S.K. Bhaumik
Failure Analysis & Accident Investigation Group, Materials Science Division
National Aerospace Laboratories, Bangalore 560 017
E-mail: subir@css.nal.res.in
1. Introduction
Failures and accidents are unavoidable events in the service life of any engineering
component or system, however small the probability is. While failure is an undesirable
event in the service life of an ordinary component or structure, an aircraft or industrial
accident is totally unacceptable since, unlike the former where it is more of an
inconvenience, the latter may also lead to loss of life. While it is desirable to analyse all
failures, it becomes mandatory to analyse failures and accidents in critical, high
technology areas. Systematic failure investigation uncovers the cause or causes leading
to the failure of the component so that remedial measures can be initiated to prevent the
recurrence of similar failures. Failure analysis, therefore, leads to better reliability of the
component or system.
Failure represents an adverse situation wherein a component or assembly fails to
perform its intended function satisfactorily. In other words, it can be defined as the gap
between the expected performance and the actual performance of any component or
assembly. Failure does not necessarily involve fracture always. For example, excessive
elastic deformation of a component in an assembly can interfere the functioning of other
components leading to failure. Therefore, the excessive elastic deformation of the
component is termed as the failure and this can be because of various reasons such as
improper selection of material, improper design, excessive load etc.
Failure analysis can be defined as the examination of a failed component and of the
failure situation in order to determine the causes of the failure. The purpose of failure
analysis is to establish the mechanism and causes of the failure and to recommend a
solution to the problem. Since most of the time, failures are “caused”, they do not “just
happen”, identification of the cause (s) for the failure helps to prevent recurrence of
similar failures. Since even the most sophisticated simulation testing cannot adequately
duplicate the varied factors and the many unanticipated causes that lead to failure,
failure analysis offers the most reliable tool in assuring the safety of the component.
1
The investigation itself should be properly planned. The various tests to be carried out
must be judiciously selected and the sequence of tests should be carefully planned.
Decisions on any tests that would involve destruction of part of the component should be
taken very carefully. A wrong sequence of tests may destroy some of the important
evidence or introduce features, which could be confusing.
2
inclusions, segregation, etc. It also helps in identifying the nature of corrosion products,
coatings, external debris, etc. Analysis at microscopic levels provides information about
the nature of inclusions, phases, and surface layers. Several cases of service failures
are known to have been caused by the presence of deleterious inclusions from which
cracks start in the component and propagate leading to fracture. Certain impurities are
known to cause embrittlement in metals. Segregation of constituent elements sometimes
provide easy path for crack propagation. Hence identification of these harmful
constituents is very important in failure analysis. A variety of instruments are available for
bulk chemical and micro-chemical analysis.
3
2.8 Analysis of data
The most important task in any failure analysis is the consolidation and systematic
connection of all the data obtained in the tests described above. For every failure, all the
tests described may not be necessary. The results of tests must be compared against
the specifications and deviations if any should carefully be considered as possible
contributing factors. At this stage, expertise from other related disciplines would be very
useful in interpretation of data.
A fund of information on various aspects of the failure would become available through
proper analysis. These include the failure initiation site or sites, crack length, its
propagation path and speed, and the nature and direction of load acting on the
component. The role of other factors such as temperature, corrosion, wear, component
manufacturing history, assembly and alignment, also become clear during the analysis.
Finally, it must be born in mind that in some cases, it may not be possible to specify the
cause or causes of the failure with certainty. At the most, it must be stated clearly which
conclusions are based on determined facts and which are based on conjecture and
circumstantial evidences.
• Wear failures
Ductile Brittle
4
• Ductile fractures are classified on a • Brittle fractures are usually of the flat
macroscopic scale as flat (normal to type (normal to the direction of
the maximum tensile stress) or shear maximum tensile stress).
(at 450C to the maximum tensile
stress). • They occur by either transgranular
(cleavage or quasicleavage or
• Microscopically they occur by intergranular cracking) (Figs.4).
microvoid formation and coalescence.
These fractographic features are
normally referred to as dimpled rupture
(Fig.3)
Fatigue failures
Fatigue accounts nearly 80% of the total service failure and has great significance in
design of any component. Fatigue is the progressive, localized, permanent structural
change that occurs in a material subjected to fluctuating stresses or strains. Fatigue
fracture surfaces have typical appearance in which a half-moon shaped region
consisting of crack arrest marks or more commonly known as beach marks are seen
(Fig.5). Similar macroscopic features can also be seen in other progressive mode of
fracture such as hydrogen embrittlement or stress corrosion cracking. However,
microscopic features for each of these fractures are distinct and are easily
distinguishable. For example, as the fatigue crack propagates, it usually leaves on the
fracture surface, behind the advancing crack front, regions of depression and elevation.
These are known as fatigue striations. Presence of striations on the fracture surface is
conclusive evidence that the component has failed by fatigue. The characteristic
microscopic features of hydrogen embrittlement and stress corrosion cracking will be
discussed later.
The process of fatigue consists of following three stages:
1. Initial fatigue damage leading to crack initiation
2. Crack propagation
3. Final sudden fracture
Distortion failures
Distortion failure occurs when a structure or component is deformed either elastically or
plastically. It can be either size distortion or shape distortion.
Special type of distortion
Ratcheting: Ratcheting is strain-dependent phenomenon wherein one or more of the
over-all dimensions of a member or structure change relatively uniformly along the
direction of steady state stress due to cyclic accumulation of plastic strain. Ratcheting is
normally observed when a component is stressed by steady state loading, either unaxial
or multiaxial, with a varying strain in a direction other than the direction of principal
stress.
Wear failures
Wear can be defined as the damage to the surface caused by the removal or
displacement of material by the mechanical action of contacting solid, liquid or gas.
5
Various types wear that are normally encountered by the service components are
adhesive wear, abrasive wear, erosive wear, corrosive wear, surface fatigue, liquid
erosion and fretting.
Adhesive wear is transference of material from one surface to another during relative
motion due to a process of solid-phase welding. This is also called variously as scoring,
galling, seizing and scuffing.
Abrasive wear or abrasion is displacement of material from a solid surface by contact
with hard particles on a mating surface or with hard particles that are moving relative to
the wearing surface. All types of abrasive wear involve basically same mechanism,
namely, penetration and subsequent grooving of the surface by abrasive particles.
Erosion or erosive wear is the loss of material from a solid surface due to relative motion
in contact with a fluid that contains solid particles. In abrasive erosion the solid particles
move nearly parallel to the solid surface whereas, in impact erosion the relative motion
of solid particles is nearly normal to the solid surface. The erosion of material can be
attributed to a number of mechanisms including cutting, plowing, extrusion,
fragmentation, elastic fracture etc.
Fretting is a wear phenomenon that occurs between two mating surfaces. It is adhesive
in nature and vibration is its essential causative factor. Fretting is accompanied by
corrosion. Common sites for fretting are joints that are bolted, keyed, pinned, press-fitted
and riveted, oscillating bearings, splines, couplings, spindles and seals, and universal
joints. Fretting damage occur in three stages: (i) initial adhesion, (ii) oscillation
accompanied by the generation of oxidized debris followed by (iii) fatigue and wear in the
region of contact.
6
chemical, petroleum, petrochemical and mineral processing, transportation etc. and is
frequently the limiting factor to advancing the state of the art. Stress corrosion cracking
and hydrogen embrittlement, the most common forms of mechanical – environmental
failures, have attracted the attention of engineers and metallurgists for a considerable
time not merely because of their common occurrence but also because of the somewhat
common characteristics they exhibit.
7
and thoroughly evaluated design may still be deficient and contribute to early failure in
service. Ad-hoc modifications without proper design review also contribute to a number
of failures.
With the best component design and choice of the best material, sometimes mistakes
can happen during assembly. Such assembly errors are often not detected during
inspection and usually, they do not prevent apparently normal operation. Deficiencies of
this type are generally related to inaccurate, incomplete or ambiguous assembly
specifications, but they also occur as a consequence of human error or negligence.
4.4 Inspection
•Wrong technique
•Non-calibration of equipments
4.5 Operation
Failures are also caused by abuses in service. Many a failure has been witnessed when
products were abused without recognizing the serious consequences.
4.6 Maintenance
Service failure due to improper maintenance accounts for sizable fraction of total failures
in engineering/aerospace industries. In spite of strict maintenance schedule and
procedure, there have been instances wherein inadequate attention in following the
methodology/procedure and/or use of tools led to premature failure of components. .
8
After completion of all the procedures to the extent dictated by individual failures, the
analyst is ready to interpret and summarize the facts that he has gathered. Most failures
are caused by more than one factor, though frequently one factor may predominate.
Therefore, after collecting the evidences, it would be relevant to pose and answer the
following questions before formulating the conclusions.
• Did the failure involve cracking or fracture?
• Was the crack initiation surface or subsurface?
• Was the cracking associated with a stress concentrator?
• How long the crack was present?
• What was the type of loading – static, cyclic or intermittent?
• What was the failure mechanism?
• Was the proper material used?
• Was the component that failed properly fabricated, heat treated and assembled?
• Was the failure related to abuse in service?
• Are failures likely to occur in similar components in service? If so, what can be
done to prevent their recurrence?
6. Conclusions
It is now well recognized that failures do not just happen, but are caused. Hence, failure
analysis assumes supreme importance. There are compelling reasons for investigating
failures. Unless the true cause of the failure is known, no remedial action can be
initiated. Failure analysis helps a lot in improving the reliability and safety of machinery
and structures, which form the heart of modern industries. In the last few decades,
systematic investigations carried out on many failed components and structures have
generated a fund of useful information for taking suitable remedial measures to prevent
recurrence of failures and accidents. The lessons learned from failure analysis are vital
for the engineering profession and the industries that aim at design and manufacture of
products with the probability of service failure at the absolute minimum.
9
Figure 1. Fracture surfaces are like fingerprints; handle them with care
Figure 2. Fracture surface of two tensile samples: (a) ductile fracture, with flat fracture in the
center and slant fracture on the sides (cup and cone fracture) and (b) brittle fracture
Figure 3. SEM fractograph of the of ductile Figure 4. SEM fractograph of brittle fracture
fracture surface; dimples due to formation of surface showing typical of intergranular
voids and coalescence fracture
10
Figure 5(a). Fatigue fracture; macroscopic Figure 5(b). Fatigue fracture; microscopic
features (beach marks) features (fatigue striations)
11