CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 The Background of Karo Society The Karo highland is mostly known as the place of Karo society to live. Although the bigger number of Karonese live outside the regency, the traditional custom of Karo people can be found in the Karo highland. Actually, the kinship in Karo society is very strong and it is caused by the existence of tutur (the way of being acquaintance with someone) dealing with Merga Silima (the five clans). The way of behaving of Karo society in their daily life be oriented to the ancestor idea, that is: Merga Silima (the five clans), Tutur Siwaluh, Rakut Sitelu. Rakut means string or a bundle, and Si telu means three. So, Rakut Sitelu means three bundles or strings, they are: 1) Kalimbubu 2) Senina 3) Anak Beru Tutur Siwaluh is an orientation for Karo society in communication with their peers.

2.1.2 The Structure of Karo Society The principal of live that is a tradition custom implementation is held by the Karo society. At the time, the highest social class was not existed, and a certain thing which related to the importance of living together is settled and involved the society. Such a thing is caused the strings which has a big function of

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family relationship and custom prevails. It has three difference of Karo society group, they are: 1) Bangsa Tanah or Anak Taneh Bangsa taneh is previous group of family (the native person), that occupied such sphere of land and afterwards become the village founder and one in authority of land in sphere of village. This group is based on the society view of live and custom has high position, so that the society respect them because of their position in Kuta or village. 2) Ginemgem Ginemgem is a group of society that occupied such sphere of village, but they were not a previous group. This group is considered as a group which is approved by bangsa taneh. Commonly, they are involved living together, moved from the previous places and still have relation with bangsa tenah. 3) Rakyat Derip Rakyat Derip is categorized as a common society who lived in one village as the ordinary people. According to the history, they are immigrants and lived permanently in one village based on the agreement of bangsa taneh. They did not have family relationship with bangsa taneh excepted tutur or clan relationship. Moreover, it is caused by the people who married with rakyat derip or ginemgem and it can defend their position. It also must be appropriated by the tradition.

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2.1.3 The System of kinship Pertuturen is one of acquaintanceship process in making a relationship between one and another become, and the most important thing is they will know about their lineage. According to the culture, a man and woman who has the same sub clan can not get married. As mention that pertuturen is a process of introducing ourselves to the others by mentioning Merga or Beru and Bere-bere. To get a genetic relationship whether it was based on the blood relation or the marriage relationship. The three kinds of the genetic relationship or kinship are: Kalimbubu Senina Anak Beru

1) Kalimbubu Kalimbubu means those who are from the brides families and relatives. It is believed according to Karonese tradition, Kalimbubu are the representative of God in the world so they are respected by Anak Beru. In Karo society, the marriage is not merely individual case, but it is also a family problem. When someone gets married with another person, he a she is notonly himself or herself belong to the husbands or wifes family but their relatives are also included. In other words, the marriage means connecting two big families and strengthen the relationship between two families. Kalimbubu is a group of brides family and this particular group must be respected. If there are something wrong and this particular group must be respected. If there are something wrong done by their anak beru, they will get bad effects. They will not have good harvest or perhaps misfortune will hold on

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them. This case is usually known from the magician or fortune teller. To avoid the bad effects towards anak beru, there is a special ceremony in which they ask Kalimbubus forgiveness which is called Nabei. This means that Anak Beru have to give or to put on traditional cloth to Kalimbubu and then asking for an apology what they have done and as usual, their mistakes or errors will be forgiven. They last will eat together. Kalimbubu are considered as the wise people. As it is explained above the Karonese societies consider that Kalimbubu are deputy of God in the world and have duties as follow: To solve the problems done by their Anak beru. In this case, Kalimbubu can force their own will if the groups who have the conflict are still obstinate or stubborn according to their judgment. There are several kinds of Kalimbubu, they are: A. Kalimbubu Tua B. Kalimbubu Bena-bena C. Kalimbubu Simupus D. Kalimbubu Siperdemui E. Kalimbubu Simbuyak F. Puang Kalimbubu A. Kalimbubu Tua Kalimbubu Tua are Kalimbubu of ancestors who joined to build the village long time ago. They are the leaders of all Kalimbubu

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In traditional ceremonies, Kalimbubu Tua will get the important places such as: to be the first person in dancing; to put fire place on entering the new house. B. Kalimbubu Bena-bena Kalimbubu Bena-bena are Kalimbubu of grandfather, including their family, children and lineage. C. Kalimbubu Simupus Kalimbubu Simupus are Kalimbubu of father, includes his families and his children. D. Kalimbubu Siperdemui Kalimbubu siperdemui is directly kalimbubu because of his daughters married. In this case includes father, close relatives and children. E. Kalimbubu Simbuyak Kalimbubu sembuyak are kalimbubu who come from brothers who get married with other families. F. Puang Kalimbubu Puang Kalimbubu are kalimbubu of our kalimbubu

2) Senina Senina is a term which has two meanings. They are special and general meanings. In special meaning senina is limited in a certain lineage from one clan. In this case, it is called senina sembuyak means brothers or sisters who have the same family (Ginting Suka and Ginting Suka, Tarigan sibero and

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Tarigan sibero, etc). While in general meaning senina are those who have the same surename but different lineage, for instance: Ginting Suka, Ginting Manik, Ginting Munthe, Ginting Sugihen, etc. Tarigan Sibero, Tarigan Silangit, Tarigan Tua, etc.

3) Anak Beru Anak Beru consists of many clans or lineages: it is similar as kalimbubu. Anak beru has also many divisions among others: A. Anak Beru Ipupus Anak beru ipupus are anak beru who have blood ties or families ties. They are anak beru before the marriage takes place. B. Anak Beru Langkip Anak beru langkip mean anak beru who arise from a new marriage which does not have family relationship between bridegrooms side and brides side. They are related by emas perdemun (dowry). C. Anak Beru Tua Anak beru tua are the oldest of anak beru. It means that they are the first anak beru of the ancestor of family and their descendants also belong to anak beru tua continuously. The position of this anak beru is very high in Karonese tradition because a meeting can not be started before the attendance. D. Anak Beru Menteri Anak beru menteri are anak beru of our anak beru.

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2.2 Nganting Manuk In Indonesia, there are about hundreds of traditional ceremonies. One of them that we can find in North Sumatera, as a province in Indonesia, it is the traditional ceremony in Karo customs. Karo customs can be divided into marriage, funeral, and birth ceremony. Nganting Manuk is one of the phases in Marriage ceremony. The phase of Nganting Manuk is usually held at night by the wedding day. At that time the relatives of the bride discuss the preparation for the wedding day and to continue the discussion when Ngembah Belo Selambar that has not finished yet. In this phase, the relatives will ask the couple whether they are seriously to marry and the relatives of the groom will pay the dowry to the relatives of the bride. The discussion will be leaded by each of Anak Beru from the both sides. Anak Beru, as the mediator to say the result of discussion and to be the speaker to their Kalimbubu. Nganting Manuk can be done in Jambur (a building for party) or in the house of the bride. All the relatives sit on the mattress that has been prepared. Before the discussion started, all the relatives from the both sides having dinner together. But, both of sides; the relatives of the groom and the relatives of the bride sit in the different mattress and sit opposite. They are divided into two groups, and sit according to the term of kinship. For example, all Anak Beru sit together, kalimbubu with kalimbubu, etc. the discussion can not be started if the exact people are not complete. Such as: From the bride: 1. Bapa Nande (sukut): Her Parents

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2. Sembuyak (sipempoken, senina): all brothers of the girls 3. Anak Beru tua: to be a speaker 4. Kepala Kampung: the headman of the village 5. Kalimbubu Singalo Ulu Emas: brother of brides mother

From the groom 1. Bapa Nande (sukut): His parents 2. Senina: all brothers of the boy 3. Anak Beru Tua: the speaker 4. Kalimbubu Boys side introduces to the right and left side in that meeting by their anak beru while checking whether all important people have been present or not. When it is okay the topic can be continued later. All of them will be called and sit in the special mattress. Before the conversation started, they delivery five Kampil that contain of betle leaves, cigarettes and the matches. Kampil in this case as a sign of honorable according to Karo customs. The Kampil must be prepared by Anak Beru of the groom and given to Kalimbubu of the bride.

2.3 Relevant of Study In order to support the ideas of the analysis, some books had been consulted that contains some important information related to the analysis based on the sociolinguistic. Some of the related analysis are as follows:

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1. Halliday and Hasan (1976:8) state that cohesion is a semantic relation between one element in the text and some other elements that is crucial to the interpretation of it. The location of these some other elements in the text are no way determined by grammatical structure. The two elements, the presupposing and the presupposed, maybe structurally related to each other, or they may not; it makes no difference to the meaning of cohesive relation. 2. Bloor (1995) which is not much different to Halliday and Hasans, explains about cohesive ties in texts. He classified cohesion into four main types: reference, ellipsis and lexical cohesion. He further explains the relationship between grammar and text. A text has textual components of the grammar, lexical cohesion is a part of cohesive components. 3. Gutwinsky (1976:26) in Tarigan state that, Kohesi merupakan organisasi sintaktik, merupakan wadah kalimat-kalimat disusun secara padu dan dapat untuk menghasilkan tuturan. Juga kohesi adalah hubungan antar kalimat didalam wacana, baik dalam strata gramatikal maupun strata leksikal tertentu.

I also consult some thesis that relevant to my analysis, they are: 1. Whardhani Irma (1997) has also analyzed the text of the discourse in Minangkabau Traditional Wedding Ceremony in terms of cohesive ties encompassing grammatical cohesion (reference, substitution and ellipsis), lexical cohesion (re-iteration and collocation) and conjunction (additive,

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adversative, clausal and temporal). She found that all the cohesive ties occur in the text especially grammatical cohesion (reference) and lexical cohesion. 2. Novayanti (1994) has analyzed that cohesive analysis; especially the reference is applicable to the analysis of scientific texts. She analyzed the cohesion in discourse; reference, substitution, ellipsis, conjunction and lexical cohesion in discourse, and found that reference, as one type of cohesion exists in different types of text, such as narrative, poetic and even scientific text..

2.4 Definition of Discourse

Discourse analysis discusses how the language users understand the text books, and know what the speakers want to convey orally in the conversation, or know which sentences are coherent or uncoherent and successfully act in the complicated activity called conversation. A few decades ago, discourse analysis took off as a subject in linguistics. Before its existence, linguistics focused its analysis on sentence. Each streams in linguistics such as Traditionalism, Structuralism, Generative Transformational Grammar, etc. tried to analyse language based on their opinions, but never gave satisfaction results since when they analysed a sentence, they never consider the context of the sentence. In 1952, a famous linguist, Z.S. Harris, expressed his dissatisfaction in the sentence grammar by publishing his famous article entitle Discourse Analysis in Language magazine. Since then discourse analysis is began to know. The

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word discourse was derived from Latin discursus which means run up and down. Some linguists gave several definition of discourse to make it understood by the reader. They are: Linde (1981: 85) in H.G. Tarigan says Discourse is a natural unit with a clear beginning and ending, and also a number of internal structure. Edmunson (1981:4) in H.G. Tarigan says Discourse is a structural event manifested in Linguistic behavior (or others) whereas a text is an arrangement of structural linguistic expressions which forms a unity. Stubbs (1983 1) in his book says Roughly speaking discourse analysis refers to attempt to study the organization of language above the sentence or above the clause and therefore to study larger linguistics units such as conversational exchanges or written texts. Desse (1984 : 72) in H.G. Tarigan says, Discourse is a set of propositions which are related to one another to creat a sense of unity or a sense of cohesion to the reader or listener. The unity or the sense of cohesion itself must come from the content of discourse, but most of it appear through the conveyance of the discourse Carlson (1983: XII-XIV) in H.G. Tarigan says that discourse is a stretches of continuous utterances (a sequence of individual sentences). So, it doesnt only consist of utterances or sentences which are grammatically well formed. Kridalaksana (1984: 208) says, Wacana (discourse) adalah satuan bahasa terlengkap; dalam hierarki grammatical merupakan satuan gramtikal tertinggi atau terbesar. Wacana ini direalisasikan dalam bentuk yang utuh

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(novel, buku, seri, ensiklopedia dan sebagainya, paragraph, kalimat atau kata yang membawa amanat yang lengkap. From the definition above we could see the similarities and the differences of the discourse based on the linguists opinions. There are some important elements that we can get from these definitions, i.e. discourse is: Language unit The most complete/ the highest Above the sentence or clause Tied well or coherence Continuity Sense of unity or cohesion Written or spoken Clear beginning and ending

2.5 The Function of Discourse Principally, discourse analysis has double function or targets, i.e.: a) to describe the texts in such away in order to make us easy to say something that is useful about the texts individually and also the group of texts. b) To produce a discourse theory. Referring to the first function, we assume that if we describe a text, we can compare the text or part of the text easily in such away in order to get the differences and the similarities. In other words, it can show as much about the differences and the similarities.

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If we describe a literary text, we deserve to show rightly what the characteristics of the text and join the characteristics with the literary intuitions. When we describe a classroom discourse we should compare the differences and the similarities in discourse structure with the difference and similarities in the teaching method. We should realize that the statement about discourse structure just based on one linear structure for every unit does not allow us to get a view about kinds of similarities and differences they have. In connection to the second target, we are convinced that if someone establishes a discourse theory, one of the main direction is to predict the distribution of surface forms, to descend and create grammatical discourse forms and to stem or prevent the ungrammatical forms. Here again the approach is based on one linear structure that gives us the limit to make someone successfully directed easily.

2.6 The Concept of Cohesion

2.6.1 Cohesion Gutwinsky (1976:26) in Tarigan Says, Kohesi merupakan organisasi sintaktik, merupakan wadah kalimat-kalimat disusun secara padu dan dapat untuk menghasilkan tuturan. Juga kohesi adalah hubungan antar kalimat didalam wacana, baik dalam strata gramatikal maupun strata leksikal tertentu. To understand a discourse well, a good knowledge and mastery of cohesion is also needed, which does not only depends on our knowledge about reality and thinking process, known as syntactic process of drawing conclusion.

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Cohesion can be said as the formal aspect of language. In discourse or text or part of the system of a language.

Halliday and Hasan (1976: 4) says The concept of cohesion is a semantic one; it refers to relations of meaning that exist within the text, and that define it as a text. Cohesion occurs where the interpretation of some element in the discourse is depend on that of another. The one presupposes the other, in the sense that cannot be effectively decoded except by recourse to it. When this happens, a relation of cohesion is set up, and the two elements, the presupposing and the presupposed are there by at least potentially into a text.

In the example [3.4] the word them presupposes for its interpretation something other than itself. This requirement is met by the two balls in the preceding sentence. The presupposition, and the fact that the interpretation is resolved, provided cohesion between the two sentences and in so doing create a text. Cohesion is expressed partly through the grammar and partly through the vocabulary. In general, we can divide cohesion into three major types, namely: Grammatical cohesion Lexical cohesion Conjunction

Reference, substitution, and ellipsis are clearly grammatical, in that they involved closed systems: simple options of presence or absence, and systems such as those of person, number, proximity, and degree of comparison.

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Lexical cohesion is, as the name implies, lexical; it involves a kind of choice that is open ended; the selection of a lexical item that is in same way related to one occurring previously. Conjunction is on the borderline elements can probably the lexical; the set of conjunctive elements can probably the interpreted grammatically in terms of systems, but such an interpretation would be fairly complex, and some conjunctive expressions involve lexical selection as well.

2.6.2 Types of cohesion Halliday and Hasan in their book Cohesion in English outline various kinds of cohesion, that is: Grammatical cohesion includes: reference, substitution, en ellipsis. Lexical cohesion includes: reiteration and collocation. Conjunction includes: additive, adversative, clausal, and temporal.

2.6.3 Grammatical Cohesion As we have discussed, grammatical cohesion includes reference, substitution, and ellipsis. Grammatical cohesion can occur if the source for cohesion interpretation lies within the text, then a cohesion of the type discussed above is established. The establishment of such a creates cohesion. This is what we call grammatical cohesion.

2.6.4 Reference According to Halliday, reference is the relation between an element of the text and something else by reference to which is interpreted in the given instance.

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Reference also is a semantic relation. Since the relationship is on semantic level, the reference item is in no way constrained to match the grammatical class of the item it refers to. But what must are the semantic properties. According to the location of the interpretation, reference can be classified into two parts, namely : exophoric and endophoric reference. Exophoric reference happens where their interpretation lies outside a text, in the context of situation. Exophoric reference plays no part in textual cohesion. Endophoric reference happens if the interpretation lies within the text and from cohesion within text. Exophora is not simply a synonym for referential meaning. Lexical items like John, or tree, or run have referential meaning in that, they are names for somethings: object, class of objects, process, and the like. An exophora, however, is one which does not name anything. It signals that reference must be made to the context of situation Example: I had made a toy. Lets play it The word it here refers to a toy and it is called anaphoric relation. But the specificity is conferred by the reference relation. Since this involves identity, a toy, thereby becomes the toy,. i.e. the toy that was just mentioned and specified in the process, so here the toy that I made.

Look another example: Lets play it. The toy that I had made.

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The word it; here refers forward to a toy, and it is said to be cataphoric relation. Here we will look at the table of reference based on Halliday and Hasans book. Table1 : Reference
Personal Existential Referential I, You We, He She, It They, One who what specific pronouns Possesive mine, yours ours, his, hers, (its), theirs. whose Demontrative

interogative

my, your, our, his, her, its, their, one's whose specific determiners

the this, these, that, those which, what

2.6.4.1 Personal Reference Personal reference is reference by means of function in the speech situation, through the category of person. Lets see the table of personal reference below: Table 2 : Personal Reference

Semantic category Grammatical function Class Persons: Speaker (only) Addressee(s), with/without Speaker and other person(s) Other person, male Other person, female Other persons, object Object; passage of text Generalized person

Existential Head noun (pronoun) I me you we us he him she her they, them it one

Possessive Modifier determiner mine yours ours his hers theirs [its] my your our his her their its one's

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There is a distinction to be made between the speech role (first and second person) and the other roles (third person). Only the third person is inherently cohesion. A third person from typically refers anaphorically to a preceding item in the text. First and second person forms do not normally refer to the text at all. Their referent are defined by the speech roles of speaker and hearer. They are typically exophoric. They referent to the situation. The first and second person forms refer to the situation, whereas the third person refers anaphorically or cataphorically to the text. The category of personal includes the three classes of personal pronouns, possessive pronoun, possessive determiners (possessive adjective) and possessive pronouns. There is no general name for this category in the traditional grammar, because the member of it belongs to a different classes with diverse structural roles; but in fact they represent a single system, that is person.

2.6.4.2 Demonstrative Reference Demonstrative reference is essentially a form of a verbal pointing. The speaker identifies the referent by locating it on a scale of proximity. Here is the table of Demonstrative reference. Table 3: Demonstrative reference Semantic category Grammaticalfunction Class Proximity: Near Far Neutral
Selective Modifier/Head Adjunct determiner adverb this those that those here (now) there then the Non-selective Modifier determiner

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The circumstance (adverbial) demonstrative such as here, there, now, and then refer to a location of a process in space and time. They typically function as adjunct in the clause. Like personal, the demonstrative regularly refer exphorically to something within the context of situation.

Example: Leave that there and come here! But we are concerned here with exophoric because it is not textually cohesion. In general this, these, and here imply proximity to the speaker; that, those and there, imply distance from the speaker, which may or may not involved proximity to the addressee.

For example:

a)

That car seems more expensive (as modifier) That is an expensive car (as head)

b)

I like the teddy bear and I like the Barbie. These are my favorites. These are my favorites, too.

The definite article the has usually been set apart, as a unique member of a class, its only relative being the indefinite article a. unlike the selective demonstrative (this, these, and here), the can never refer forward cohesively. It can only refer to a modifying element within the same nominal group as itself.

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Example : a) The man who loves me. b) The bigger city. c) The party in power. d) The best way to be a number one.

2.6.4.3 Comparative Reference Comparative reference is indirect reference by means of identity or similarity. Lets take a look at table of comparative reference below: Table 4: Comparative reference Grammatical function
Modifier: Deitic/Ephitet (see below) adjective same identical equal similar additional Submodifier/Adjunct

Class General comparison: Identity General similarity

adverb identically similarly likewise so such differently otherwise so more less equally

Difference similarity)

(ie

non-identity

or

other different else

Particular comparison

better, more etc [comparative adjectives and quantifiers]

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