BBC - GCSE Bitesize Science - Microorganisms and immunity : Revision, Print

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Microorganisms and immunity

Our bodies come under attack from a range of microorganisms. We defend ourselves from these attacks using antibodies to destroy the pathogens. Vaccinations and aseptic techniques have been developed to help reduce infection. We can now manufacture antibodies for a variety of other uses, such as fighting cancer and pregnancy testing.
Microorganisms and their growth There are three main types of microorganism: bacteria , viruses and fungi . Individually, they are too small to see without using a microscope, although groups (or colonies) of them can often be seen with the naked eye. Bacteria grow by a process of replicating themselves. This is called binary fission. When bacteria possess the nutrients and appropriate conditions for growth, they are able to replicate very quickly indeed. This increase is called exponential growth and can lead to the rapid development of an infection. Exponential growth is shown in the graph below.

Exponential growth of bacteria

Bacteria grow using a medium, such as agar gel [agar gel : A jelly-like substance that is derived from a type of seaweed and used in the lab as a medium on which to grow bacteria and fungi. ] or milk, from which they obtain nutrients. You need to know how to investigate the growth of bacteria in milk. One way of doing this is to use a dye called resazurin. This can be added to milk kept at different temperatures to see the relative growth of bacteria. Resazurin changes from blue to pink to white as the presence of bacteria increases. A quicker change in colour indicates the presence of more bacteria. Edward Jenner and vaccination Edward Jenner was an English scientist who lived in the 18th century. He discovered the first vaccine [vaccine: Substances containing disabled antigens of a particular disease, usually administered via injection. Vaccines stimulate the body to produce antibodies to provide immunity against that disease. ], which was for the smallpox [smallpox: An infectious viral disease which was globally eradicated in 1979.] virus. This disease was widespread in the 18th century and

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BBC - GCSE Bitesize Science - Microorganisms and immunity : Revision, Print

killed many people. Those who were infected but survived were often left badly scarred.

SmallPox

Jenner noticed that milkmaids who had caught the cowpox virus did not normally then catch smallpox. Cowpox was very similar to smallpox but less contagious [contagious: A disease that can be passed from one organism to another by physical touch.]. He collected pus from the cowpox blisters on a milkmaids hands and purposefully infected a small boy. The boy was taken ill for a short while, but was then resistant to any subsequent infections of the cowpox and smallpox viruses. He tested this by infecting the boy with smallpox. No illness occurred. Jenner was therefore the first person to vaccinate someone against infection.

Engraving of Edward Jenner, British physician

Vaccination

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BBC - GCSE Bitesize Science - Microorganisms and immunity : Revision, Print

The process of vaccination is as shown in this flow diagram:

The process of vaccination

1. A weakened or genetically-modified version of a pathogen [pathogen: Microorganism that can cause disease. ] is found or made. 2. This is given to the person to be vaccinated (normally by injection). 3. The persons immune system responds - their body notices antigens (foreign proteins) on the pathogens. 4. White blood cells (lymphocytes ) then produce antibodies[antibody: A protein produced by the body's immune system that attacks foreign organisms (antigens) that get into the body. ] which destroy the pathogens. The first time we are infected with a pathogen it takes some time to produce the antibodies to fight it off. However, our lymphocytes remember pathogens - and if we are exposed to the pathogen again, the lymphocytes respond by making antibodies much more quickly. This means that we dont usually catch the disease a second time, and are now immune to it. In order to see this content you need to have both Javascript enabled and Flash installed. Immunisation Immunisation means that we have become resistant[resistant: Opposing something, or fighting against it. Many strains of bacteria have become resistant to types of antibiotics, which means that it is more difficult to kill them. ] to a pathogen [pathogen: Microorganism that can cause disease. ] (and therefore a disease). There are two types of immunisation: Active immunisation is most common. This can be artificial - as a result of a vaccination [vaccine: Substances containing disabled antigens of a particular disease, usually administered via injection. Vaccines stimulate the body to produce antibodies to provide immunity against that disease. ] (see previous page). It can also be natural. Here the process is the same, but results from a natural exposure to a pathogen. Catching a common cold each winter is an example of this. We dont catch the same cold each winter. There are over 200 known viruses which cause the same symptoms. After we have caught each one, we are immune to it. Passive immunisation is less common and involves someone being given antibodies[antibody: A protein produced by the body's immune system that attacks foreign organisms (antigens) that get into the body. ]. This can also be natural (from a mothers milk to her baby) or artificial, in the form of an injection. Advantages and disadvantages of vaccinations The advantages of vaccinations [vaccine: Substances containing disabled antigens of a particular disease, usually administered via injection. Vaccines stimulate the body to produce antibodies to provide immunity against that disease. ] are obvious - they stop individuals becoming ill. If enough people are vaccinated, vaccinations can also stop pathogens[pathogen: Microorganism

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BBC - GCSE Bitesize Science - Microorganisms and immunity : Revision, Print

that can cause disease. ] infecting whole populations. This is called herd immunity . There are also risks to having vaccinations. For instance, some people suffer from a mild reaction to the vaccine. In recent years there has been much controversy surrounding the MMR vaccine. Some people used to think the vaccine - which is a combined treatment against measles [measles : An infectious disease of the respiratory system caused by a virus. ], mumps [mumps : A viral disease that usually affects the salivary glands but can affect fertility in teenage boys and men. ] and rubella [rubella : Also known as German measles, this is a viral disease with mild symptoms that can be very serious if contracted by a pregnant woman.] - could cause autism [autism: A learning difficulty which is characterised by difficulties in social interaction and communication. ] in children. They decided not to risk letting their child have the vaccine and just hoped they would not catch measles, mumps or rubella. But this meant that, as fewer and fewer children were vaccinated, the three diseases began to spread more easily and the number of cases began to increase. More recent studies by the World Health Organisation have shown that there is no link between the MMR vaccine and autism. Vaccinations can never be completely safe because side-effect levels vary. So, when making a decision, these are some of the factors that need to be considered: when fewer people are vaccinated, the number of cases of the disease increases the chance of falling seriously ill or dying from the disease may be far greater than the chance of experiencing a serious side-effect using a vaccine may be much cheaper than treating a very ill person Memory lymphocytes and making antibodies Lymphocytes are white blood cells that produce specific antibodies[antibody: A protein produced by the body's immune system that attacks foreign organisms (antigens) that get into the body. ] to destroy pathogens[pathogen: Microorganism that can cause disease. ]. They recognise the pathogens because of their antigens [antigen : Substance that can produce an immune response by the body. ] (foreign proteins). There are different types of lymphocytes but you only need to know about B lymphocytes which are produced and matured in bone marrow [bone marrow : Soft tissue found inside bones that produces new blood cells. ]. They produce the plasma[plasma : Liquid, non-cellular part of the blood. ] cells that form the antibodies. They also produce memory cells that stay in the body for a long time - sometimes forever - and can trigger the production of antibodies if reinfection occurs. In order to see this content you need to have both Javascript enabled and Flash installed. Memory lymphocytes - Higher tier The graph shows how our memory lymphocytes respond to infection by producing antibodies.

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BBC - GCSE Bitesize Science - Microorganisms and immunity : Revision, Print

Antibody concentration

We can see in the graph that the second exposure triggers more antibodies to be produced in a shorter period of time (a steeper gradient [gradient : Another word for 'slope'. On a graph, the gradient is defined as being the change in the y value divided by the change in the x value, and defines how steep a line is. ]). This means that we fight the infection quicker. When we are younger we often have booster vaccinations. These are second doses of the same vaccination to help memory lymphocytes remember the original pathogen. Monoclonal antibodies - Higher tier Monoclonal antibodies are identical copies of antibodies that have been made in laboratories. They have a number of different uses. They need to be made in large numbers to work properly. The process for making them is shown in the diagram below.

Micro-Organisms

Monoclonal antibodies are used in a wide variety of ways. They are used in pregnancy test kits to identify the small levels of a hormone called human chorionic gonadotrophin, which is present in the urine of pregnant women. They can also be used to locate blood clots as they bind to clots. They can also be used to diagnose and then treat some cancers . They can bind to the cancerous cells and help the persons immune system attack them.

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BBC - GCSE Bitesize Science - Microorganisms and immunity : Revision, Print

This form of cancer treatment has a number of advantages over radiotherapy [radiotherapy : Using ionising radiation to treat cancer by targeting cancerous cells. ] and chemotherapy [chemotherapy: The use of chemicals to treat cancer. The chemicals used are highly toxic to cells that divide rapidly. ], both of which can have unpleasant side effects including hair loss, suppression of immune response (meaning you are susceptible to infection by pathogens) and reduction in the ability to clot blood (meaning wounds take longer to heal and bruises are more extensive). Louis Pasteur and aseptic technique Louis Pasteur was a French scientist who lived in the 19th century. He discovered the first vaccine [vaccine: Substances containing disabled antigens of a particular disease, usually administered via injection. Vaccines stimulate the body to produce antibodies to provide immunity against that disease. ] for rabies [rabies : A viral disease that affects the central nervous system. ] - but is more famously remembered for aseptic technique and pasteurisation (which is, of course, named after him). Aseptic technique is a process which is most commonly used by scientists and doctors to stop contamination by microorganisms[microorganism : Another name for microbe. Microscopic (too small to see) organisms such as bacteria and viruses. ]. An example of aseptic technique is sterilisation [sterilisation : The process of ensuring that a sample contains no living things.] using alcohol or flames. Pasteur is famous for three experiments involving microorganisms. 1. He proved that microorganisms turned liquids sour. 2. He proved that microorganisms couldnt grow if the liquids were boiled (this is pasteurisation). 3. He proved that microorganisms did not generate out of thin air but transferred from one medium to another (in the 19th century, people thought microorganisms just appeared).

Louis Pasteur, French microbiologist

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BBC - GCSE Bitesize Science - Microorganisms and immunity : Revision, Print

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