ICME 11 TSG 22 3

Developing a digital game for the instruction of fractions

Ms Ya Ling Lee Dr. John Shanks University of Otago, New Zealand yaling@maths.otago.ac.nz
Practice oriented Theme of the presentation: Design of technology for the learning and teaching of mathematics Students performance on proportion and ratio was lower than expected and more activities are needed to enhance the instruction of fractions. A basic fraction game model is designed to focus on the topic of comparing fractions sizes with the learning objective of ordering fractions. The game is developed into digital game using several game resources such as game objects, sprites, events, actions and rooms. The game includes features that realize the instructional factors and students needs stressed in the game model. The game enhances the learning of fractions specifically to enable visualization of fractions, connect symbols and representations of fractions, reasoning of strategies and resolve misconceptions. Teachers can use the game to engage learning, as a manipulative tool, to reflect mathematical thinking and to provide digital teaching. 1. Introduction

1.1 The difficulty of learning fractions The Numeracy Development Project (NDP) is a school mathematics professional development project implemented in New Zealand in 2000. Research shows that the standard of New Zealand childrens mathematical performance has improved over the years via the NDP (Holton, 2006) except on proportion and ratio, which was lower than expected (YoungLoveridge, 2006; Ward & Thomas, 2007). Fractions are notoriously difficult not only for elementary school students to learn (Ni & Zhou, 2005; Smith III, 2002; Yoshida & Shinmachi, 1999) but also for teachers to teach (Naiser, Wright & Capraro, 2004). Yet, fractions, ratios, and proportions are essential concepts in the middle school curriculum, which take root and grow from the fundamental curriculum in elementary school (Litwiller, 2002). More effort is required on the area of fractions and proportion in NDP (Holton, 2007), especially for order and equivalence, which are the most basic topics in fractions (Smith, 1995). Many children still struggle with the basic characteristics of order or equivalence after learning fractions for a few years in school (Behr, Wachsmuth, Post & Lesh, 1984; Streefland, 1993). 1.2 Using games to learn fractions In the NDP classroom, teachers are making their own games and activity materials for mathematics instruction. Games have been explored as a pedagogical approach to enhance mathematical learning (Bragg, 2007). Mathematical games improve young childrens number knowledge (Peters, 1998) and overcome tertiary mathematical difficulty (Gueron, 2001). Although teachers and parents agree that games help to improve childrens knowledge (Fisher & Neill, 2007), and students find learning through playing games is fun (Young-Loveridge, 2005), not much research has been done specifically on educational games in NDP. Many teachers are doubtful on the use of games in learning mathematics and the learning outcomes

that could be obtained from games. The purpose of this study is to develop a digital game, particularly for the topic of comparing fraction sizes, which focuses on the learning objective of ordering fractions with like and unlike denominators. 2. Literature review

2.1 Basic fraction game model A basic fraction game model was designed to provide a framework for the development of digital fraction games. The model integrated instructional factors proposed by Booker (2000, 2004) and key structural elements of games suggested by Prensky (2001). The game structure is designed in line with the instructional considerations such as conceptual analysis of fractions, students misconceptions, instructional strategies, students strategies, and the relationship of the game to the New Zealand Number framework. The story The story of the game is about a boy who is lost in the woods and reaches a tower. He needs to form staircases using bricks in order to climb up the stairs and see the way home. The story provides a meaningful context for the player to apply the knowledge of fractions where the learning objective is to put the fraction bricks in order. Hence, the topic of comparing sizes of fraction, one of the critical aspects of fractions, is focused. The rule The rule of the game is to pick fraction bricks and then, drop one by one, near to the next level to form staircases. The fractions are picked (i) by size, (ii) by symbols and (iii) after partition. Two types of fraction bricks are used and ordered in two ways. The vertical fraction bricks are ordered from smallest to largest whereas the horizontal fraction bricks are ordered from largest to smallest (refer to Figure 1).

Figure 1: Vertical and horizontal fraction bricks The goal The goal is to go up from one floor to the next using the staircases. If the fraction bricks are ordered correctly, a staircase is formed and the player can move on to another level. The outcomes The outcomes allow visualization and comparison of concrete sizes of fractions when the sizes of the wholes are equal. Positive feedback and rewards are given such as attractive window view. If an improper staircase is formed, the player fails to step up and falls down to the ground. Conflicts, challenges, competitive & obstacles The conflicts arise from the limited understanding of the mental picture of fractions and misinterpretations of fractions as two independent numbers. The challenge is maintained by

presenting fractions that require various strategies of ordering fractions highlighted in the New Zealand Number Framework (NZNF). Digital timing makes the game competitive. Obstacles like virtual enemies are created to resist the player in the game. These factors make the game hard but interesting. The interaction The interaction of the player and the computer occurs when the player manipulates fraction bricks, visualizes the representations of fractions, and moves the bricks around in the game. The social aspect of the game is possible when more than one player is allowed to play the game. The model was tested in a group of Year 8 students using a manipulative tool of fraction cards in a pilot study (Lee, 2007). The findings of the study showed that students from different mathematical abilities have different views of the fraction games. Their concerns were incorporated into the model in order to develop instructional games that could fulfil different learning needs. Students could be given an option to choose the difficulty level based on their own abilities. The game provides teaching of fractions to students who failed to overcome the conflict of the game caused by their misconceptions and difficulties with fractions. 2.2 Digital game models The Game Object Model (GOM) and Game Achievement Model (GAM) proposed by Amory (2007) are referred to in developing an educational digital game. The GOM provides a framework that links learning theories to game design. It contains concrete interfaces to realise the educational objective represented by the abstract interfaces. The Game space embodies all the components (Visualization space, Elements space, Actors space and Problem space) and interfaces (play, exploration, challenges and engagement). The GAM articulates the process of designing and building educational games, in which the learning objective and storyline are firstly defined to lead to the activities, or actions of the game. Each act needs to achieve specific objectives, tells parts of the story and can consist of one or more scenes. The objective of the fraction game is to order fractions through a story of forming staircases to go up to a tower. Three acts are designed for the game. The objective of Act 1 is to visualize representations of fractions while the objective of Act 2 is to make sense of fraction symbols. The objectives of Act 3 are to partition fractions for the given denominators and to label the fractions. The objectives are implemented through the concrete interfaces of the Visualization space (story line), Elements space (graphics, sound and technology), Actors space (interaction and gestures) and Problem space (visual, logic, mathematical, short-term memory and manipulation) to express the abstract interfaces (critical thinking, discovery, goal formation, goal completion and practice) in the Visualization space, Elements space (fun) and Actors space (drama). 3. Development methodology

3.1 Game resources The fraction game model is developed into a digital game using a software application called Game Maker. The program adopts an intuitive and easy to use drag-and-drop system to enable users to create a simple game quickly without using the complex programming language. Several resources play a crucial role in the program such as objects, sprites, events, actions, sound effects and rooms.

Objects The objects placed in the rooms are the background (the walls), the main character (the boy), fraction bricks (vertical and horizontal), obstacles (enemies), rewards and penalties (window views, friends and enemies). Sprites A sprite is a set of images that create animations on the objects. The main character is the object that moves around and reacts to input from the player (keyboard and mouse). The character can walk to left and right, drag and drop, go up and down, fall down from the staircases, jump up, yell, laugh and cry. Events and actions To define the behaviour of the objects, actions and sound effects can be indicated for various events that happen to objects. For example, when fraction bricks are dragged and dropped, the sound effects are set. The main character can go up to the next floor if correct staircases are formed. Otherwise, the main character will fall down from the staircases and cry. Rooms The game takes place in a number of rooms (refer to Figure 2) where the objects live, namely front page (name and score recording), homepage, key idea, three game themes, two types of game plays for each game level, three difficulties options (easy, normal and hard) and tips for each questions.
Front page Homepage Key idea

Game theme 1

Smallest to largest

Largest to smallest

Easy

Normal

Hard

Easy

Normal

Hard

Tips

Tips

Tips

Tips

Tips

Tips

Figure 2: Game rooms 3.2 Game features Front page Name recording is required at the beginning of the game in order to save the game played and to make the game flexible enough to stop and continue at anytime. The score of the game is displayed when the player exits or ends the game. Name and score recordings ensure the ownership of the game so that the player is responsible for and motivated to continue the game. Homepage

The homepage consists of the menu of the game and icons such as quit, timing, sound, key idea and difficulty levels. The player can select a game theme and type of ordering task (either smallest to largest or largest to smallest) from the menu. The options of timing and sound (on or off) are available too. Key idea The hyperlink of the key idea relates the game to the knowledge and strategies highlighted in the New Zealand Number Framework. For example, at stage five of the New Zealand Number Framework, the student is expected to identify symbols for the most common fractions, including halves, quarters, thirds, fifths, and tenths. Game themes Three game themes are designed with increasing challenges to sustain the interests of the player towards the game. Game Theme I is simple because the player can easily compare the physical sizes of fractions bricks. Game Theme II is slightly more difficult in that the physical sizes of fraction bricks can not be seen. Game Theme III is complicated and the player has to split the bricks in order to form staircases with maximum steps. Difficulty levels A range of difficulty levels is available for the player to choose from, including easy, normal and hard. The below average students can play in an increasing progress from easy to hard levels. The average students review fractions at the easy level, apply their knowledge at the normal level and take the challenge at the hard level. The hard level maintains the interest of the above average students while enabling them to learn more about fractions. Tips A specific tip is prepared for each fraction question. It includes the related strategies of ordering fractions such as divided quantity diagrams, common denominators, numerical conversions and reference points. The strategies are presented through animated graphics and texts in the same way that a teacher gives step by step explanations in the classroom. 4. Pedagogical approaches for the instruction of fractions 4.1 Learning fractions Visualization of fractions The fraction bricks used in the game create an opportunity for students to visualize the representations of fractions. Fraction bricks are rectangles, with the whole being in the same size. As stressed in the concept of equal-whole, two fractions can only be compared when the sizes of the wholes are equal (Yoshida & Sawano, 2002). Visualisation of fractions with the invariance of the whole helps students to understand the order of fractions as quantities rather than as symbols. Limited knowledge of fractional parts is the obstacle that impedes students from carrying out meaningful computation with fractional quantities (Young-Loveridge et al., 2007). Connection of symbols and representations of fractions Manipulation of fraction bricks encourages the player to connect symbols and representations of fractions. Playing with visible fraction bricks makes the player familiar with the fraction sizes. Further, the player is making sense of fraction symbols on invisible fraction bricks before the physical sizes of fraction bricks are showed. When splitting the bricks for the given denominators, for example, denominator three, the player gains the ability to construct

representation of fractions (one third of the whole) and the symbol for the fractions (which is 1 ). 3 Reasoning of strategies Students are encouraged to learn more than one strategy of ordering fractions by referring to the tips while playing the game. Smith III (2002) suggested that students gain the strongest and most durable knowledge of fractions from learning to use different strategies. Normally, students think about fraction order in four basic ways (namely divided quantity diagram , denominator & numerator, reference points and numerical conversion), but the thinking about divided quantities is fundamental to the reasoning of different strategies. Hence, divided quantity diagrams are presented for each fraction question in the game. Resolving misconceptions Playing the fraction game also helps students to resolve their misconceptions of fractions. When the player makes an incorrect order of fractions, immediate and specific feedback is given and an explanation in the tips section is shown. Highlighting and correcting students errors make them more aware of their own misconceptions (Reimer & Moyer, 2005). Similar questions are then posed to assist in retention. 4.2 Teaching aids of fractions Engaging The game can be used to engage students in the lesson of fractions. Visualisation of fractions helps students to gain a concrete understanding of fractions while manipulating fraction bricks allows an active participation of learning. In addition, forming fraction staircases creates a meaningful problem context for fractions. As such, the game provides a hands-on experience that makes the lesson more motivating and successful for students. A manipulative tool Teachers can use the fraction game as a manipulative tool to support childrens partitioning of fractions. Many children struggle to create a correct partition although some of them are able to imagine it. Dividing fraction bricks requires the informal knowledge of equal-partitioning, which is breaking a whole into parts (Streefland, 1993). Being seen as representations of many examples of divided quantities, the game can be used skilfully by teachers to reinforce childrens developing knowledge of fractions (Smith, 2002). Reflecting mathematical thinking Different ways of ordering of fraction bricks by the students reflect their mathematical thinking. This allows teachers to learn more about students strategies. Based on student thinking, teachers can make the instruction more meaningful and engaging for students (Burrill, 1997). Teachers can also view their mathematics teaching iteratively through the eyes of their students (Naiser et al., 2004). Digital teaching Teaching of fractions occurs when explaining various strategies of ordering fractions in the tips section of the game. Digital teaching is performed through dynamic visual images of fractions, written words and numerical symbols. Teaching becomes effective when there is a need for learning from the player in order to win the game.

5.

Conclusions

A basic fraction game model that integrated instructional factors, game elements and students needs was designed for learning fractions. The model is now developed into a digital game involving game resources like objects, sprites, events, actions and rooms. The digital game includes features to fulfil educational needs such as player ownership and flexibility of playing the game, relationship with the New Zealand Number Framework, a range of difficulty levels and various strategies of ordering fractions. To create an interesting yet challenging environment, the game includes three game themes with increasing complexity. Pedagogical approaches of the game for instruction of fractions are considered. Playing the digital fraction game helps students to visualize fractions, connect symbols and representations of fractions, enhance reasoning of strategies and resolve misconceptions. Teachers can use the game to engage learning of fractions, as a manipulative tool, reflect student mathematical thinking and provide effective teaching to students. References: Amory, A. (2007). Game object model version II: A theoretical framework for educational game development. Educational Technology, Research and Development, 55(1), 5177. Behr, M. J., Wachsmuth, I., Post, T. R., & Lesh, R. (1984). Order and equivalence of rational numbers: A clinical teaching experiment. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 15, 323-341. Booker, G. (2004). Playing to win: using games for motivation and the development of mathematical thinking. In A. Rogerson (Ed.). The mathematics education into the the 21st century project: Proceedings of the international conference: The future of mathematics education. Pod Tezniami, Ciechocinek, Poland. Booker, G. (2000). The maths game: Using instructional games to teach mathematics. Wellington: NZCER. Bragg, L. (2007). Students conflicting attitudes towards games as a vehicle for learning mathematics: A methodological dilemma. Mathematics Education Research Journal, 19(1), 29-44. Burrill, G. (1997). Choices and challenges. Teaching Children Mathematics, 4, 58-63. Fisher, J., & Neill, A. (2007). Exploratory study of home-school partnership: Numeracy. In Findings from the New Zealand Numeracy Development Project 2006. Wellington: Ministry of Education. Gueron, S. (2001). A game-like activity for learning Cantors theorem. The College Mathematics Journal, 32, 122-125. Holton, D., (2006). Foreword. In Findings from the New Zealand Numeracy Development Projects 2005. Wellington: Learning Media.

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