Basic Circuits

Digital Logic Everything in the digital world is based on the binary number system. Numerically, this involves only two symbols: 0 and 1. Logically, we can use these symbols or we can equate them with others according to the needs of the moment. Thus, when dealing with digital logic, we can specify that: 0 = false = no 1 = true = yes Using this two-valued logic system, every statement or condition must be either "true" or "false;" it cannot be partly true and partly false. It actually works quite nicely, and can be expanded to express very complex relationships and interactions among any number of individual conditions. One essential reason for basing logical operations on the binary number system is that it is easy to design simple, stable electronic circuits that can switch back and forth between two clearly-defined states, with no ambiguity attached. It is also readily possible to design and build circuits that will remain indefinitely in one state unless and until they are deliberately switched to the other state. This makes it possible to construct a machine (the computer) which can remember sequences of events and adjust its behavior accordingly. Digital logic may be divided into two classes: combinational logic, in which the logical outputs are determined by the logical function being performed and the logical input states at that particular moment. sequential logic, in which the outputs also depend on the prior states of those outputs. Both classes of logic are used extensively in all digital computers. Since both types of logic circuits begin with logic gates to combine logical input signals in various ways to produce the desired outputs.

Introduction to DC Circuits Basic Electronic Components:All components used in electronic circuits have 3 basic properties, known as resistance, capacitance, and inductance. In most cases, however, one of these properties will be far more prevalent than the other two. Therefore we can treat components as having only one of these three properties and exhibiting the appropriate behavior according to the following definitions: Resistance The property of a component to oppose the flow of electrical current through itself. Capacitance The property of a component to oppose any change in voltage across its terminals, by storing and releasing energy in an internal electric field. Inductance The property of a component to oppose any change in current through itself, by storing and releasing energy in a magnetic field surrounding itself. As you might expect, components whose main property is resistance resistors; capacitance capacitors, inductance inductors. Basic Circuit Concept The figure shows the basic type of electrical circuit, in the form of a block diagram. It consists of a source of electrical energy, some sort of load to make use of that energy, and electrical conductors connecting the source and the load. The electrical source has two terminals, positive (+) and negative (-).

As long as there is an unbroken connection from source to load and back again as shown here, electrons will be pushed from the negative terminal of the source, through the load, and then back to the positive terminal of the source. The arrows show the direction of electron current flow through this circuit. Because the electrons are always moving in the same direction through the circuit, their motion is known as a direct current (DC). The source can be any source of electrical energy. In practice, there are three general possibilities: it can be a battery, an electrical generator, or some sort of electronic power supply. The load is any device or circuit powered by electricity. It can be as simple as a light bulb or as complex as a modern high-speed computer. The electricity provided by the source has two basic characteristics, called voltage and current. Voltage The electrical "pressure" that causes free electrons to travel through an electrical circuit. Also known as electromotive force (emf). It is measured in volts. Current The amount of electrical charge (the number of free electrons) moving past a given point in an electrical circuit per unit of time. Current is measured in amperes. The load, in turn, has a characteristic called resistance. By definition: Resistance That characteristic of a medium which opposes the flow of electrical current through itself. Resistance is measured in ohms. The relationship between voltage, current, and resistance in an electrical circuit is fundamental to the operation of any circuit or device.

Verbally, the amount of current flowing through a circuit is Directly proportional to the applied voltage and Inversely proportional to the circuit resistance. By explicit definition, one volt of electrical pressure can push one ampere of current through one ohm of resistance. Two volts can either push one ampere through a resistance of two ohms, or can push two amperes through one ohm. Mathematically, E = I R, where E = The applied voltage, or EMF I = The circuit current R = The resistance in the circuit Using Schematic Diagrams Because different electronic components have different characteristics, it is necessary to distinguish between them in any circuit diagram. Of course, we could use the block diagram approach, and just identify each component with words. Unfortunately, this takes up a lot of space and makes the overall diagram harder to recognize or understand quickly. We need a way to understand electrical diagrams far more quickly and easily. The answer is to use schematic symbols to represent electronic components, as shown in the diagram to the right. In this diagram, we show the schematic symbol of a battery as the electrical source, and the symbol of a resistor as the load. Even without the words and arrows, the symbols define exactly what this circuit is and how it behaves. The symbol for each electronic component is suggestive of the behavior of that component. Thus, the battery symbol above consists of multiple individual cells connected in series. By convention, the longer line represents the positive terminal of each

cell. The battery voltage would normally be specified next to the symbol. The zig-zag line represents any resistor. In most cases, its resistance is specified next to the symbol just as the battery voltage would be given. It is easier and faster to read the symbol and the legend "4.7k" next to it, than to see a box and have to read "4700-ohm resistor" inside it. As we introduce various electronic components in these pages, we will provide their schematic symbols as well.

One of the problems that can occur with schematic diagrams is too many lines all over the page. It's not a big deal when there are only two components in the circuit, but think of what the complete diagram for a modern television receiver or even a radio receiver would look like. We need a way to reduce the number of lines showing electrical connections. We can help reduce the problem by noting that one connection is common to all circuitry, and serves as the reference point from which all electrical measurements are made. This electrical connection is designated the "ground reference," or simply "ground," in the circuit. The modified schematic diagram is shown to the right. This circuit is actually the same as the one above, with the voltage source designated "E" (for EMF or ElectroMotive Force) and the load designated "R" (for Resistance). The ground symbols ( ) are assumed to be electrically connected to each other without any explicit connection shown. Often a circuit will be constructed on a steel or aluminum chassis, in which case the chassis itself is commonly used as the electrical ground as well as the mechanical support for the circuitry.