
o
l
e
s
T=300 K
cm/s 10
7
~ v
1E+2 1E+3 1E+4 1E+5
Electric field (V/cm)
1/4/2013 36
cm/s 10 ~
sat
v
Carrier Transport: Diffusion
n(x+l)
a
t
i
o
n
,

n J qD
dn
dx
n diff n ,
=
n(x)
n(x l)
o
n

c
o
n
c
e
n
t
r
a
n(x-l) D
kT
q
n n
=
E
l
e
c
t
r
oq
D
kT
p p
=
x
Distance
x+l x-l
q
p p

1/4/2013 37
Poissons Equation

i
i
E
q
=
Define intrinsic potential:
q
dx
d
- =

E Electric field:
dx
si
x
dx
d
dx
d
c
) (
2
2
= =
E
Poissons eq.:
| | ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
2
2
x N x N x n x p
q
dx
d
dx
d
a d
si
+ = =
c
E
Or,
}
= =
s
Q
dx x
c

c
) (
1
E Gausss law:
1/4/2013 38
}
si si
c c
2-D Poissons Equation
net
y
x
y x

c
c
=
c
c
+
c
c
) (
) (
E
E
where E
x
= c/cx and E
y
= c/cy.
) , 0 ( ) , 0 (
2 1
y y
y y
E E =
At the interface between c
1
and c
2
,
1
(0,y) =
2
(0,y).
c c
) , 0 ( ) , 0 (
2 2 1 1
y y
x x
E E c c = Also c(x)E
x
must be continuous at x = 0
FIGURE 2.11. Diagram for
discussing the boundary conditions
(x y) (x y)
c
1
c
2
of electric field at the interface
between two dielectric media.
(x,y)
1
(x,y)
2
x
y
1/4/2013 39
x = 0
Carrier Concentration in terms
of Electrostatic Potential
Silicon Silicon
surface

B f i
b
kT
q
N
n
=
|
\

|
.
|
ln
q
s

E
c
E
i
E
g
q
B

q x ( )
E
i
q n
\ .
(> 0)
E
v
E
f


n n e n e
i
E E kT
i
q kT
f i i f
= =
( )/ ( )/
Oxide p-type silicon
x
p n e n e
i
E E kT
i
q kT
i f f i
= =
( )/ ( )/
1/4/2013 40
Debye Length
L
D
| |
d
dx
q
N x n e
i
d i
q kT
i f
2
2

c

=

( )
( ) /
E
i
E
f
D
| |
dx
si
c
d N
2 2
( ) A
i

d
dx
q N
kT
q
N x
i d
si
i
si
d
2
2
2
( )
( ) ( )
A
A A

c

c
=
N
d
N
d
+A N
d
Solution: A
i
~ exp(-x/L
D
)
where
L
kT
q N
D
si
d

c
2
1/4/2013 41
Current Density Equations
Combining drift and diffusion components,
dx
dn
qD + qn J
n n n
E =
Or,
dx
dx
dp
qD qp J
p p p
= E
|
|

| dn kT d Or,
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
dx
dn
qn
kT
dx
d
qn J
i
n n

|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
dx
dp
qp
kT
dx
d
qp J
i
p p

dx
d
qn J
f
n n

=
d
d
qp J
f
p p

=
dx
d
J J J
f
p n

1
= + =
If both n and p take on their equilibrium values,
then , and
. \
dx qp dx
dx
dx
p p
dx
Current proportional to the gradient of Fermi level assuming
local equilibrium and local Fermi level.
1/4/2013 42
q
Current Density Equations
dx
dn
qD + qn J
n n n
E =
dp
D J E
When electrons and holes are not in local equilibrium,
define quasi-Fermi levels E
fn
, E
fp
such that
dx
dp
qD qp J
p p p
= E
define quasi Fermi levels E
fn
, E
fp
such that
Then
d kT dn d
| |
|
kT E E
i
i fn
e n n
/ ) (

=
kT E E
i
fp i
e n p
/ ) (
=
J qn
d
dx
kT
qn
dn
dx
qn
d
dx
n n
i
n
n
=
|
\

|
.
|
=

|
J qp
d
dx
kT
qp
dp
dx
qp
d
dx
p p
i
p
p
= +
|
\

|
.
|
=

|
where
dx qp dx dx
p p p
\ .
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
i
i
fn
n
n
n
q
kT
q
E
ln |
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
i
i
fp
p
n
p
q
kT
q
E
ln |
1/4/2013 43
are the quasi-Fermi potentials.
. \ i . \ i
1/4/2013 44
1/4/2013 45
1/4/2013 46
Current Continuity Equations
From conservation of mobile charge,
c c n J
R G
n
1
c c t q x
R G
n
n n
= +
c
c
p
J
R G
p
= +
1
where G
n
, G
p
, R
n
, R
p
are electron-hole generation
and recombination rates.
c c t q x
R G
p p
+
In the steady state with negligible electron-hole
generation and recombination rates, g ,
dJ
n
/dx = 0
dJ
p
/dx = 0
Si l ti it f l t d h l t
1/4/2013 47
Simply continuity of electron and hole currents.
Dielectric Relaxation Time
Neglect R
n
, G
n
in the current continuity equation,
c c n J 1
From Ohms law, J
n
= E/
n

c
c
c
c
n
t q
J
x
n
=
1
And from Poissons equation with majority carrier
density n, cE/cx = qn/c
si
S bstit ting into c rrent contin it eq ation Substituting into current continuity equation:

c
c c
n
t
n
=
The solution is of the form n(t) exp(t/
n
c
si
)
where
n
c
si
~ 10
-12
s is the majority carrier
c c t
n si
1/4/2013 48
response time.