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AMMRC MS 79- 1

FRACTURE TOUGHNESS AND STRESS


CORROSION CHARACTERISTICS OF
ULTRAHIGH-STRENGTH 4340 STEEL -
SUMMARY REVIEW
February 1979
Approved for public release; distribution unlimited.
ARMY MATERI ALS AND MECHANI CS RESEARCH CENTER
Watertown, Massachusetts 02172
OFFICIAL FILE COpy
AMMRC MS 79-1
FRACTURE TOUGHNESS AND STRESS
CORROSION CHARACTERISTICS OF
ULTRAHIGH-STRENGTH 434D-STEEL -
SUMMARY. REVIEW
February 1979
Approved for public release; distribution unlimited.
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ARMY MATERIALS AND MECHANICS RESEARCH CENTER
Watertown. Massachusetts 02172
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. REPORT NUMBER 2. GOVT ACCESSI ON NO. 5. RECI PI ENTS CATALOG NUMBER
AMMRC I% 79-l
I I
. TI TLE (md Subt i t l e)
FRACTURE TOUGHNESS AND STRESS CORROSION
CWAPACTERISTICS OF I:LTRA~ITCH--STRENCTE
4,140 STEEL - SUMMARY REVIEW
5. TYPE OF REPORT & PERI OD COVERED
Final Report
6. PERFORMI NG ORG. REPORT NUMBER
. AU THOR(u)
Anthony K. Wong, Milton Levy, and
Walter F. Czyrklis
6. CONTRACT OR GRANT NUMBER(s)
I . PERFORMI NG ORGANI ZATI ON NAME AND ADDRESS 10. PROGRAM ELEMENT, PROJ ECT, TASK
AREA & WORK UNI T NUMBERS
Army Materials and Mechanics Research Center
D/A Project:
lX464621D073
Watertown, Massachusetts 02172
DRXMR- Eb'
mCMS Code: 6446210730012
I . CONTROLLI NG OFFI CE NAME AND ADDRESS 12. REPORT DATE
U. S. Army Materiel Development and Readiness
February 1979
Command, Alexandria, Virginia 22333
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18
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I S. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
19. KEY WORDS (Cont i nue on r ever se side i/ necessary end identily by block number)
Fracture toughness
Stress corrosion
High strength steels
434C steel
Frojectiles
tlumidity
10. ABSTRACT (Continue on reverse side If necessary end Idcntrfy by block number)
(SEE REVERSE SIDE)
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AMMRC MS 79-1
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TI TL E (Wid Subtitle)
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TyPE OF REPORT & PERIOD COVERED
FRACTURE TOUGHNESS AND STRESS CORROSION
CHARACTERISTICS OF l1LTRAIlIGH-STRENGTH
Final Report
4340 STEEL - SUl-lMARY REVIEW
PERFORMING ORG. REPORT NUMBER
7. AUTHORr.) .. CONTRACT OR GRANT NUMBER(s)
Anthony K. Wong, Mil ton Levy, and.
Walter F. Czyrklis
".
PERFORMING ORGANIZATION N .... ME AND ADDRESS '0. PROGRAM ELEMENT, PROJECT, TASK
AREA 6; WORK UNIT NUMBERS
Army Materials and Mechanics Research Center
PiA Project: lX464621D073
Watertown, Massachusetts 02172
Code: 6446210730012
DRXMR-

II. CONTROLLING OFFICE NAME AND ADDRESS 12. REPORT DATE
U. S. Army Materiel Dev e 1 opmen t and Readiness
February 1979
Command, Alexandria, Virginia 22333 ".
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'0.
SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
.".
KEY WORDS (Conllnue on rflverse .ide If ne,essary and identify by block number)
Fracture toughness 434C steel
Stress corrosion Proj ectiles
High strength steels Ilumidi ty
'0
ABSTRACT (ContInua on rever.e side It necessary end Identify by block number)
(SEE REVERSE SIDE)
DO
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I JAN 7]
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Block No. 20
ABSTRACT
A review was made of the fracture toughness (KIc) and stress cor-
rosion (l&J characteristics of 4340 steel within the 200 to 250 ksi
yield strength range. This literature review was conducted in support
of a fracture mechanics and environmental investigation of 4340 steel
for the control section housing of the Copperhead CLGP (Cannon-Launched
Guided Projectile) weapon system. Factors affecting toughness and cor-
rosion cracking characteristics are considered. Also included are data
pertaining to the damaging effects of humidity. Fracture toughness and
stress corrosion cracking resistance of 4340 steel are usually higher
in the alloys possessing lower yield strengths.
Materials Engineer
MILTON LEVY
Supervisory Research/Chemist
Research Chemist " '
APPROVED:
E. B. KULA
Chief
Metals Research Division
UNCLASSIFIED
UNCLASSIFIED
I'CU"ITY CLAIIIPlCATION 0' TMII ".G.,. .. Del. &I'I(:t'94)
Block No. 20
ABSTRACT
A review was made of the fracture toughness (K
1c
) and stress cor-
rosion (K
1scc
) characteristics of 4340 steel within the 200 to 250 ksi
yield strength range. This Ii terature review was conducted in support
of a fracture mechanics and environmental investigation of 4340 steel
for the control section housing of the Copperhead CLGP (Cannon-Launched
Guided Projectile) weapon system. Factors affecting toughness and cor-
rosion cracking characteristics are considered. Also included are data
pertaining to the damaging effects of humidity. Fracture toughness and
stress corrosion cracking resistance of 4340 steel are usually higher
in the alloys possessing lower yield strengths.
APPROVED:
E. B. KULA
Chief
Metals Research Division
Materials Engineer
MIL TON LEVY I
Supervisory Research :emist
UNCLASSIFIED
CONTENTS
Page
INTRODUCTION
Background. .............................
1
Fracture Toughness Considerations .................. 1
Stress Corrosion Considerations ................... 1
Application .............................
2
Objective ..............................
2
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Requirement for 434C Steel. ..................... 2
Fracture Toughness and Yield Strength ................ 2
Fracture Toughness and Test Specimen Considerations
......... 4
Fracture Toughness - Processing Effects ............... 6
Fracture Toughness Comparison ....................
8
Stress Corrosion Cracking ......................
10
Stress Corrosion and Yield Strength ................. 10
Stress Corrosion and Temperature. ..................
12
Stress Corrosion and Cther Variables. ................ 12
Environmental Effects ........................
13
Missile Storage Criteria - Humidity Effects
............. 14
Stress Corrosion Comparison ..................... 14
SUMMARY ..................................
14
LITERATURE CITED. ............................
15
INTRODUCTION
Background.
CONTENTS
Fracture Toughness Considerations
Stress Corrosion Considerations
Application
Objective .
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Requirement for 434C Steel ..... .
Fracture Toughness and Yield Strength
Fracture Toughness and Test Specimen Considerations
Fracture Toughness - Processing Effects
Fracture Toughness Comparison
Stress Corrosion Cracking . .
Stress Corrosion and Yield Strength
Stress Corrosion and Temperature ..
Stress Corrosion and ether Variables.
Environmental Effects . . . . . .
Missile Storage Criteria - Humidity Effects
Stress Corrosion Comparison
SUMMARY ..
LITERATURE CITED
Page
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
4
6
8
10
10
12
12
13
14
14
14
15
.. . ,
INTRODUCTION
Background
Continued advances in weapons technology reiterate the need for ultrahigh-
strength materials. Reliability, minimum weight, and economy are important
requirements for guided missile components. These components must be fabricated
from materials possessing high strength:weight ratios as well as uniform and re-
producible mechanical properties such that unexpected failures will not occur at
stresses lower than the design operating conditions. I f strength of material was
the only limiting design parameter, it would be a simple procedure to select a
strong material for application. Unfortunately, many widely used engineering al-
loys experience failure at nominal stress levels well below their yield strengths
when exposed to particular conditions of temperature, loading rate, stress distri-
bution, and surrounding enviornment.
Fracture Toughness Consi derati ons
To mitigate these problems, designers are increasingly employing linear
elastic fracture mechanics principles and concepts of crack-extension force and
stress intensity factor in their utilization of high strength materials. As a
consequence of much research activity and rapid development,13 fracture toJ gh-
ness testing, based on fracture mechanics principles, has quickly evolved from
the research stage to a standardized procedure.4 Of growing interest at this
time is the true material property of plane strain fracture toughness designated
as Qc. Failure in a structure can occur when the stress intensity K equals the
fracture toughness value.
Stress Corrosi on Consi derati ons
Since weapon system components are often stored in readiness condition for
long periods of time in controlled or uncontrolled environments, stress corrosion
cracking susceptibility must be considered. Stress corrosion cracking (see) is
the failure of material from the combined effects of a corrosion environment and
a static tensile stress. The source of the stress may be from applied loads or
locked-up residual stresses.
Fracture mechanics can also be employed in the analysis of stress corrosion
cracking.%6 The threshold value of stress intensity is designated KI scc. Crack
growth should not occur for stress intensities K below KI scc. I f an initial value
of K is above KI SCC, existing cracks can be expected to grow with time until frac-
ture occurs.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Fracture Toughness Testing and Its Applications. ASTM STP 381, 1965.
Plane Strain Crack Toughness Testing of High Strength Metallic Materials. ASTM STP 410, 1966.
Review of Developments in Plane Strain Fracture Toughness Testing. ASTM STP 463, 1970.
ASTM Test for Plane-Strain Fracture Toughness of Metallic Materials: E399-74.
SCULLY, J. C., ed. The Theory of Stress Corrosion Cracking in Alloys. NATO Science Committee, Research Evaluation
Conference, Brussels, W. S. Maney and Sons, Ltd., Leeds, England, 1971.
BROWN, B. F., ed. Stress Corrosion Cracking in High Strength Steel, Titanium, and Aluminum Al1o.w. U. S. Government
Printing Office, Stock No. 085 l-0058, 1972.
1
INTRODUCTION
Background
Continued advances in weapons technology reiterate the need for ultrahigh-
strength materials. Reliability, minimum weight, and economy are important
requirements for guided missile components. These components must be fabricated
from materials possessing high strength:weight ratios as well as uniform and re-
producible mechanical properties such that unexpected failures will not occur at
stresses lower than the design operating conditions. If strength of material was
the only limiting design parameter, it would be a simple procedure to select a
strong material for application. Unfortunately, many widely used engineering al-
loys experience failure at nominal stress levels well below their yield strengths
when exposed to particular conditions of temperature, loading rate, stress distri-
bution, and surrounding enviornment.
Fracture Toughness Considerations
To mitigate these problems, designers are increasingly employing linear
elastic fracture mechanics principles and concepts of crack-extension force and
stress intensity factor in their utilization of high strength materials. As a
consequence of much research activity and rapid development,I-3 fracture t o ~ g h
ness testing, based on fracture mechanics principles, has quickly evolved from
the research stage to a standardized procedure.
4
Of growing interest at this
time is the true material property of plane strain fracture toughness designated
as K
1c
' Failure in a structure can occur when the stress intensity K equals the
fracture toughness value.
Stress Corrosion Considerations
Since weapon system components are often stored in readiness condition for
long periods of time in controlled or uncontrolled environments, stress corrosion
cracking susceptibility must be considered. Stress corrosion cracking (sec) is
the failure of material from the combined effects of a corrosion environment and
a static tensile stress. The source of the stress may be from applied loads or
"locked-up" residual stresses.
Fracture
cracking. 5,6
growth should
of K is above
ture occurs.
mechanics can also be employed in the analysis of stress corrosion
The threshold value of stress intensity is designated K
Iscc
' Crack
not occur for stress intensities K below K
Iscc
' If an initial value
K
Iscc
' existing cracks can be expected to grow with time until frac-
1. Fracture Toughness Testing and Its Applications. ASTM STP 381, 1965.
2. Plane Strain Crack Toughness Testing of High Strength Metallic Materials. ASTM STP 410,1966.
3. Review of Developments in Plane Strain Fracture T01Ighnrss Testing. ASTM STP 463,1970.
4. ASTM Test for Plane-Strain Fracture Toughness of Metallic Materials: E39974.
5. SCULLY. J. C., cd. The Theory of Stress Corrosion Cracking in Alloys. NATO Science Committee, Research Evaluation
Conference, Brussels, W. S. Maney and Sons, Ltd" Leeds, England. 1971.
6. BROWN, B. F., ed. Stress Corrosion Cracking in Ili1{h Strength Steel. Titanium, and Alumirumt Alloys. U. S. Government
Printing Office, Stock No. 0851-0058,1972.
I
Appl i cat i on
The Copperhead CLGP (Cannon-Launched Guided Projectile) weapon system is a
high-performance 155-mm laser-guided projectile. I ts control section housing com-
ponent is basically the outer skin of the projectile from the warhead to the aft
closure and is fabricated from air-melted, vacuum-degassed 4340 steel. This com-
ponent is eventually heat treated to Rockwell C 53 to C 55 hardness range.
Obj ecti ve
Fracture mechanics principles are being used to analyze the control section
housing, and tests have been initiated to determine the fracture toughness and
other mechanical properties of the structural alloy. The object of this report
was to survey the technical literature to determine the availability of published
fracture toughness (KI c), (I ($ and stress corrosion (MI & data pertaining to
4340 steel.
RESULTS AND DI SCUSSI ON
Requi rement f or 4340 Steel
Structural elements in guided missiles utilize ultrahigh-strength alloys to
achieve necessary weight savings. The 4340 steel selected for the Copperhead con-
trol section housing is a low-alloy, nickel-chromium-molybdenum steel which pos-
sesses a good combination of strength and hardness uniformity in large sections
and can be welded. Moreover, the alloy can be readily heat treated to ultimate
tensile strength levels ranging from 125 to 300 ksi. The yield strength of the
Copperhead housing alloy is in the vicinity of 220 ksi. Table 1 shows the chem-
ical composition limits of AI SI 4340.
Fracture Toughness and Yi el d Strength
This alloy is a classical heat-treatable construction metal and is consid-
ered a standard against which many other steels are compared. Consequently, 4340
steel has been the subject of investigations since the earliest period of fracture
toughness testing.
Much of the past data has been collected by the Metals and Ceramics I nforma-
tion Center and published in its Damage Tolerant Design Handbook.7 Plane strain
Tabl e 1. CHEMI CAL COMPOSI TI ON OF
AISI 4340 STEEL (WT. ' %)
C 0.38-0.43 Si 0.20-0.35
Mn 0. 60- 0. 80 Ni 1. 65- 2. 00
P 0. 035 max Cr 0. 70- 0. 90
S 0. 040 max MO 0. 20- 0. 30
7. Damage Tolerant Design Handbook, Metals and Ccramlc
December 1972, 2nd Supplement, January 1975.
Information , Air Force Materials Labora tory, MCIC-HB-01,
2
App1 ication
The Copperhead CLGP (Cannon-Launched Guided Project i le) weapon system is a
high-performance ISS-mm laser-guided projec. t ile. Its control section housing com-
ponent is basically the outer skin of the projectile from the warhead to the aft
closure and is fabricated from air-melted, vacuum-degassed 4340 steel. This com-
ponent is eventually heat treated to Rockwell C 53 to C 55 hardness range.
Objective
Fracture mechanics principles are bei ng used to analyze the control section
housing, and tests have been initiated to determine the fracture toughness and
other mechanical properties of the structural alloy. The object of this report
was to survey the technical literature to determine the availability of published
fracture toughness (K
1c
)' (KQl and stress corrosion (K
1scc
) data pertaining to
4340 steel.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Requirement for 4340 Steel
Structural elements in guided missiles utilize ultrahigh-strength alloys to
achieve necessary weight savings. The 4340 steel selected for the Copperhead con-
trol section housing is a low-alloy, nickel - chromium-molybdenum steel which pos-
sesses a good combination of strength and hardness uniformity in large sections
and can be welded. Moreover, the alloy can be readily heat treated to ultimate
tensile strength levels ranging from 125 to 300 ksi. The yield strength of the
Copperhead housing alloy is in the vicinit y of 220 ksi. Table I shows the chem-
ical composition limits of AISI 4340.
Fracture Toughness and Yield Strength
This alloy is a classical heat-treatable construction metal and is consid-
ered a standard against which many other steels are compared. Consequently, 4340
steel has been the subject of investigations since the earliest period of fracture
toughness testing.
Much of the past data has been collected by the Metals and Ceramics Informa-
tion Center and published in its Damage Tolerant Design Handbook.7 Plane strain
Table 1. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF
AISI 4340 STEEL (WT. %)
C 0.38-0.43 Si 0.20-0.35
Mn 0.60-0.80 Ni 1.65-2.00
P 0.035 max Cr 0.70-0.90
S 0.040 max Me 0.20-0. 30
7. Damage Tolerant Design Handbook, Metals and Ceramic Inforllliltion Co! nter. Air Force Materi als Laboratory,
December 1972, 2nd Supplement , January 1975.
2
fracture toughness (KIc
ted as function of yield
or KQ) data from the Handbook are shown in Figure 1, plot-
strength of 4340 steel between 200 and 240 ksi. An arbi-
trary reference line has been drawn on the chart to indicate the generally expected
decrease in fracture toughness with increasing yield strengths. A precise rate of
decrease cannot be established because of the wide scatter in data points. Many
authors present data of this type as a wide band or within envelopes. These data
also indicate the feasibility of processing 4340 steel to achieve high toughness
along with high strength.
The individual data points in the figure represent mixed results from nine
different investigations which are referenced in the Design Handbook.7 A variety
of heat treatments and other test controls were employed in the investigations.
This information may be found in the Handbook and will not be repeated here.
For practical comparison, the fracture toughnesses of 4340 alloy removed
from three production Spartan second-stage rocket motor cases8Bg have been incor-
porated into the chart. In general, the fracture toughness of the motor case
material was within the limits expected of 4340 steel. Although the hardnesses
4340 Steel
100 0 Handbook (Ref. 7)
A Spartan Case (Ref. 8)
0 Oregon (Ref. 16)
cl
Figure 1. Fracture toughness of 4340 steel.
I I I I
210 220 230 240
Yield Strength (ksi)
8. WONG, A. K., LEVY, M., and GRENIS, A. Stress Corrosion, Mechanical Properties, and Acoustic Emission of 4340 Steel from
a Second-Stage Spartan Missile Motor Case. Army Materials and Mechanics Research Center, report in process.
9. KULA, E. B., and ANCTIL, A. A. Preliminary Metallurgical Evaluation of Proof Test Failure of Spartan Second-Stage Motor
Case. Army Materials and Mechanics Research Center, AMMRC SP 73-8, May 1973.
3
fracture toughness (KIc or KQ) data from the Handbook are shown in Figure 1, plot-
ted as function of yield strength of 4340 steel between 200 and 240 ksi. An arbi-
trary reference line has been drawn on the chart to indicate the generally expected
decrease in fracture toughness with increasing yield strengths. A precise rate of
decrease cannot be established because of the wide scatter in data points. Many
authors present data of this type as a wide band or within envelopes. These data
also indicate the feasibility of processing 4340 steel to achieve high toughness
along with high strength.
The individual data points in the figure represent mixed results from nine
different investigations which are referenced in the Design Handbook.7 A variety
of heat treatments and other test controls were employed in the investigations.
This information may be found in the Handbook and will not be repeated here.
For practical comparison, the fracture toughnesses of 4340 alloy removed
from three production Spartan second-stage rocket motor cases
8
,9 have been incor-
porated into the chart. In general, the fracture toughness of the motor case
material was within the limits expected of 4340 steel. Although the hardnesses
100
90
:f
'"
'"
'"
~ 70
u
,z
~
0
~
0
c
~
~
~
0
~
~
~ 50
t>
~
0
40
JO
200
4340 steel
o Handbook IRef, II
6. spartan Case (Ref.
o O r ~ o n (Ref. 161
0
0
Arbitrary Reference
line
;'
0
0
0
t::.
0
g
0
0
0
210 220 230
Yield Strength (ksi)
8)
o
o
240
Figure 1. Fracture toughness of 4340 steel.
8. WONG, A. K., LEVY, M., and GRENIS, A. Stress Corrosion, Mechanical Properties, and Acoustic Emission of 4340 Steel from
a SecondStage Spartan Missile Motor Case. Army Materials and Mechanics Research Center, report in process.
9. KULA, E. B., and ANCTIL, A. A. Preliminary Metallurgical Evaluation of Proof Test Failure of Spartan SecondStage Motor
Case. Army Materials and Mechanics Research Center, AMMRC SP 73-8, May 1973.
3
of the case materials were szmilric (:W(l 50) + -\rci~- yield strengths ranged from
212 to 265 ksi and their ultimate ~cni: i 3t st: re:\ gths ranged from 243 to 272 ksi.
Hardness measurements are often ilsed !iurii\ g manufacturing as a quality, assurance
tool. Care should be taken to insure that tile hardness criteria designated for
quality control is truly representatlvc of t?re dosiri?d mechanical properties.
The motor case yield strengths slIclwn in 1: lz~.~rr 1 a-l-e based on longitudinal prop-
erties. Transverse yield strengths are h i gher .
Fracture Toughness and Test SpeclmEn tonsld,erat-ions
A host of factors affect tht.: fr:~~?_ur:-, toughness of 4340 alloys of the same
strength level. These include testing methodol.ogy, temperature, strain rate, im-
purities and inclusions, fabricat ion methods, melt -practice, and heat treatments.
Many of the data points in Figure I
multiple identical specimens. I +or
re;~est;nt averaged values from tests of
~>xalrlp i e , one point located at 53 ksi in. 2 was
derived from quantities ranging from 48.6 !_c: 58.6 ksi in.3. On the other hand,
the same investigator also reported identical va3.ues of 52.5 ksi in.% for three
individual specimens in another t e:;t_ a
[jci-ice 3
it appears that the reported frac-
ture toughness data may, at times, var) bk more tryan 20 percent, while at other
times it may be perfectly reproduc;bI <:. rdcnti ctt 1 specimens and controlled test
conditions were used in both WSCS.
An assortment of test speci?.lc>ns of v it LOINS size:< and shapes have been designed
and used by the workers in the fie.taI to !+~~.~~~;ure plane strain fracture toughness.
The general appearance and classzf; ,c;ftion of some of these specimens are shown in
Figure 2. For the sake of uniformity and reproducibility, the ASTM has standard-
ized4 the compact tension specimen and th;: three-point-load bend specimen.
Some of the effects of employing :;pea:imcns with different geometries and
thicknesses are shown in Figure: 3, iO, 1 3. e\ J idenceci by the scatter in the individ-
ual test points. Although the di_;persion in the test results can be attributed
to the specimen variabilities, it should bt- note d that it also is typical of the
scatter mentioned earlier in tests with identical specimens. Nevertheless, prop-
erly designed nonstandard specimens can yield valid data. Figure 3 also exhibits
the expected diminution of fracture toughne:;s w;th increases in yield strength of
the 4340 steel.
Experiments have also demons crated that fracture toughness of 4340 steel in-
creases with increasing test temperatures o Figure 4 shows the changes between
-100 F and +200 F for an alloy with a yield strength of about 220 ksi at room tem-
perature . 1 2 Other data may be found in tile .I erospace Structural Metals Handbook.
10.
Il.
12.
AMATEAU, M. F., and S~IY,I~~IRWAI.D>, 1~. $1. t +YC ::I( t /ZUW ?C I.P\!/~ :, (1 S~r~~crro.al Metals. TRW, Bureau of Naval Weapons,
ER 5937, April 1964.
FITZGIBBON, IX P. Sertzia~~nual Report WI t)w~\:or 1 VA\:I 14 >:pjr intc~ua. Swce Technology Laboratories, Inc., Air Force
Ballistic Missile Division, TK-S9-(~000-00714 1 Juni I 955,
STEIGERWALD, E. A. Plarzc Strain Fracture 7;1~~:~1:!~~.\1 )c!; : i t *dildi;ooA rrt~.~ctritiitiorz. TRW, AFML-TR, June 1967
(AD 821626).
of the case materials \l,lere similar (,""H!'H-: 'r-heir yield strengths ranged from
212 to 265 ksi and their ultimate if)W';]( stre'I,gths ranged from 243 to 272 ksi.
Hardness measurements are often 11SCG during manufa,ctu-ring as a quality' assurance
tool. Care should be tal\en to insure the hardness criteria designiited for
quali ty control is truly represcn tat! vc ur tite desirc.,d mechanical properties.
The motor case yield strengths 5],C'''0 in F igUT!' 1 aTe based on longi tudlnal prop-
erties. Transverse yield strengths arc Illgr."c:,.
Fracture Toughness and Tes t Speci men Cons i derati ors
A host of factors affect til'. fracture tc,ughness of 4340 alloys of the same
strength level. These include t2'3ting methodology, temperature, strain rate, im-
purities and inclusions, fabrica',ion methods, melt practice, and heat treatments.
Many of the data points in Figure 1 represent averaged values from tests of
1
multiple identical specimens. For example, one point locjlted at 53 ksi in.':! was
derived from quantities ranging from 48.b (c S8.il ksi in.':!, On the other hand,
the same investigator also reported identical values of 52.5 ksi in.lz for three
individual specimens in another tc,t. lie""" it appears that the reported frac-
ture toughness data may, at times ,vary b\ l1li.'re 20 percent, whi Ie at other
times it may be perfectly repruducible:. TdcnticaJ specimens and controlled test
conditions were used in both cases.
An assortment of test slwci],wJ1s of VII lOll" size:; and shapes have been designed
and used by the workers in the fj cld to ""ed';ure plane strain fracture toughness.
The general appearance and classificat:lon of SOniC of these specimens are shown in
Figure 2. For the sake of uniformity and reproducibility, the ASTM has standard-
ized
4
the compact tension specimen and the' three-point-load bend specimen.
Some of the effects of employing specimens with different geometries and
thicknesses are shown in Figure :,.10,11 evidenced by the scatter in the individ-
ual test points. Although the di"lwrsion in the test results can be attributed
to the specimen variabilities, it shOUld he noted that it also is typical of the
scatter mentioned earlier in tests with ident i cal specimens. Nevertheless, prop-
erly designed nonstandard specimt'ns can yield valid data. Figure 3 also exhibits
the expected diminution of fracture toughness ,,' th increases in yield strength of
the 4340 steel.
Experiments have also dernonst rateu that fracture toughness of 4340 steel in-
creases with increasing test temperatures. Figure 4 shows the changes between
-100 F and +200 F for an alloy with a yielei strength of about 220 ksi at room tem-
perature. 12 Other data may he fuund ill the Aerospace Structural Metals Handbook.
10. AMATEAU, M. r., and STLICrLRWAJ.D, F. ..\, j ;'Cr,'!!!C (h,;n; "{'Ii,\!h.\ (,', Slrli('tllral ..Uclals. TRW, Bureau ('If Naval Weapons,
ER 5937, April 1964.
11. FITZGIBBON, D. P. Semiannual Report 0/1 !'rf\ \ :Ii'( l-;,..:,c! lh '!f:n t_l'ffcriil. Space Technology Liboratories, Inc., Air Force
Ballistic Missile Division, TR-59-(\000-00714. ]\).'19
12. STEIGERWALD, E. A. Plane Strain FraCTUre li>,::,i/i,'l'S,\ iJ,;'_'il i ;' ,!,'IJhook Prl's('l//urion. TRW, AFr-.lL-TR, June 1967
(All R21626).
l oo-
<
ti
. l j 90-
. -
ul
s
v
yr80-
70 -
60-
50 -
SINGLE EDGE NOTCH
SPECIMEN (SEN)
lo 4 01
SURFACE CRACKED
TENSION SPECIMEN (SC)
l-z--l
b I
CENTER NOTCHED
SHEET SPECIMEN (CC)
COMPACT TENSION
SPECIMEN (CT)
NOTCHED SLOW
BEND SPECIMEN (NB)
NOTCHED ROUND
SPECIMEN
Figure 2. Common specimen geometries for plane strain fracture toughness testing.
VacuumMel t - 4340 Steel
l SEN 112
Mn - 0. 65
q cc l / 8 5 - 0. 005
SC l / 2 P - 0 0. 010
NB 112
Cr- 0. 82
A
MO- 0. 26
A NB 1 Ni - 1. 85
Figure 3. Specimen geometry effects on
plane strain fracture toughness of 4340
steel.
401
I I I I I
180 190 200 210 220 230
0. 2%Yi el d Strength (ksi )
Figure 4. Temperature effect on fracture
toughness of 4340 steel.
Temperature (deg F)
5
10
A
01
~ ~
T
SINGLE EDGE NOTCH SURFACE CRACKED NOTCHED SLOW
SPECIMEN (SEN) TENSION SPECIMEN (SC) BEND SPECIMEN (NB)
[0
~
0
to
0 ~
CENTER NOTCHED COMPACT TENSION NOTCHED ROUND
SHEET SPECIMEN (CC) SPECIMEN (CT) SPECIMEN
Figure 2. Common specimen geometries for plane strain fracture toughness testing.
100
u
~ 8 0
:;-
.S
l>
o

Consumable Electrode Vacuum Melt - 4340 Steel
0


Geom- Thick-
~ ness, in.
o SEN 118

SEN 111

CC 118
o SC 111
"
NB 111
w t ~
C" 0.43
Si - 0.30
Mn-0.65
S - 0.005
P - 0.0\0
Cr - 0.81
Mo - 0.16
'\
L...-""'------'=-----' N i-I. 85
.-
NB
~ '
~ . t
" '1-
O.2'1i Yield Strength (ksi)
Temperature (deg F)
5
Figure 3. Specimen geometry effects on
plane strain fracture toughness of 4340
steel.
Figure 4. Temperature effect on fracture
toughness of 4340 steel.
Fracture Toughness - Processi ng Ef f ects
Melting practice, impurity elements and inclusions, and heat treatment are
other factors which strongly influence fracture toughness of 4340 steel. Table 2
lists some toughness data obtained from heats produced by three conventional melt-
ing procedures. 1 3 Air-melted material exhibited a fracture toughness level of
40.5 ksi in.%, whereas degassed and vacuum arc remelt (VAR) heats exhibited prop-
erties in the ranges of 48.3 to 53.0 and 53.2 to 56.8, respectively.13 Thus, it
appears that vacuum melting can upgrade fracture toughness.
A variety of heat treat procedures are used to achieve desired characteris-
tics. Effects of tempering temperature on fracture toughness10,11j14 are shown
in Figures 5 and 6. Although the toughness generally increases with increasing
tempering temperatures, it should be noted that the final selection of tempering
temperatures may be based on the need for certain tensile properties, hence, the
requirements for a given tensile strength will govern the fracture toughness of
the alloy. Austenitizing is also a critical step. Low austenitizing temperatures
are preferred because of the resultant small austenite grain size and best combi-
nation of mechanical properties; but investigations15 revealed that the low tem-
peratures did not provide maximum toughness.
Figure 6 also presents the deleterious effect of sulfur-plus-phosphorus con-
tent on toughness. I ncreasing the impurity elements from 0.01% to 0.05% can halve
the fracture toughness. Sulfide inclusions as well as undissolved carbide act as
crack nuclei which can drastically lower fracture toughness. Additionally, inves-
tigators have established that certain microstructural features such as blocky fer-
rite, upper bainite, and twinned martensite plates are harmful to toughness. On
the other hand, other microstructural constituents such as lower bainite, auto-
tempered martensite, and retained austenite can enhance toughness. By controlling
the amounts and distributions of the microstructural constituents, the fracture
toughness values of 4340 steel can be raised to the level of 18Ni maraging steel
of equivalent yield strengths. I5
Tabl e 2. EFFECT OF MELT PRACTI CE
PLANE STRAI N FRACTURE TOUGHNESS OF 4340 STEEL
Materi al Pl ane Strai n
Yi el d Fracture
Mel t Toughness
Practi ce
Sf J ""
(ksi i n. %)
Ai r 241 40. 5
Degassed 229 53. 0
Degassed 231 48. 3
VAR 241 53. 2
VAR 240 56. 8
13.
14.
15.
HAUSER, J. J., and WELLS, M. G. H. Inclusions in MC@-Strength Steels, Their Dependence on ProcessinK Variables and Their
Effect on Engineering Properties. Crucible Steel Corp.. AFML l-R-68-222, August 1968.
KULA, E. B., and ANCTIL, A. A. Tempered Martensite t:mhrittlement and Fracture Toughness in SAE 4340 Steel. Journal of
Materials, JMLSA, v. 4, no. 4, December 1969, p. 817-84 1.
PARKER, E. R., and ZACKAY, V. 1:. Microstnrctrrral Eiatures A fykcting Fracture Toughness of High Strength Steels. Engineer-
ing Fracture Mechanics, v. 7, no. 3, 1975, p. 371-375.
Fracture Toughness - Processing Effects
Melting practice, impurity elements and inclusions, and heat treatment are
other factors which strongly influence fracture toughness of 4340 steel. Table 2
lists some toughness data obtained from heats produced by three conventional melt-
ing procedures.
13
Air-melted material exhibited a fracture toughness level of
40.5 ksi i n . ~ , whereas degassed and vacuum arc remelt (VAR) heats exhibited prop-
erties in the ranges of 48.3 to 53.0 and 53.2 to 56.8, respectively.13 Thus, it
appears that vacuum me 1 ting can upgrade fracture toughness.
A variety of heat treat procedures are used to achieve desired characteris-
tics. Effects of tempering temperature on fracture toughness
IO
,II,14 are shown
in Figures 5 and 6. Although the toughness generally increases with increasing
tempering temperatures, it should be noted that the final selection of tempering
temperatures may be based on the need for certain tensile properties, hence, the
requirements for a given tensile strength will govern the fracture toughness of
the alloy. Austenitizing is also a critical step. Low austenitizing temperatures
are preferred because of the resultant small austenite grain size and best combi-
nation of mechanical properties; but investigations
I5
revealed that the low tem-
peratures did not provide maximum toughness.
Figure 6 also presents the deleterious effect of SUlfur-pIus-phosphorus con-
tent on toughness. Increasing the impurity elements from 0.01% to 0.05% can halve
the fracture toughness. Sulfide inclusions as well as undissolved carbide act as
crack nuclei which can drastically lower fracture toughness. Additionally, inves-
tigators have established that certain microstructural features such as blocky fer-
rite, upper bainite, and twinned martensite plates are harmful to toughness. On
the other hand, other microstructural constituents such as lower bainite, auto-
tempered martensite, and retained austenite can enhance toughness. By controlling
the amounts and distributions of the microstructural constituents, the fracture
toughness values of 4340 steel can be raised to the level of l8Ni maraging steel
of equivalent yield strengths.
15
Table 2. EFFECT OF MELT PRACTICE
PLANE STRAIN FRACTURE TOUGHNESS OF 4340 STEEL
Mater; a 1 Plane Strain
Yield Fracture
Melt Strength Toughness
Practice (ksi) (ksi i n . ! ~ )
Air 241 40.5
Degassed 229 53.0
Degassed 231 48.3
VAR 241 53.2
VAR 240 56.8
13. HAUSER, J. J., and WELLS, M. G. H. Inelllsiolls in /liKhStrenKth Steels, Their Dependence on Processing Variables and Their
Effect on Hnl(ineering Properties. Crucible Stcd Corp .. AFML TR-68-222, August 1968.
14. KULA, E. B., and ANCTIL, A. A. Tempered Martcl/sitei:'lIIhritt/ellJent and Fracture Toughness in SAE 4340 Steel. Journal of
Materials, JMLSA, v. 4, no. 4, December 1969, p. R 17841.
15. PARKER, E. R., and ZACKAY, V. F. Microstmcfllral Features Afj'l'ctinx, Fracture Toughness of lligh Strength Steels. Engineer-
ing Fracture Mechanics, v. 7, no. 3, 1975, p. 371-375.
6
I I I I I
I
400 500 600 700 a00 900
Temper Temperature (deg F)
Figure 5. Effect of tempering temperature on fracture toughness on 4340 steel.
Figure 6.
20-
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
Sulfur Plus Phosphorus (Weight 46)
Effect of impurity elements on fracture toughness of 4340 steel.
7


-g

c

V;

100
c
.,40
"-
Temper Temperature F)
Figure 5. Effect of tempering temperature on fracture toughness on 4340 steel.

.s
.;:;;; (j)
""
u
:;z
Temper 700 F
__ __ __ __
o 0.01 O. OZ 0.03 0.04 0. 05
Sulfur Plus PhosptlOruS cWeight ",LI
Figure 6. Effect of impurity el ements on fracture toughness of 4340 steel.
7
Heat treatment parameters have also been developed by other workers for im-
proving the microstructure of 4340 steel such that it is possible to achieve frac-
ture toughness of nearly 90 ksi in. G at ultimate strength levels of over 300 ksi,
thereby enhancing the attraction of the alloy for critical applications. The po-
tential of upgrading the toughness of 4340 steel is indicated in Figure 1 by the
fracture toughness value of the alloy specially heat treated to the 230 ksi yield
strength level. l6 However, other properties such as resistance to dynamic loading
are detrimentally affected and should be investigated.
Fracture Toughness Compari son
Ultrahigh-strength 4340 steel heat treated to have a yield strength over 200
ksi is usually relatively brittle when cracklike defects are present. Neverthe-
less, it has been used with a modicum of success in the wall of solid propellant
rocket motor cases.8,g But one noted missile engineer17 states, with reference
to airborne pressure vessels, that commercially standardized grades of steel, e.g.,
SAE and AI SI such as 4340, are generally unsuitable for applications at strength
levels above 200 ksi because of their susceptibility to temper embrittlement,
quench cracking, and other factors that reduce their resistance to brittle frac-
ture. As a consequence, other specially developed steels should be considered
for ultrahigh-strength applications.
As stated earlier, 4340 steel is a classical alloy against which many other
materials are compared. Consequently 9 the literature shows many comparisons of
the fracture toughness of 4340 as a function of strength with other candidate
ultrahigh-strength steels. Figures 7a and 7b show two corn arison graphs of frac-
ture toughness plotted against ultimate tensile strength?
!
*lg The ultimate ten-
sile strength of the CLGP housing alloy is above 260 ksi. Similar data from other
sources, 20-22 shown in Figures 8a and 8b, are plotted as a function of yield
strength. The yield strength of the CLGP housing alloy is about 220 ksi. Some
of the toughness data are not considered valid because the tests did not meet
the requirements of ASI ?4 E399.4
Because of the vagaries of materials characteristics and fracture toughness
testing, these comparison charts should be approached with caution. However, cur -
sory review indicates that the more costly HP 9-4 and 18% nickel maraging steels
are highly promising candidates as alternate materials. Other candidate materials
with practical potential include the D6AC and 3OOM alloys. Table 3 lists the nom-
inal chemical compositions of some ultrahigh-strength steels.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
WOOD, W. E. Mechanisms of Enhanced Toughrless in Martensitic AIlo1.s. Oregon Graduate Center, Contract NOOOl9-76-C-0149,
April 1977 (AD-A040 373/3GA).
HURLICH, A. Choice of Materials and Fahricatiojl Techniqurs for J ress~rre Vessels. Convair-Astronautics, Chapter 6 in Materials
for Missiles and Spacecraft, E. R. Parker, ed., McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 1963.
Private communication, Lockheed California Company, 1976.
McEOWEN, L. J. Combining Strength and Fracture Tollghness. Metal Progress, March 1975, p. 52.
AMATEAU, M. F., and STEIGERWALD, E. A. Fracture Characteristics of Structural Metals. TRW, Bureau of Navai Weapons,
ER 5937-1, August 1964.
Problems in the Load-Carrying Application of High Strength Steels. DMIC Report 210, October 1964.
MOORE, T. D. Structural Alloys Handbook. Mechanical Proptxties Data Center, Belfour Stulen, Inc., Traverse City, Michigan,
1976.
8
Heat treatment parameters have also been developed by other workers for im-
proving the microstructure of 4340 steel such that it is possible to achieve frac-
ture toughness of nearly 90 ksi in.lz at ultimate strength levels of over 300 ksi,
thereby enhancing the attraction of the alloy for critical applications. The po-
tential of upgrading the toughness of 4340 steel is indicated in Figure 1 by the
fracture toughness value of the alloy specially heat treated to the 230 ksi yield
strength level.
16
However, other properties such as resistance to dynamic loading
are detrimentally affected and should be investigated.
Fracture Toughness Comparison
Ultrahigh-strength 4340 steel heat treated to have a yield strength over 200
ksi is usually relatively brittle when cracklike defects are present. Neverthe-
less, it has been used with a modicum of success in the wall of solid propellant
rocket motor cases.
8
,9 But one noted missile engineer l7 states, with reference
to airborne pressure vessels, that commercially standardized grades of steel, e.g.,
SAE and AISI such as 4340, are generally unsuitable for applications at strength
levels above 200 ksi because of their susceptibility to temper embrittlement,
quench cracking, and other factors that reduce their resistance to brittle frac-
ture. As a consequence, other specially developed steels should be considered
for ultrahigh-strength applications.
As stated earlier, 4340 steel is a classical alloy against which many other
materials are compared. Consequently, the literature shows many comparisons of
the fracture toughness of 4340 as a function of strength with other candidate
ultrahigh-strength steels. Figures 7a and 7b show two graphs of frac-
ture toughness plotted against ultimate tensile strength.
1
,19 The ultimate ten-
sile strength of the CLGP housing alloy is above 260 ksi. Similar data from other
sources,20-22 shown in Figures 8a and 8b, are plotted as a function of yield
strength. The yield strength of the CLGP housing alloy is about 220 ksi. Some
of the toughness data are not considered "valid" because the tests did not meet
the requirements of ASTM E399.
4
Because of the vagaries of materials characteristics and fracture toughness
testing, these comparison charts should be approached with caution. However, cur-
sory review indicates that the more costly HP 9-4 and 18% nickel maraging steels
are highly promising candidates as alternate materials. Other candidate materials
wi th practical potential include the D6AC and 300M alloys. Table 3 lists the nom-
inal chemical compositions of some ultrahigh-strength steels.
16. WOOD, W. F. Mechanisms of hnhanced Toughncsl' in MarrellSiric Allol's, Oregon Graduate Center, Contract NOOOI976-C-{)149,
Ap,ii 1977 (AD-A040 373/3GA).
17. HURLICH, A. Choice of Materials and Fahricotioll Techniqucs for Pressure Vessels. Convair-Astronautics, Olapter 6 in Materials
for Missiles and Spacecraft, E. R. Parker, cd., McGraw-Hill Book Co .. New York. 1963.
18. Private communication, Lockheed California Company, 1976.
19. McEOWEN, L. J. Combining Strength and Fracture Toughness. Metal Progress, March 1975, p. 52.
20. AMATEAU, M. F., and STEIGERWALD, E. A. Fracture Characteristics of Strnctural Metals. TRW, Bureau of Naval Weapons,
ER 5937-1, August 1964.
21. Problems in the Load-CaTrving Application of lIixh SlrCllgth Srcrls. DMIC' Report 2] 0, October 1964.
22. MOORE, T. D. Stmctural Alloys Handbook. Mechanical Properties Data Center, Belfour Stulen, Inc., Traverse City, Michigan,
1976.
8
Lockheed (Ref . 18)
Ud
I
\ , HP 9- 4- 30
- \!
Republ i c (Ref . 19)
s- 80
r'
. -
r
b)
Tensi l e Strength (ksi ) Yi el d Strength (ksi )
Fi gure 7. Fracture toughness of ul trahi gh- strength
steel s versus tensile strength.
Fi gure 8. Fracture toughness of ul trahi gh- strength
steels versus yield strength.
Tabl e 3. NOMI NAL COMPOSI TI ONS OF ULTRAHI GH- STRENGTH STEELS (NT. %)
Desi gnati on C Mn Si Ni Cr MO v co
Low Al l oy
AI SI 4340 0. 40 0. 70 0. 30 1. 80 0. 80 0. 25
AISI 4330V 0.30 0.70 0.30 1. 80 0.80 0.25
AMS 6434 0. 35 0. 70 0. 30 1. 80 0. 80 0. 35 0. 20
D6AC 0. 45 0. 75 0. 25 0. 55 1. 05
300M
1. 00 0. 07
0. 42 0. 75
1. 70 1. 80 0. 80 0. 40 0. 80
Medi um Al l oy
AI SI Hl l 0. 35 0. 30 1. 00 5. 20 0. 40
Hi qh Al l ov
HP 9- 4- 25 0. 25 0. 10
0. 10 8. 50 0. 50 0. 50
HP 9- 4- 30
0. 10 3. 75
0. 30
0. 30 0. 14 8. 50 1. 00 1. 00 0. 10 4. 50
HP 9- 4- 45 0. 45 0. 10
0. 10 8. 50 0. 30 0. 20 0. 10 3. 75
Maragi ng
18Ni (200) 0. 03 0. 10
0. 10 18. 0
18Ni (250)
3. 25 8. 5
0. 02 0. 10 0. 10 18. 0
18Ni (300)
4. 90 8. 0
0. 03 0. 10 0. 10
18. 5 4. 90 9. 0
9
(a)
",-
.5 100
lockheed IRet. 18)

'" O! D6AC
'"
80







60

5


40
(b)
Republic (Ref. 19)
Figure 7. Fracture toughness of ultrahigh-strength
steels versus tensile strength.

.S


c
"3-
40

E
"
(a)
(b)
DMIC IRel. 2U


Yield Strer19th (ksi)
Figure 8 . Fracture toughness of ultrahigh-strength
steels versus yield strength.
Tabl e 3. NOMINAL COMPOS ITIONS OF ULTRAHI GH-STRENGTH STEELS (liT. %)
Desi gnation C Mn Si Hi Cr Mo V Co
Low All oy
AISI 4340 0.40 0.70 0 . 30 1.80 0.80 0 . 25
AISI 4330V 0 .30 0.70 0 . 30 1. 80 0. 80 0.25
AMS 6434 0.35 0 . 70 0 . 30 1. 80 0.80 0.35 0.20
06AC 0. 45 0.75 0 . 25 0.55 1. 05 1.00 0. 07
300M 0.42 0. 75 1. 70 1.80 0 . 80 0 . 40 0 . 80
Medi um Alloy
AISI Hl 1 0.35 0.30 1. 00 5.20 0.40
Hi gh Alloy
HP 9-4-25 0.25 0.10 0.10 8. 50 0.50 0.50 0. 10 3.75
HP 9-4- 30 0 . 30 0.30 0 .1 4 8.50 1. 00 1. 00 0. 10 4 . 50
HP 9-4- 45 0. 45 0 . 10 0.10 8.50 0.30 0 . 20 0 . 10 3 . 75
Marag; ng
18Ni (200 ) 0. 03 0.10 0. 10 18 . 0 3.25 8.5
18Ni (250) 0 . 02 0 . 10 0.10 18 . 0 4 . 90 8 . 0
18Ni (300) 0.03 0. 10 0. 10 18.5 4. 90 9.0
9
Stress Corrosi on Cracki ng
Stress corrosion cracking of high strength structural alloys was the source
of numerous serious problems throughout the Department of Defense during the
1960'~.~ Most of the earlier studies on corrosion cracking were conducted with
smooth specimens. However, information of contemporary interest to weapon de-
signers pertains to work with flawed or cracked materials. Fracture mechanics
approaches can be used to good advantages in the analysis of stress corrosion
cracking of high strength steels.6s23
The combined effects of a corrosive environment and a static tensile stress
can cause crack initiation, crack propagation at intensities less than KIT, and
eventual failure at stresses below the yield strength of the material. Time-to-
failure is strongly influenced by stress intensity. Fracture mechanics plots
can be used to display stress corrosion data. Figure 9 shows the effect of ini-
tial stress intensity KIi on time-to-failure of a 4340 steel with an ultimate
tensile strength of 235 ksi.
Precracked specimens were used in the development of the stress corrosion
data because they eliminated the uncertainties associated with the growth of
cracks from corrosion pits. Furthermore, the crack provided a flaw geometry for
which a stress analysis was available through fracture mechanics. These tests
then produced stress corrosion information that was useful for predicting the
behavior of large structural components wherein fracture was a critical design
factor.
High initial stress intensities encourage subcritical crack growth. The
time-to-failure of individual specimens are plotted against the corresponding KIi
level and used to construct the type of curve shown in Figure 9. Susceptibility
to crack growth decreases with stress intensity. A minimum KIi may be established
below which stress corrosion cracking will not occur after an arbitrarily selected
time. This minimum test duration time varies with different test materials and is
often selected as 100 hours for low alloy steels and up to 1000 hours for high
alloy steels. The minimum KIi value is an apparent threshold stress intensity
level designated as Klscc. As indicated in the figure the K~scc parameter for
this particular heat of 4340 in distilled and salt water (3.5% NaCl) is about 22
ksi in.$.24
Stress Corrosi on and Yi el d Strength
Threshold stress intensity factors from eleven investigations' are shown
plotted in Figure 10 as a function of yield strength of 4340 steels between 200
and 245 ksi. An arbitrary reference line was drawn through the data to indicate
a possible trend. As alluded to by the reference curve, K1scc values appear to
decrease in general with increasing yield strength of the alloy. However, they
may level off and remain relatively constant at strength levels above $230 ksi.
Also included in this chart for comparison is an envelope of KIT fracture tough-
ness data derived from Figure 1.
2 3. Stress Corrosion Testing. ASTM Special Technical Publication 425, 1966.
24. BENJAMIN, W. D., and STEIGERWALD, E. A. Envirorlmerztally /nduced Delayed Failures in Martensitic High-Strength Steels.
TRW, AFML TR 68-80, April 1968.
10
Stress Corrosion Cracking
Stress corrosion cracking of high strength structural alloys was the source
of numerous serious problems throughout the Department of Defense during the
1960's.6 Most of the earlier studies on corrosion cracking were conducted with
smooth specimens. However, information of contemporary interest to weapon de-
signers pertains to work with flawed or cracked materials. Fracture mechanics
approaches can be used to good advantages in the analysis of stress corrosion
cracking of high strength steels.
6
,23
The combined effects of a corrosive environment and a static tensile stress
can cause crack initiation, crack propagation at intensities less than Klc, and
eventual failure at stresses below the yield strength of the material. Time-to-
failure is strongly influenced by stress intensity. Fracture mechanics plots
can be used to display stress corrosion data. Figure 9 shows the effect of ini-
tial stress intensity KIi on time-to-failure of a 4340 steel with an ultimate
tensile strength of 235 ksi.
Precracked specimens were used in the development of the stress corrosion
data because they eliminated the uncertainties associated with the growth of
cracks from corrosion pits. Furthermore, the crack provided a flaw geometry for
which a stress analysis was available through fracture mechanics. These tests
then produced stress corrosion information that was useful for predicting the
behavior of large structural components wherein fracture was a critical design
factor.
High initial stress intensities encourage subcritical crack growth. The
time-to-failure of individual specimens are plotted against the corresponding Kli
level and used to construct the type of curve shown in Figure 9. Susceptibility
to crack growth decreases with stress intensity. A minimum KIi may be established
below which stress corrosion cracking will not occur after an arbitrarily selected
time. This minimum test duration time varies with different test materials and is
often selected as 100 hours for low alloy steels and up to 1000 hours for high
alloy steels. The minimum Kli value is an apparent threshold stress intensity
level designated as Klscc. As indicated in the figure the KIscc parameter for
this particular heat of 4340 in distilled and salt water (3.5% NaCl) is about 22
ksi in.!j.24
Stress Corrosion and Yield Strength
Threshold stress intensity factors from eleven investigations
7
are shown
plotted in Figure 10 as a function of yield strength o 4340 steels between 200
and 245 ksi. An arbitrary reference line was drawn through the data to indicate
a possible trend. As alluded to by the reference curve, KIscc values appear to
decrease in general with increasing yield strength of the alloy. However, they
may level off and remain relatively constant at strength levels above ~ 2 3 0 ksi.
Also included in this chart for comparison is an envelope of KIc fracture tough-
ness data derived from Figure 1.
23. Stress Corrosion Testing. ASTM Special Technical Publication 425, 1966.
24. BENJAMIN, W. D., and STEIGERWALD, E. A. FIIl'ironmclltally Induced Delayed Failures in Martensitic High-Strength Steels.
TRW, AFML TR 68-80, April 1968.
10
80
C!
4
i
.-
.-
2 60
.-
57
I
.pl
s?
c
-
2
2 20
5;
i6
.-
.Z
= - 0
4340 Steel
Notch Bend Specimens
Failure Time (minutes)
Figure 9. Delayed failure of 4340 steel in distilled and salt water.
Distilled md Salt (3.5%NaCI)
Water (RT)
I I I
220 230 240
field Strength (ksi)
Figure 10. Stress-corrosion resistance and fracture toughness of 4340 steel.
11
4340 Steel
Ftu 235 ksi

Notch Bend Specimens
;g
K
lscc
c 0

Failure Time Iminutes)
Figure 9. Delayed failure of 4340 st eel in distilled and salt water.
;f



""
u;
c
'"
c

E
U;
40
'IQ
00
20
0
0
10
8
0
4.140 Steel
Di stilled and Salt t3.5".1> NaGl )
Waler tRT)
K
lscc
o
Arbitrary Reference
Line
o
____ ____ ______ ____ __
200 210 m 2'IQ 240
Yield Strength (ksil
Figure 10. Stress-corrosion resistance and fracture toughness of 4340 steel.
11
Stress corrosion tests on 4340 steel from Spartan motor cases8 correlated well
with the data shown in Figure 10. From motor case samples with yield strengths of
212 and 219 ksi, KI scc values of 22 and 17 ksi in.%, respectively, were determined.
Stress Corrosi on and Temperature
Data shown in Figure 10 are for tests conducted at room temperature. At ele-
vated temperatures, the KI scc parameters for steels usually decrease.25r26 This
influence of temperature is exhibited in Figure 11 for a 4340 steel exposed to
temperatures between 32 and 212 F. Also indicated in the chart is the increase
of KI scc at lower test temperatures. The significant decrement in KI scc between
75 and 212 F emphasizes the need to consider the influence of temperature on the
long-term storability of missile components.
Stress Corrosi on and Other Vari abl es
I nspection of the KI scc behavior in Figure 10 and other review source@ shows
divergence in the data points that is indicative of variables other than yield
strength. For example, at the yield strength level of about 210 ksi, the KI scc of
4340 steel reportedly ranges from nearly 10 to over 30 ksi in.%
Factors affecting threshold stress intensity parameter measurements include
test methodology, 6,23*27 alloying elements, 28~2g fabrication methods, melt prac-
tice, 3o and heat treatments. Although stress corrosion cracks generally propa-
gate intergranularly, there appears to be no significant effects of grain size on
KI scc in 4340 steel. But crack growth rates have been observed to decrease with
decreasing grain size,31,32 a factor which may be important in the selection of
heat treatments for 4340 steels destined for long-term storage.
I n view of the number of interacting variables capable of influencing the
KI scc parameter, general published stress corrosion data pertaining to 4340 steel
should not be used in critical designs without distinct knowledge of the back-
ground and history of the material. Stress corrosion tests should be carried out
on samples possessing properties closely simulating the condition of the final
Droduct.
I
25.
26.
21.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
STEIGLRWAL.D, E. A., and HANNA, G. L. Inflwrlcc oj t:r~~%w~rrrcrrt O/I Crack Propagation and Delayed Failures in High
Strength Steels. TRW, AFML RTD-TDR-634225, January 1964.
KORTOVICH, C. Corrosion Fatigue Behavior of 4340 arld IXiAC Sfccls Below KIscc TRW, Report ER 7717, April 1974.
STIIGERWALD, E. A., and BENJAMIN, W. 1). Stress Cortmior~ Crackiq Mechanisms in Martensitic Nigh Stren,qth Steels.
TRW, Al:ML TR 67-98. April 1967.
TINER, N. A., and GILPIN, C. B. Micvwlvmcss~s irt Stress (hrrosim o,fMartensitic Steels. Corrosi on, V. 22, October 1966,
p. 271.
SANDOZ, G. The Effects of Alloving t:lcmwts m the Sl~swptihilif~* to Stress Corrosion Cracking of Martcnsitic Steels in Salt
Water. Met. Trans., v. 2, 1971, p, 1055.
CARTER, C. S. The I;,:ffect of Silicon on the Srrcss Corroslotl RcsisIatm of Low-Al1o.v High-Strength Steels, Corrosion, v. 25,
no. 10, October 1969, p. 423.
PROCTER, R., and PAXTON, H. The Effect o.f Prior Attstcnirc Gruitl Size on the Stress Corrosion Susceptibility of AISI 4.340
Steel. ASM Trans. Quart., v. 62, no. 4, December 1969, p. 989.
WEBSTER, D. Effect of Grain Refvwrnent on the Microstrtrcttrrc and Iropcrtics of434OM Steel. Boeing Document D6-25220,
The Boeing Company, Scattle, Washington, April 1970.
12
Stress corrosion tests on 4340 steel from Spartan motor cases
8
correlated well
with the data shown in Figure 10. From motor case samples with yield strengths of
212 and 219 ksi, KIscc values of 22 and 17 ksi respectively, were determined.
Stress Corrosion and Temperature
Data shown in Figure 10 are for tests conducted at room temperature. At ele -
vated temperatures, the KIscc parameter s for steels usually decrease.
25
,26 This
influence of temperature is exhibited in Figure 11 for a 4340 steel exposed to
temperatures between 32 and 212 F. Also indicated in the chart is the increase
of KIscc at lower test temperatures. The significant decrement in KIscc between
75 and 212 F emphasizes the need to consider the influence of temperature on the
long-t erm s torability of missile components.
Stress Corrosion and Other Variables
Inspection of the KIscc behavior in Figure 10 and other review sources
6
shows
divergence i n the data points that is indicative of variables other than yield
strength. For example, at the yield strength level of about 210 ksi, the KIscc of
4340 steel reportedly ranges from nearl y 10 to over 30 ksi
Factors affecting threshold stress intensity parameter measurements include
test methodology,6, 23 , 27 alloying elements, 28,29 fabrication methods, melt prac-
tice,30 and heat treatments. Although stress corrosion cracks generally propa-
gate intergranularly, there appears to be no significant effects of grain size on
KIscc in 4340 steel. But crack growth rates have been observed to decrease with
decreasing grain size, 31,32 a factor which may be important in the selection of
heat treatments for 4340 steels destined for long-term storage.
In view of the number of interacting variables capable of influencing the
KIscc parameter, general published stress corrosion data pertaining to 4340 steel
should not be used in critical designs without distinct knowledge of the back-
ground and history of the material. Stress corrosion tests should be carried out
on samples possessing properties closel y simulating the condition of the final
product.
25. STEIGERWALD, E. A., and HANNA. G. L. /nfllu!fIct' o[ i:"lIl'ironmclI( OIl Crack and De/ayed Failures in HiX"
Strength Sleeis. TRW, AFML January 1964.
26. KORTOVICH, C. Corrosion Fatigu' BehoF/or of 4}40 and Dfi .. 1C Steels Be/ow K
1sc
(; TRW, Report ER 7717, April 1974.
27. STFIGERWALD, E. A., :md BENJAMIN, W. D. Strc>n Cormsirlll Crocki"K in Martensitic StfPnKth Steels.
TRW, AFML TR 67-98. Apdl 1967 .
28. TINER, N. A" and GILPIN. C. B. MkmprocC'sscs in Corrosioll of Mart"ns;tic Steds. Corrosion. v. 22. Octobcr 1966,
.,. 271.
29. SANDOZ, C. n,l' I: ffects of AlloyitiX Hll'lll(',lfs "" '"l' 10 Strl'ss Corrosion CrackinK of MartC!llsitic Steels ill Salt
Water. Mel. Tram., v. 2, 1971. p. 1055.
30. CARTER, C. S. The Effect of Silicon on the Stress Corrosiol/ H(:sisrOlI('(' of LowAlIoy IliKhStrenKth Steels. Corrosion, v. 25.
no. 10, October 1969, p. 423.
31. PROCTER, R., and PAXTON, H. The I:.fj'ect of Prior Alls(('nitr (,'rain Size on rhe Stress Corrosion Susceptibility of A lSI 4340
Steel. ASM Trans. Quart., v. 62. no. 4. December 1969. p. 989.
32. WEBSTER, D. of Grain Re/inemrnl on rill' MicmHrrwflfre O/lfJ /'ropcrtics ('I 4340M Steel. Boeinl! Document 0625220,
The Doein!! Company. Seattle, Washington, April 1970.
12
01
0
1 I I I I
50 100 150 200 250
Temperature (deq Fl
Envi ronmental Ef f ects
Figure 11. Effect of temperature on
Klscc of 4340 steel.
As mentioned earlier, the stress corrosion behavior shown in Figure 10 is
for 4340 steel in both distilled and salt water environments. Several experi-
ments24,27,33 h
ave demonstrated that stress corrosion tests of high strength
steels in 2 % to 4% NaCl solution environment yields KIscc data similar to that
derived from tests in distilled water. Furthermore, other laboratory salt water
studies have been made 34y35 which reveal good correlation of data with tests in
flowing sea water environments. Therefore, it can be generally assumed that tests
in either of the three environments will yield similar results.
Other aggressive environments can also motivate stress corrosion in 4340
steels. In a salt water and acetic acid solution saturated with Hz&36 the KIscc
values of 4340 steels fall within the lower bounds of the KIscc data shown in
Figure 10. On the other hand, the alloy is also susceptible to a methanol envi-
ronment, but its KIscc value is somewhat higher than that observed in salt water
solutions. Similar behavior has been observed in tests with butyl alcohol and
acetone.33
Large changes in acidity and salt concentration of aqueous environments do
not appreciably affect KIscc. The introduction of H2S appears to lower KIscc to
the lowest values reported for a particular type of steel in salt water.37 Thus
it
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
appears that in critical applications, an analysis should be made of all fluids
TANIGUCHI. N., and TROIANO, A. Stress Corros~otl rrac,krrlg o./ 4340 Steels in Dif:fercnt Environments. Trans. Iron Steel
Inst., Japan, v. 9, no. 4, 1969.
LENNOX, T. J., et al. Marine Corrosiorl Studies: Stress Corrosiorl Cracking Deep Ocean TechnoEogjl Cathodic Protection ou
Fatigue. Naval Research Laboratory, NRL Memorandum Report 17 11, May 1966.
SANDOZ, G., and NEWBEGIN, R. A Comparison of Laborator!? Salt Water aud flowing Natural Seawater as arl E,r?vironment
for Tests of Stress Corrosion Cracking Susceptibilit?*. Report of NRL Progress, Naval Research Laboratory, May 1969.
SNAPE, E. Stress-Induced Failure of High Strength Steels in Envlronmcnts Containing ff_vdrogcn Srrlphide. Br. Corrosion J.,
v. 4, no. 5, September 1969, p. 252.
BUCCI, R., PARIS, P., LOUSHIN, L., and JOHNSON, 1-I. Fructzrrc Mechanics Consideration of H?,drogen Srrl,fide Cracking in
High Strength Steels, Stress Analysis and (irowth of Cracks. Proceedings of the 1971 National Symposium on 1:racturc Mechanics,
Part 1, ASTM STP 513, Philadelphia, PA, 1972.
13
25
c

4340 Steel
Distilled Water
f
ty
211 ksi
__ __ __ ____ __ -J
o 50 100 150 200 250
Temperature (de:! F)
Environmental Effects
Figure 11. Effect of temperature on
K Isee of 4340 steel.
As mentioned earlier, the stress corros ion behavior shown in Figure 10 is
for 4340 steel in both distilled and salt water environments. Several experi-
ments
24
, 27,33 have demonstrated that stress corrosion tests of high strength
steels in 2% to 4% NaCI solution environment yields Klscc data similar to that
derived from tests in distilled water. Furthermore, other laboratory salt water
studies have been made
34
,35 which reveal good correlation of data with tests in
flowing sea water environments. Therefore, it can be generally assumed that tests
in either of the three environments will yield similar results.
Other aggressive environments can also motivate stress corrosion in 4340
steels. In a salt water and acetic acid solution saturated with H2S,36 the Kl scc
values of 4340 steels fall wi thin the lower bounds of the Klscc data shown in
Figure 10. On the other hand, the alloy is also susceptible to a methanol envi-
ronment, but its Klscc value is somewhat higher than that observed in salt water
solutions. Similar behavior has been observed in tests with butyl alcohol and
acetone.
33
Large changes in acidity and salt concentration of aqueous environments do
not appreciably affect Klscc. The introduction of H2S appears to lower Klscc to
the lowest values reported for a particular type of steel in salt water.
37
Thus
it appears that in critical applications, an analysis should be made of all fluids
33. TANIGUCHI , N .. Jnd TROIANO, A. Stress Corrmioll f'rackillX oj 4.?40 Sreel.\' ill ni/ferell' l:.'m' irOlJl1I cllts. Tram. Iron Steel
lnst. , Japan, v. 9, no. 4, 1969.
34. LENNOX. T. J., el al. Marine Corrosion Studie!!i : Stn'ss Corrosion ('rockillg Deep Ocean Tee/Ulolox), Cathodic Protecrion 0 1/
Fatigue. Naval Research L:.lbmatory , NRL Memorandum Report 1711 , 1966.
35. SANDOZ, G. , and NEWBEGIN, R. A Comparison of Laboratory Sal, Water and HowillK Natural Seawater as all /;"lI l'irOllment
for Tests of Stress Corrosion Crackinf( Susceptibility. Report of NRl Progress, Naval Laboratory, May 1969.
36. SNAPE, E. Stress-Induced Failure of /ligh Strel1!(th ill t:l1l'l rolil/1/?l/t5 Containillg lIydroflen SlI lphide. Sr. Corrosion J.,
v. 4, no. 5, September 1969, p. 252.
37. BUCCI, R., PARTS, P., LOUSHlN, L., and JOHNSON, H. Fraell/I"{' Mechallies COllSidcrarinn 1)[ Hy drogen Sulfide Crackillg in
High Strenxth Steels, Stress Analysis alld (;mwth of Cracks. o f the 1971 National Symposium on I'- racture Mechanics,
Part 1, ASTM STP 513. Philadelphia , PA, 1971.
and compounds used in the various steps of processing and packaging to insure the
absence of any substance capable of promoting stress corrosion cracking, particu-
larly during long terms of storage in a damp environment.
Mi ssi l e Storage Cri teri a - Humi di ty Ef f ects
Experimental data is needed for the establishment of realistic criteria for
environmental control during missile storage, It is common practice38 to assume
that a maximum allowable relative humidity of 50% and a temperature range of 70 F
to 85 F provide an adequate environment for the prevention of corrosion in metal
parts. However, limited studies of 4340 steel with yield strengths of about 220
ksi indicate premature failure both in 90% relative humidity at 75 F3g and in 50%
relative humidity environments at 90 F and 120 F. In the 50% relative humidity
environment under a stress intensity 75% of KIc (KIc = $52 ksi in.%), the 4340
steel in the 90 F surroundings fractured in 31 days and at 120 F fractured in 12
days.38 More information is needed to elucidate the stress corrosion behavior of
4340 steels in humid environments which simulate missile storage conditions. e
Stress Corrosi on Compari son
Cursory review of mixed stress corrosion cracking data6 indicates that within
the 200 to 250 ksi yield strength range, steels with KIscc parameter better than
4340 steel include: HP 9-4 in the 200 ksi region and D6AC in the 200 to 230 ksi
range. Otherwise, 4340 steels appear to be as good or better than most steels
within the broader 200 to 250 ksi range. Generally, stress corrosion cracking
susceptibility decreases in these alloys at lower yield strength levels.
SUMMARY
1. Fracture toughness and stress corrosion data pertaining to 4340 steel
are generally available in the technical literature.
2. Many factors affect the data, including test methodology, composition,
melt practice, fabrication, heat treatment, and environments.
3. For applications in critical materiel, mechanical properties data must
be obtained from material samples treated to incorporate characteristics closely
resembling those of the finished product.
4. Data are needed to establish the stress corrosion behavior of 4340 steel
to provide a sound basis for specifying missile storage conditions.
5. Higher fracture toughness and stress corrosion cracking resistance may
be achieved through the.designation of 4340 steels with lower levels of yield
strengths.
38. Private communication: R. G. Britton, C. Austin, U. S. Army Missile R&D Command, Huntsville, Alabama. September 14, 1977.
39. CARTER, C. S. The Effect of Silicon on the Stress Corrosion Resistance of Low-Alloy High-Strength Steels. The Boeing
Company, Research Report D6-23872, ARPA Contract NOO014-66-C-0365, March 1965.
14
and compounds used in the various steps of processing and packaging to insure the
absence of any substance capable of promoting stress corrosion cracking, particu-
larly during long terms of storage in a damp environment.
Missile Storage Criteria - Humidity Effects
Experimental data is needed for the establishment of realistic criteria for
environmental control during missile storage. It is common practice
38
to assume
that a maximum allowable relative humidity of 50% and a temperature range of 70 F
to 85 F provide an adequate environment for the prevention of corrosion in metal
parts. However, limited studies of 4340 steel with yield strengths of about 220
ksi indicate premature failure both in 90% relative humidity at 75 F39 and in 50%
relative humidity environments at 90 F and 120 F. In the 50% relative humidity
environment under a stress intensity 75% of KIc (KIc = ksi the 4340
steel in the 90 F surroundings fractured in 31 days and at 120 F fractured in 12
days.38 More information is needed to elucidate the stress corrosion behavior of
4340 steels in humid environments which simulate missile storage conditions.
Stress Corrosion Comparison
Cursory review of mixed stress corrosion cracking data
6
indicates that within
the 200 to 250 ksi yield strength range, steels with KIscc parameter better than
4340 steel include: HP 9-4 in the 200 ksi region and D6AC in the 200 to 230 ksi
range. Otherwise, 4340 steels appear to be as good or better than most steels
within the broader 200 to 250 ksi range. Generally, stress corrosion cracking
susceptibility decreases in these alloys at lower yield strength levels.
SUMMARY
1. Fracture toughness and stress corrosion data pertaining to 4340 steel
are generally available in the technical literature.
2. Many factors affect the data, including test methodology, composition,
melt practice, fabrication, heat treatment, and environments.
3. For applications in critical materiel, mechanical properties data must
be obtained from material samples treated to incorporate characteristics closely
resembling those of the finished product.
4. Data are needed to establish the stress corrosion behavior of 4340 steel
to provide a sound basis for specifying missile storage conditions.
5. Higher fracture toughness and stress corrosion cracking resistance may
be achieved through the designation of 4340 steels with lower levels of yield
strengths.
38. Private communication: R. G. Britton, C. Austin, U. S. Army Missile R&D Command, Huntsville, Alabama. September 14,1977.
39. CARTER, C. S. The EYfect of Silicon on the Stress Corrosion Resistance of Low-Alloy High-Strength Steels. The Boeing
Company, Research Report D6-23872, ARPA Contract N00014.-66..('-0365, March 1965.
14
LI TERATURE CI TED
1. Fracture Toughness Testing and I ts Applications ASTM STP 381, 1965.
2. Plane Strain Crack Toughness Testing oj High Strength Metallic Materzals. ASTM STP 410, 1966.
3. Review of Developments in Plane Strain Fracture Toughness Testing. ASTM STP 463, 1970.
4. ASTM Test for Plane-Strain Fracture Toughness of Metallic Materials: E399-74.
5. SCULLY, J. C., ed. The Theory of Stress Corrosion Cracking in Alloys. NATO Science Committee, Research Evaluation
Conference, Brussels, W. S. Maney and Sons, Ltd., Leeds, England, 1971.
6. BROWN, B. F., ed. Stress Corrosion Cracking in High Strength Steel, Titanium, and Aluminum Alloys. U. S. Government
Printing Office, Stock No. 0851-0058, 1972.
7. Damage Tolerant Design Handbook, Metals and Ceramic Information Center, Air Force Materials Laboratory, MCIC-HB-Ol,
December 1972, 2nd Supplement, January 1975.
8. WONG, A. K., LEVY, M., and GRENIS, A. Stress Corrosion, Mecharucai Properties, and Acoustic Emission of 4340 Steel from
a Second-Stage Spartan MissileMotor Case. Army Materials and Mechanics Research Center, report in process.
9. KULA, E. B., and ANCTIL, A. A. Preliminary Metallurgical Evaluation of Proof Test Failure of Spartan Second-Stage Motor
Case. Army Materials and Mechanics Research Center, AMMRC SP 73-8, May 1973.
10. AMATEAU, M. I:., and STEIGERWALD, F. A. Cacrure Characteristics o.fStructur~l Metals. TRW, Bureau of Naval Weapons,
ER 5937, April 1964.
11. FITZGIBBON, D. P. Seqiannual Report on Pressure I essel Deagn Criteria. Space Technology Laboratories, Inc., Air Force
Ballistic Missile Division, TR-59-0000-00714, June 1959.
12. STEIGERWALD, E. A. Plane Strain Fracture Toughness Data for Handbonl- Presentation. TRW, AFML-TR, June 1967
(AD 821626).
13. HAUSER, J. J., and WELLS, M. G. H. I nrlusions zn High-Strength Steris, Their Dependence on Processing Variables and Their
Effect on Engineering Properties. Crucible Steel Corp., AFML TR-68-222, August 1968.
14. KULA, E. B., and ANCTIL, A. A. Tempered Martensite Enrhrittlement and Fracture Toughness in SAE 4340 Steel. Journal of
Materials, JMLSA, v. 4, no. 4, December 1969, p. 817-841.
15. PARKER, E. R., and ZACKAY, V. F. Microstnrctural Features Affecting Fracture Toughness of High Strength Steels. Enginecr-
ing Fracture Mechanics, v. 7, no. 3, 1975, p. 311-375.
16. WOOD, W. E. Mechanisms of Enhanced Toughness in Martensitic Alloys. Oregon Graduate Center, Contract N00019-76-C-0149,
April 1977 (AD-A040 373/3GA).
17. HURLICH, A. Choice of Materials and Fabrication Techniques for Pressure Vesrels. Convair-Astronautics, Chapter 6 in Materials
for Missiles and Spacecraft, E. R. Parker, ed., McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 1963.
18. Private communication, Lockheed California Company, 19?6.
19. McEOWEN, L. J. Combining Strength and Fracture Torr&ncss. Metal Progress, March 1975, p. 52.
20. AMATEAU, M. F., and STEIGERWALD, I?. A. Fracture Cliaracteristics of Structural Metals. TRW, Bureau of Naval Weapons,
ER 5937-1, August 1964.
21. Problems in the Load-Carrying Application of High Strength Steels, DMIC Report 210, October 1964.
22. MOORE, T. D. Structural Alloys Handbook. Mechamcal PropertIes Data Center. Belfour Stulen, Inc., Traverse City, Michigan,
1976.
23. Stress Corrosion Testing. ASTM Special Technical PubllcJtion 425, 1966.
24. BENJAMIN, W. D., and STEIGERWALD. E. A. ~tllliror?nfcrztallv Induced Delayed Failures in Martensitic High-Strength Steels.
TRW, AFML TR 68-80, April 1968.
25. STEIGERWALD, E. A., and HANNA, G. L. I nfluence of Environment on Crack Propagation and Delayed Failures in High
Strength Steels. TRW, AFML RTD-TDR-63-4225, January 1964.
26. KORTOVICH, C. Corrosion Fatigue Behavior of 4340 and LXAC Steels Below Klscc TRW, Report ER 7717, April 1974.
27. STEIGERWALD, E. A., and BENJAMIN, W. D. Stress Corrosion Cracking: Mechanisms in Martensitic High Strength Steels.
TRW, AFML TR 67-98, April 1967.
28. TINER, N. A., and GILPIN, C. B. Microprocesses in Stress Corrosion 01 Martensitic Steels. Corrosion, v. 22, October 1966,
p. 271.
29. SANDOZ, G. The Effects of Allqving Elements on the, SU\ C ptzbilrt\ * to Strtlss Corrosion Cracking of Martensitic Steels in Salt
Water. Met. Trans., v. 2, 1971, p. 1055.
30. CARTER, C. S. The E,ffect of Silicon on the Stress Corrosion Resistance 01 Low-Allov High-Strength Steels. Corrosion, v. 25,
no. 10, October 1969, p. 423.
31. PROCTER, R., and PAXTON, H. The Lffect of Prior Austcnite Gain Size on the Stress Corrosion Susceptibility of AI SI 4340
Steel. ASM Trans. Quart., v. 62, no. 4, December 1969, p. 989.
32. WEBSTER, D. Effect of Grain Refinerncnt on the Microstructure and Propc,rtics of 434OM Steel. Boeing Document D6-25220,
The Boeing Company, Seattle, Washington, .4pril 1970.
33. TANIGUCHI, N., and TROIANO, A. Stress Corrosiorl Crat~Xr~?,s ~)f 4340 Sfcels in Different Environments. Trans. Iron Steel
Inst.. Japan, v. 9, no. 4, 1969.
34. LENNOX, T. J., et al. Marine Corrosion Studies: Stress Corroston Crackr.l,s Deep Ocean Technology Cathodic Protection on
Fatigue. Naval Research Laboratory, NRL Memorandum Report 171 1, Mzy 1966.
35. SANDOZ, G., and NEWBEGIN, R. A Comparison of Laborator, Salr Water und F7owing Natural Seawater as an Environment
for Tests of Stress Corrosion Cracking Susceptibihty. Report ot NRL Progress, Naval Research Laboratory, May 1969.
36. SNAPE, E. Stress-I nduced Failure of High Strength Ste& in btrvironments Containing Hydrogen Sulphide. Br. Corrosion J.,
v. 4, no. 5, September 1969, p. 252.
37. BUCCI, R., PARIS, P., LOUSHIN, L., and JOHNSON. I-1. I ~~a~turc Mcchanrcs Consideration of Hydrogen Sulfide Cracking in
High Strength Steels, Stress Analysis and Growth of Cracks. Proceedings of the 1971 National Symposium on Fracture Mechanics,
Part 1, ASTM STP 513, Philadelphia, PA, 1972.
38. Private communication: R. G. Britton, C. Austin, U. S. Army MisslIe R&D Command, Huntsville, Alabama, September 14, 1977.
39. CARTER, C. S. The Effect of Silicon on the Stress Corrosion Resistance of Low-Alloy High-Strength Steels. The Boeing
Company, Research Report D6-23872, ARPA Contract NO00) 4-66C-0365, Mxc-h 1965.
LITERATURE CITED
1. Fracmre Toughness Testing and Its Applications ASTM STP 381, 1965.
1. Plane Strain Crack TOllghness Testing of High Strength 'Metallic lfateriuls. ASTM STP 410,1966,
3. Review of Developments in Plane Strain Toughness Testing. ASTM STP 463, 1970.
4. ASTM Test for Plane-Strain Fracture of Metallic Materials: 399-74.
5. SCULLY, J. C, ed. The Theory of Stress Corrosion Cracking in Alloys. NATO Science Committee, Research Evaluation
Conference, Brussels, W. S. Maney and Sons, Ltd., Leeds, England, 1971.
6. BROWN, B. F., ed. Stress Corrosion Cracking in High Strength Steel, 1Ytoflium, and Aluminum Alloys. U. S. Government
Printing Office, Stock No. 0851{)058, 1972.
7. Damage Tolerant Design Handbook, and CeramIC Information Ccnter, Air force Materials Laboratory, MCIC-HB-Ol.
December 1972, 2nd Supplement, January 1975.
8. WONG, A. K., LEVY, M., and GRENIS, A. Stress Com)sion, MedulIlicui and Acoustic Emission of 4340 Steel from
a Second-Stage S{JfJrtan Missile Motor Case Army Matcrials and Mecnanics Research Center, report in process.
9. KULA, E. B., and ANCTIL, A. A. Preliminary Metallurgical Evaluation of Proof Test Failure of Spartan Second-Stage Motor
Case. Army Materials and Mechanics Research Cl'nter. AMMRC SP 73-8, May 1973.
10. AMATEAU, M, F., and STEIGERWALD, F.. A. Fracrur;; Characteristics of Structurr.l Metals. TRW, Bureau of Naval Weapons,
ER 5937, April 1964.
II. FITZGIBBON, D. P. Semiannual Report or. PressH."c Vi'ssei De,nln Criteria. Space Technology Laboratories, Inc., Air Force
Ballistic Missile Division, TR-59..o000-00714, June 1959.
12. STEIGERWALD, E. A. Plane Strain Fracture Dato for Handboo! Presentation. TRW, AFML-TR, June 1967
821626).
13. HAUSER, J. J., and WELLS, M. G. H. inclusions In Hi!(lhS'rrrllf(th Steels, Their Dependence on Processing Variables and Their
njfeet on Engineering Properties. Crucible Steel Corp., AFML TR-68-222, Augusi 1968.
14. KULA, E. B., and ANCTIL, A. A. Tempered Marunsite EmbriUlement and Fracture Toughness in SAE 4340 Steel. Journal of
Materials, JMLSA, v. 4, no. 4, December 1969, p. 817-841.
15. PARKER, E. R., and ZACKAY, V. F. Microstructurol Fcatures A/fecting Fracture Toughness of High Strength Steels. Engineer-
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