Electrical Fundamentals PDF

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Automotive Technology: Principles, Diagnosis, and Service, 3rd Edition By James D. Halderman 2008 2009 Pearson Pearson Education, Education, Inc. Inc. Pearson Pearson Prentice Prentice Hall Hall -Upper Upper Saddle Saddle River, River, NJ NJ 07458 07458
OBJECTIVES:
After studying Chapter 31, the reader should be able to:
Prepare for ASE Electrical/Electronic Systems

(A6) certification test content area A (General Electrical/Electronic System Diagnosis). Define electricity. Explain the units of electrical measurement. Discuss the relationship among volts, amperes, and ohms. Explain how magnetism is used in automotive applications.
Automotive Technology: Principles, Diagnosis, and Service, 3rd Edition By James D. Halderman
2008 2009 Pearson Pearson Education, Education, Inc. Inc. Pearson Pearson Prentice Prentice Hall Hall -Upper Upper Saddle Saddle River, River, NJ NJ 07458 07458
KEY TERMS:
ammeter amperes atom bound electrons concentric rings conductors conventional theory coulomb current electrical potential electricity electrochemistry electrons electron theory elements electromotive force (EMF) free electrons insulators ion neutral charge neutrons nucleus ohmmeter ohms
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KEY TERMS:
peltier effect photoelectricity piezoelectricity positive temperature coefficient (PTC) potentiometer protons resistance resistors rheostat semiconductors shells static electricity thermocouple thermoelectricity valence shell volt voltmeter watt
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The electrical system is one of the most important systems in a vehicle today. Every year, more and more components and systems use electricity. Technicians who really know and understand automotive electrical and electronic systems will be in great demand.
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ELECTRICITY
Our universe is composed of matter, anything that has mass and occupies space. All matter is made from slightly over 100 individual components called elements. The smallest particle that an element can be broken into and still retain the properties of that element is known as an atom.
Figure 311 In an atom (left), electrons orbit protons in the nucleus just as planets orbit the sun in our solar system (right).
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Electricity is the movement of electrons from one atom to another. The dense center of each atom is called the nucleus. The nucleus contains protons, which have positive charge, and neutrons, electrically neutral (no charge). Electrons surround the nucleus in orbits. Each atom contains an equal number of electrons and protons. Because the number of negative-charged electrons is balanced with the same number of positive-charged protons, an atom has a neutral charge (no charge). NOTE: As an example of relative sizes of parts of an atom, consider that
if an atom were magnified so that the nucleus were the size of the period at the end of this sentence, the whole atom would be bigger than a house.
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Positive and Negative Charges Parts of the atom have different charges. Orbiting electrons are negatively charged, protons positively charged. Positive charges are indicated by the plus sign (+), and negative charges by the minus sign (). These same + and signs are used to identify parts of an electrical circuit. Neutrons have no charge at all. They are neutral.
Figure 312 The nucleus of an atom has a positive () charge and the surrounding electrons have a negative () charge.
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In a normal, or balanced, atom, the number of negative particles equals the number of positive particles. The number of neutrons varies according to the type of atom.
Figure 313 This figure shows a balanced atom.
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An ordinary magnet has two ends, or poles. One end is the south pole, and the other the north pole. If the opposite poles of the magnets are brought close to each other, south to north, the magnets will snap together because unlike poles attract each other. If two magnets are brought close to each other with like poles together (south to south or north to north), the magnets will push each other apart. This is because like poles repel each other.
Figure 314 Unlike charges attract and like charges repel.

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Positive and negative charges within an atom are like north and south poles of a magnet. Charges that are alike will repel each other, which is why the negative electrons continue to orbit around the positive protons. They are attracted and held by the opposite charge of the protons. The electrons keep moving in orbit because they repel each other. When an atom loses electrons, it becomes unbalanced. It will have more protons than electrons and will have a positive charge. If it gains more electrons than protons, it will be negatively charged. When an atom is not balanced, it becomes a charged particle called an ion. Ions try to regain balance of equal protons and electrons by exchanging electrons with neighboring atoms. See Figure 315. This is the flow of electric current or electricity.
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Figure 315 An unbalanced, positively charged atom (ion) will attract electrons from neighboring atoms.
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Electron Shells Orbit around the nucleus in definite paths. These paths form shells, like concentric rings, around the nucleus. Only a specific number of electrons can orbit within each shell. If there are too many electrons for the first and closest shell to the nucleus, others will orbit in additional shells until all electrons have an orbit within a shell. There can be as many as seven shells around a single nucleus.
Figure 316 The hydrogen atom is the simplest atom, with only one proton, one neutron, and one electron. More complex elements contain higher numbers of protons, neutrons, and electrons. Continued
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Free and Bound Electrons The outermost electron shell or ring, called the valence shell, is the most important to our study of electricity. The number of electrons in this shell determines the valence of the atom and indicates its capacity to combine with other atoms. If the valence ring of an atom has three or fewer electrons in it, the ring has room for more. The electrons are held very loosely, and it is easy for a drifting electron to join the ring and push another electron away. These loosely held electrons are called free electrons. When a valence ring has five or more electrons, it is fairly full. The electrons are held tightly, and it is hard for a drifting electron to push its way into the ring. These tightly held electrons are called bound electrons. See Figures 317 and 318.
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The movement of these drifting electrons is called current. Electric current is controlled, directed movement of electrons from atom to atom within a conductor.
Figure 318 Electrons in the outer orbit, or shell, can often be drawn away from the atom and become free electrons.
Figure 317 As the number of electrons increases, they occupy increasing energy levels that are further from the center of the atom.
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Conductors Materials with fewer than four electrons in their atoms outer orbit are Conductors. Copper is excellent as a conductor because it has only one electron in its outer orbit. This orbit is far enough away from the nucleus of the atom that the pull or force holding the outermost electron in orbit is relatively weak.
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Figure 319 A conductor is any element that has one to three electrons in its outer orbit.
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Figure 3110 Copper is an excellent conductor of electricity because it has just one electron in its outer orbit, making it easy to be knocked out of its orbit and flow to other nearby atoms. This causes electron flow, which is the definition of electricity.
Copper is the conductor most used in vehicles because the price of copper is reasonable compared to the relative cost of other conductors with similar properties.
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Is Water a Conductor?
Pure water is an insulator; however, if anything is in the water, such as salt or dirt, then the water becomes conductive. Because it is difficult to keep water from becoming contaminated, water is usually thought of as being capable of conducting electricity, especially high voltage such as from household 110-volt or 220-volt outlets.
Insulators The protons and neutrons in the nucleus are held together very tightly. Normally the nucleus does not change. Some outer electrons are held very loosely, and can move from one atom to another. Some materials hold their electrons very tightly; electrons do not move through them very well. These materials are called insulators.
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Insulators are materials with more than four electrons in their atoms outer orbit. Because they have more than four electrons, it becomes easier for these materials to acquire (gain) electrons than to release electrons. Insulators include plastics, wood, glass, rubber, ceramics (spark plugs), and varnish for covering (insulating) copper wires in alternators and starters.
Figure 3111 Insulators are elements with five to eight electrons in the outer orbit.
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Figure 3112 Semiconductor elements contain exactly four electrons in the outer orbit.
Semiconductors Materials with exactly four electrons in their outer orbit are neither conductors nor insulators; they are called semiconductor materials.
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How Electrons Move Through a Conductor If an outside source of power, such as a battery, is connected to the ends of a conductor, a positive charge (lack of electrons) is placed on one end of the conductor and a negative charge is placed on the opposite end of the conductor. The negative charge will repel the free electrons from the atoms of the conductor, whereas the positive charge on the opposite end of the conductor will attract electrons. As a result of this attraction of opposite charges and repulsion of like charges, electrons will flow through the conductor.
Figure 3113 Current electricity is the movement of electrons through a conductor.

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Conventional Theory versus Electron Theory It was once thought that electricity had only one charge and moved from positive to negative. This theory of the flow of electricity through a conductor is called the conventional theory of current flow. Discovery of the electron and its negative charge led to the electron theory, which states there is electron flow from negative to positive. This book uses the conventional theory unless stated otherwise.
Figure 3114 Conventional theory states that current flows through a circuit from positive (+) to negative (-). Automotive electricity uses the conventional theory in all electrical diagrams and schematics.
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Amperes The ampere is the unit used to measure current flow. When 6.28 billion billion electrons (a coulomb) move past a certain point in 1 second, this represents 1 ampere of current. The ampere is the electrical unit for amount of electron flow just as gallons per minute is the unit used to measure water flow. The ampere was named for the French electrician Andr Marie Ampre (17751836).
Figure 3115 One ampere is the movement of 1 coulomb (6.28 billion billion electrons) past a point in 1 second.
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Conventional abbreviations and measurement for amperes are summarized as follows: 1. The ampere is the unit of measurement for the amount of current flow. 2. Acceptable abbreviations for amperes are A and amps. 3. The capital letter I, for intensity, is used in mathematical calculations to represent amperes. 4. Amperes are measured by an ammeter (not ampmeter).
Figure 3116 An ammeter is installed in the path of the electrons similar to a water meter used to measure the flow of water in gallons per minute. the ammeter displays current flow in amperes.
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Volts The volt is the unit of measurement for electrical pressure. Named for Alessandro Volta (17451827), an Italian physicist. The comparable unit using water as an example would be pounds per square inch (psi). It is possible to have very high pressures (volts) and low water flow (amperes). It is also possible to have high water flow (amperes) and low pressure (volts). Voltage is also called electrical potential, because if there is voltage present in a conductor, there is a potential (possibility) for current flow. Voltage does not flow through conductors, but voltage does cause current (in amperes) to flow through conductors.
Figure 3117 Voltage is the electrical pressure that causes the electrons to flow through a conductor.
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The conventional abbreviations and measurement for voltage are: 1. 2. 3. 4. Volt is the measurement for amount of electrical pressure. Another term for voltage is Electromotive force, (EMF). The letter V is the generally accepted abbreviation for volts. The symbol used in calculations is E, for electromotive force. 5. Volts are measured with a voltmeter.
Figure 3118 This digital multimeter set to read DC volts is being used to test the voltage of a vehicle battery. Most multimeters can also measure resistance (ohms) and current flow (amperes).
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Ohms Resistance to the flow of current through a conductor is measured in units called ohms, named after the German physicist Georg Simon Ohm (17871854). The resistance to the flow of free electrons through a conductor results from the countless collisions the electrons cause within the atoms of the conductor.
Figure 3119 Resistance to the flow of electrons through a conductor is measured in ohms.
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Conventional abbreviations and measurement for resistance are: 1. The ohm is the unit of measurement for electrical resistance. 2. The symbol for ohms is (Greek capital letter omega), the last letter of the Greek alphabet. 3. The symbol used in calculations is R, for resistance. 4. Ohms are measured with an ohmmeter.
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Figure 3120 A display at the Henry Ford Museum in Dearborn, Michigan, that includes a handcranked generator and a series of light bulbs. This figure shows a young man attempting to light as many bulbs as possible. The crank gets harder to turn as more bulbs light because it requires more power to produce the necessary watts of electricity.
Watts A watt is the electrical unit for power, the capacity to do work. Named for Scottish inventor, James Watt (1736 1819).
The symbol for power is P. Electrical power is calculated as amperes times volts: P (power) = I (amperes) E (volts)
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SOURCES OF ELECTRICIY
There are several sources of electrical energy, but only a few of them are used in automotive electrical systems. Friction When certain different materials are rubbed together, the friction causes electrons to be transferred from one to the other. Both materials become electrically charged. These charges are not in motion but stay on the surface where they were deposited. Because the charges are stationary, or static, this type of voltage is called static electricity. Vehicle tires rolling on pavement often create static electricity that interferes with radio reception.
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Heat When pieces of two metals are joined together at both ends and one junction is heated, current passes through the metals. Only millionths of an ampere, but enough to use in a temperaturemeasuring device called a thermocouple.
Figure 3121 Electron flow is produced by heating the connection of two different metals.
Some engine temperature sensors operate in this manner. This form of voltage is called thermoelectricity.
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In 1823, German physicist Thomas Johann Seebeck discovered that voltage was developed in a loop containing two dissimilar metals, provided the junctions were maintained at different temperatures. A decade later, French scientist Jean Charles Peltier found electrons moving through a solid can carry heat from one side of the material to the other side. This effect is called the Peltier effect. A Peltier effect device is often used in portable coolers to keep food items cool if the current flows in one direction and to keep items warm if the current flows in reverse.
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Light In 1839, Edmond Becquerel noticed that shining a beam of sunlight over two different liquids developed electric current. When certain metals are exposed to light, some light energy is transferred to free electrons of the metal. This excess energy breaks electrons loose from the metal. They can be collected and made to flow in a conductor. Photoelectricity is widely used in lightmeasuring devices such as photographic exposure meters and automatic headlamp dimmers.
Figure 3122 Electron flow is produced by light striking a light-sensitive material.
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Pressure The first demonstration of a connection between macroscopic piezoelectric phenomena and crystallographic structure was published in 1880 by Pierre and Jacques Curie. When subjected to pressure, certain crystals, such as quartz, develop a potential difference, or voltage, on the crystal faces. This current is used in phonograph pickups, crystal microphones, underwater hydrophones, and certain stethoscopes. The voltage created is called piezoelectricity. Some automobile engine control sensors, such as the knock sensor (KS), use piezoelectricity to create voltage or to vary resistance and control a computer input signal.
Figure 3123 Electron flow is produced by pressure on certain crystals.
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Chemistry Two different materials (usually metals) placed in a conducting and reactive chemical solution create a difference in potential, or voltage, between them. This principle is called electrochemistry and is the basis of the automotive battery. Conductors and Resistance All conductors have some resistance to current flow. Several principles of conductors and their resistance include the following: If the conductor length is doubled, its resistance doubles This is why battery cables are designed as short as possible. If the conductor diameter is increased, resistance is reduced This is the reason starter motor cables are larger in diameter than other wiring in the vehicle. See Chapter 7 for further details on wiring sizes.
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As the temperature increases, the resistance of the conductor also increases This is the reason for installing heat shields on some starter motors. The shield helps protect the conductors (copper wiring inside the starter) from excessive engine heat and reduces resistance of starter circuits. Because a conductor increases in resistance with increased temperature, the conductor is called a positive temperature coefficient (PTC) resistor. Materials used in the conductor have an impact on its resistance Silver has the lowest resistance of any conductor, but is expensive. Copper is the next lowest in resistance and it is reasonably priced. See the following chart for a comparison of materials.
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CONDUCTION CHART
Starting with the best
1. Silver 2. Copper 3. Gold 4. Aluminum 5. Tungsten 6. Zinc
7. Brass (copper and zinc) 8. Platinum 9. Iron 10. Nickel 11. Tin 12. Steel 13. Lead
See this chart on Page 323 of your textbook.

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Resistors Resistance is opposition to current flow. Resistors represent an electrical load, or resistance, to current flow.
Figure 3124 This figure shows a resistor color code interpretation.

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Most electrical and electronic devices use resistors of specific values to limit and control the flow of current. Resistors can be made from carbon or from other materials that restrict the flow of electricity and are available in various sizes and resistance values. Most resistors have a series of painted color bands around them. These color bands are coded to indicate the degree of resistance.
Figure 3125 This figure shows a typical carbon resistor.
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Variable Resistors Two types of mechanically operated variable resistors are used in automotive applications. A potentiometer is a three-terminal variable resistor where the majority of the current flow travels through the resistance of the unit and a wiper contact provides a variable voltage output.
Figure 3126 A three-wire variable resistor is called a potentiometer.
Potentiometers are most commonly used as throttle position (TP) sensors on computer-equipped engines. Continued
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Another type of mechanically operated variable resistor is the rheostat. A rheostat is a two-terminal unit in which all of the current flows through the movable arm. A rheostat is commonly used for a dash light dimmer control.
Figure 3127 A two-wire variable resistor is called a rheostat.

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SUMMARY
1. Electricity is movement of electrons from one atom to another. 2. Automotive electricity uses the conventional theory of current flow (electricity flows from positive to negative). 3. The ampere is the measure of the amount of current flow. 4. Voltage is the unit of electrical pressure. 5. The ohm is the unit of electrical resistance. 6. Sources of electricity include: friction, heat, light, pressure, and chemical.
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Prepare for ASE Electrical/Electronic Systems

Figure 313 This figure shows a balanced atom.

Figure 314 Unlike charges attract and like charges repel.

Figure 3113 Current electricity is the movement of electrons through a conductor.

1. Silver 2. Copper 3. Gold 4. Aluminum 5. Tungsten 6. Zinc

See this chart on Page 323 of your textbook.

Figure 3124 This figure shows a resistor color code interpretation.

Figure 3125 This figure shows a typical carbon resistor.

Figure 3126 A three-wire variable resistor is called a potentiometer.

Figure 3127 A two-wire variable resistor is called a rheostat.

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