i

n rmv.'-rujjnM^

CANADiM.4

w.^. Z??AL

ELECTRIC CO.
ONTARIO

PETERSCRCiiaH,

THE ENGINEERS' MANUAL

WORKS OF Professor RALPH G. HUDSON

PUBLISHED BY

JOHN WILEY

&

SONS,

Inc.

440 Fourth Avenue, New York

Engineering Electricity. A concise exposition of the principles and applications of electricity and magnetism* designed for elementary or introductory college courses. iii+2 14 pages, 5 X 7}, 308 figures.
Flexible cover.

The Engineers' Manual, Assisted by the late Joseph LiPKA, Howard B. Luther and Dean Peabody, Jr.

consolidation of the prinripal formulas and tables of Mathematics, Mechanics, Hydraulics, Heat and Electricity. 315 pages, 5 7J, 227 Flexible cover. figures.

A Manual
LiPKA.

of

Mathematics.

With the

late

Joseph

consolidation of the principal formulas and tables of Mathematics. 130 pages, 5 X 7i, 95 figures. Flexible cover,

A Table
'

of Integrals. With the late Joseph Lipka. Contains a table of derivatives, table of integrals,

natural logarithms, trigonometric and hyperbolic functions. 26 pages, 5 X 7}. Paper.

THE
ENGINEERS'
RALPH
G.

MANUAL
ST B.,
AT THE

HUDSON,

Associate Professor of Electrical ENGMrcERts

Massachusetts Institute of TEC]|goLdSv

Assisted by

'^

JOSEPH LIPKA, Ph (p.jl Late Associate Professor of iAathI^Iatics Massachusetts Institute of Tp^Iinologyi

HOWARD

B.

LUTHER,

S.

" " PPrft.tiNG

4rfi

Professor of Civil Engin University of Cincinn

AND

DEAN PEABODY,

Jr.,

Assistant Professor of Applied Massachusetts Institute of TJchn

TOTAL ISSUE FORTY-ONE THO

NEW YORK JOHN WILEY & SONS,

London:

Inc.

CHAPMAN & HALL,

Limited

COPYMGHT,
BY

I917,

RALPH

G.

HUDSON

Printed in U. S. A.

Stanbopc iprcM

H.GILSON COMPANY
BOSTON,
U.S.A.

11-2

PREFACE.
This work originated from the conception that the practicing
engineer or engineering student would welcome a consolidation
of the formulas

and constants

for

which he

is

accustomed to
in texts

search through several volumes and that the application of each

formula might be explained more concisely than

exclusively to the process of derivation.

devoted end in view those engineering formulas, mathematical operations and tables of constants which appear to be most useful are presented in systematic order and in a size of book designed to fit the pocket. Each formula is preceded by a statement in which its application, the symbology of the involved physical quantities and It is believed that definite units of measurement are indicated. this method of presentation increases the speed of selection and understanding of a desired formula and insures greater accuracy of substitution since data units of any kind may be converted

With

this

into specified units

tors.

by

reference to the table of conversion facis

The sequence

of the formulas

based generally upon their

order of derivation so that the understanding of a formula

may

be enlarged by inspection of the formulas which precede it. All catchwords, symbols and formulas are printed in full face type and each formula or group of formulas is numbered to facilitate reference to the text or cross reference between formulas. For the practicing engineer the aim throughout has been to enable him to obtain results quickly and accurately even in a branch of engineering to which he can give little attention. For instructional purposes the object has been to present a summary of the important relations which may be derived from fundamental principles so that the student may give his undivided attention to the sources of engineering knowledge, the evolution of engineering formulas and their applications. It is suggested that class room exercises devoted to the derivation of the stated formulas be given to increase the student's comprehension of the origin of
iii

iv

Preface

his

working formulas and of the mathematical operations which

intervene as well as to create discrimination between those re-

which are fundamental, derived and empirical. In the may be given in terms of units not specified in the formulas and for conditions not defilations

solution of problems original data

nitely prescribed in the text.

The

writer wishes to express his obligations to his assistants

Mr. C. H. SutherH. B. Phillips and W. V. Lyon for many effective suggestions and reading of proof. While every effort has been made to insure accuracy of statement in both formulas and tables experience indicates that in texts containing so many symbols and numbers minor errors may still exist and the authors will be grateful for notice of them.
for their cooperation in preparing the work, to

land and Mr. A. L.

Brown and

to Professors

RALPH
Cambridge, Mass.,
November, 191 6.

G.

HUDSON.

MATHEMATICS
ALGEBRA
1

Powers and Roots

a"

a a a

to

factors.

a^"

-7:;;

a".a"

fl"*

a"^";

^ = a'^".
a"

(ab)"

= ab';

ft

\ **

ft"

Vb)"b"'
y/S = ^..

^b=^a^;

2 Operations with Zero

and
is

Infinity

a'0=o;
I

a'oo =00; q.oo

?

indeterminate, see page 37.

37.

=o;? = ;

T a
ao

=";|-=: 00

^
00

37.

" " " " = i; o=o; 0 37. " " " " 00 = 00; 00 37. a* = 00, if a2>i; a* = o, if a2<i; a* = i, if a? = i, see also page 37. a-* = o, if a2>i; a-* = 00, if sl^Ki; a-* = i, if a^ = i, see also page 37. a a = o; 00 a = oo; 00 00 is indeterminate, page 37.

3 Binomial Expansions

+ b^. + 3 ab^ b^. a* 4 a^b + 6 a^b^ db 4 ab' + b^ (a b)* ^ ~ 'K r^h^:^ (a dzb)" = a" -a^^b + '2
(a =h b)2 (a dz b)'

= = =

a2 =b 2

ab

a' zb 3 a^b

''^''

i) (n

^) ^n-zy,z

2'3
otherwise the

+
When n
of

Note,
is

n may be

positive or negative, integral or fractional.

a positive integer, the series has (n

is infinite.

+
1

i)

terms;

number

terms

Mathematics

4 Polynomial Expansions .)2 = a2+b2 + c2 + d2+. (a + b+c+d+.

.

+2a(b-{-c + d+
.

+ 2 b(c + d +...)+ 2 c(d +...)+..

of the squares of each of the

= sum
the
(a

sum

+ b + c)3 =

term and twice the product of each term by terms that follow it. b)c2 c^. 3(a b)2c 3(a b)' c]^ = (a b) [(a

5 Factors

a2_b2 = (a+b) (a-b). a2 + b2 = (a + bV^) (a-bV^). a3 _ b3 = (a - b) (a2 + ab + b^). as + b3 = (a + b) (a2 - ab + b^). a* + b* = (a2 + abVi + b^) (a^ - ab V2 + b^). a2n _ b2 = (a" + b") (a" - b"). an _ b'* = (a - b) (a^i + a^^ + a'^b^ + a" - b^ = (a + b) (a^i - a^^b + a^-'b^ a" + b" = (a + b) (a"-i - a'^^b + a^-^b^ 6 Ratio and Proportion
If

+ b"-i).

h^*~^) if
if

+ b^i)

n n

is

even.

is

odd.

b =

d,

or

Algebra

8 Logarithms
If b is a finite positive number, other than i, and b^ = N, (a) Definition. = x. If logb = x, then then X is the logarithm of N to the base b, or logb b^ = N. (b) Properties of logarithms. 00 when b lies between o and I log. b = I log6 I = o; log6 o = _

^hen b
j^

lies

between

and

oo

logb

N=

logb

M + logb N.

M logb
logb

logb

M - log6 N.

log&

NP = p logb N.

a7np = I log6 N.
b^ = N;
b'^*^

log,
(c)

N = ^^^lOga b
Systems of logarithms.

logb

N.

base lo. (Briggsian) base 2.7183 (designated by e or i). Natural (Napierian or hyperbolic) The abbreviation of "common logarithm" is "log" and the Note. abbreviation of "natural logarithm is "In." (d) Characteristic or integral part (c) of the common logarithm of a

Common

nimiber (N). If N is not

one.

less

than one, c equals the number of integral figures in N, minus

is less than one, c equals 9 minus the number of zeros between the If decimal point and the first significant figure, minus 10 (the 10 being written after the mantissa). (e) Mantissa or decimal part (m) of the common logarithm of a number N. If N has not more than three figures, find mantissa directly in table, page 234.

If

has four figures,

= mi

(m2

mi J, where

mi

is

the mantissa

corresponding to the first three figures of N, ma is the next larger mantissa in the table and f is the fourth figure of N. Number (N) corresponding to a common logarithm which has a char(f)
acteristic (c)
If

and a mantissa (m).

is

desired to three figures, find the mantissa nearest to

is

m in the table,
and the

page 234, and the corresponding number

If

N.
first

is

desired to four figures, find the next smaller mantissa, mi,

next larger mantissa, m2, in the table.

to

The

three figures of

N correspond
(

mi and the fourth

Note.

figure equals the nearest

whole number to 10

\m2

mi /

If c is positive,

the

number

of integral figures in

equals c plus

one.

negative (for example, 9 10 or i), write numeric c minus one zeros between the decimal point and the first significant figure of N.
If c is
(g) Natural logarithm (In) of a number (N). Any number, N, can be written N = Ni X iop, where Ni and 1000. Then InN = InNi zh pin 10.
If
lies

between

Ni has not more than three

figures, find In

Ni directly in table, page 236.

4
If

Mathematics
Ni has four
f is

Ni,

and

figures, N2 is the number composed of the the fourth figure of Ni, then

first

three figures of

InNi
(h)

=lnN2

^[ln(N2

+ i)

-InNj].,

Number

(N) corresponding to a natural logarithm, In N.

Any
The
/

logarithm, InN, can be written

InN = InNi drplnio, where InNi

In 1000.

lies

between 4.6052
first

In 100

and 6.9078 =
figure,
f,

Then

N =

Ni

10 p.

three figures of Ni correspond to the next smaller logarithm. In N2,

in the table,

and the fourth

\
j*

of Ni equals the nearest whole

number

to

10

lnNi-lnN2.

Vln(N2

+ i)

-lnN2

9 The Solution of Algebraic Equations

(a)
If
^,

The quadratic

equation.
ax2

then
^^
If b^
(

+ bx + c = o, = b Vb2 -4ac
2 a

the roots are real and unequal, the roots are real and equal,
the roots are imaginary.

4 ac = o
The

^
[

(b)

cubic equation.

Any
x'

cubic equation, y'

+ py^ + qy + r =

o
(

may

be reduced to the form

j
.

+ ax + b = o by substituting for y the value =-sV(2p3-9pq + 27r). Algebraic Solution of x^ + ax + b = 0.

Here a

= H3 ^ "~

P'^)*

Let

then ,
K2
If
1

=A
3

+ B. -AB +

A^^.
o.

_AB_^B^_

>

^^^^ ^^^*' ^ conjugate imaginary roots,

real roots of

=oJ3

which 2 are equal,

[3 real and unequal roots.

Trigonometric Solution of x'

In the case where
b^
a'
1

+ ax + b =

< o, the above formulas give the roots in a form 27 4 impractical for numerical computation. In this case, a is negative. Compute
the value of the angle
<|>

from cos

<|>

= \//b^

1
'-

a^ \
)

(see

page 260), then

where the upper or lower signs are to be used according as b

negative.

is

positive or

Algebra
b2
a3 >

In the case where

4
;

h
a^

o>

compute the values

of the angles

\|r

and

<|>

27

from cot 2
tion
is

\j/

=\/ V 4

/]^

tan

4>

V = v tan
_

x|/;

then the real root of the equa-

27

X=
where the upper or lower sign
negative.

=t2\/|c0t2<|,
is

to be used according as b

is

positive or

In the case where

b^
1

a'

27

0,

the roots are

=F 2

\/-!-

-\/-f-

W-fis

where the upper or lower signs are to be used according as b

negative.
(c)

positive or

The

biquadratic equation.

Any

biquadratic equation such as

y^

+ py' + qy^ + ry + s = o
x*

may

be reduced to the form

+ ax2+bx + c=o
(

by substituting
Ifx^

for

y the value x

-J*
the cubic equation

ax2

bx

0,

form

first

and solve as indicated in 9 (b). If the roots of the above cubic equation are 1, m, and
biquadratic equation are:
if

n,

then the roots of the

is

positive,

X =
if

- vl - v^ - vn, - Vr + Vm + Vn, VI - vm + Vn, Vi + Vm - Vn;

is

negative,

= VI

+ v^ +

VI +
(d)

VI - Vm - Vi, VE, v^ Vn, VI Vm + Vn.

Graphical solution of the cubic and biquadratic equations.

find the real roots of the cubic equation
x^

To

+ ax + b =
=
2 x,
>

0,

draw the parabola (page

nates of whose center are x vertex of the parabola.

22) y^

and the

circle

(page 21), the coordi-

y = ~ o ^^^ which passes through the o 4 Measure the ordinates of the points of intersection;

these give the real roots of the equation.

Mathematics

To

find the real roots of the biquadratic equation

x^

+ ax2 + bx + c =
circle
is

o,

draw the parabola y^ =

X

2 x,

and the

the coordinates of whose center are

~ ~

^^^ whose radius

i/
J

+ ~
(

Measure

the ordinates of the points of intersection;

equation.

these give the real roots of the

scale suffices for the

Note.
(e)
If
if

The one parabola

solution of all cubic

y^ = 2 x drawn on a large and biquadratic equations.

x"
is

The binomial equation. = a, the n roots of this equation

X

are:

positive,

-v/a (cos

2 kir

-^ + V/ -I
,

sm
,

2 kirX

-^
I

if

is

negative,

cos

(2k+i)ir n

sm (2k + iM
.
^^

where k takes
(f)

in succession the values o,

i,2,3...,n

I.

The general

quadratic equation.

If

ax2"

^u then

X"
is

+ bx"+c = o, EC = -^ Vb2 -4
2a

and X
(g)

found as

The

9 general equation of the nth degree.

PoX"

in

(e).

P=

+ PiX^^ + p2X"-2 +

+ Pn-1 X + pn =
.

O.

There are no formulas which give the roots of this general equation if n>4. If n>4, use one of the following methods. These are advantageous even when n = 3 or n = 4. Method I. Roots by factors. Find a number, r, by trial or guess such that x = r satisfies the equation,
that
is,

such that
Por"

+ Pir"-^ + p2/'"-2 +

+ pn-i r + pn =

o.

Then x r is a factor of the left Divide out this factor, leaving an equation of Proceed in the same manner degree one less than that of the original equation. with the reduced equation.
(Integer roots

must be

divisors of pn.)

member

of the equation.

Method II. Roots by approximation. (The "pinch" method.) If for X = a and x = b, the left member, P, of the equation has opposite signs, then a root of the equation lies between a and b. By this method the real roots may be obtained to any desired degree of accuracy. For example, let P have the signs given in the following tables:
' ' '

_
'

J-

f^

' '
'

roots

lie
I

between

2 and
1.4

i, be-

tween

and

'
I

'

_]_

ij

\,

'

""^^^ ^^^^

between

and

1.5.

Algebra

X X

14
1.46

146
1.465

147
147
is

1^5

j.QQ^ ijgg

between 1.46 and

1.47.

a root

lies

between 1.465 and

1.47.

Therefore one root

1.47 to the nearest second decimal.

10 Progressions
(a)

Arithmetic progression.

a,

The nth term,

+ d, a + 2 d, a + 3 d, tn = a + (n .

where d

= common =(a

difference.

i)d.

The sum
The
(b)

of

n terms, Sn = ^

[2

(n

i)d]

+ tn).

arithmetic

mean

of a

and b =

+b

a, ar, ar^, ar',

Geometric progression. where r

.
.

= common
(

ratio.

The nth term, The sum

If

tn

ar"-i.

of

terms, Sn

j= J^^

r2<i, Sn approaches a definite limit as

increases indefinitely,

and

*
The geometric mean
of a

-r
Funds

and b

= Vab.

Interest, Annuities, Sinking

11

Amount

(An) of a sum of money or principal (P) placed at a rate

of interest (r)* for

n years. At simple interest: At interest compounded annually:

At interest compounded q times a year:

An = P An = P An =

(i
(i
/

+ nr). + r)".

P|iH

j.\nq

12 Present value (P)

mterest
(r).*

of

an amount

(An) due in

n years

at a rate of

At simple
At

interest:

P=
P=
""^

-^7

An

interest

compounded annually:
compounded q times a year:

(i+r)

At

interest

amount due in n years is the sum of money n years will produce the given amount. 13 True discount (D) or the difference between the amount (An) due at the end of n years and its present value (P). D = An - P. 14 Annuity (N) that a principal (P), drawing interest at the rate r,* will give for a period of n years.
Note.

The

present value of an
for

which placed at interest

* Expressed as a decimal.

Mathematics

Interest

compounded annually:

N=P

r
(I

(I + r) + r)" -

Note.

An

annuity

is

a fixed

sum

paid at regular intervals.

for

15 Present value (P)

of

an annuity (N) to be paid out

con-

secutive years, the interest rate being r.*

Interest

compounded annually:
of

P=N

(I

+rr-i
+r)

r(i

16

Amount

a sinking fund

(S) created by a fixed (end of the year)

investment (N) placed annually at compound interest (r)* for a term of n years.
r

17 Fixed investment (N) placed annually for a term of n years to create a sinking fund (S).
(I

at

compound

interest (r)*

+ r) -

TRIGONOMETRY
Definition of Angle
line
is

An angle is the amount of rotation (in a fixed plane) by which a may be changed from one direction to any other direction. If the
counter-clockwise the angle
is

straight

rotation

said to be positive,

if

clockwise, negative.

Measure

of
is

Angle
by an arc equal
in

A A

degree
radian

is

^^^ of the plane angle about a point. the angle subtended at the center of a circle

length to the radius.

18 Trigonometric Functions of an Angle

sine (sin)

Z. r

cosine (cos) a

X
r'

tangent (tan) a

y.

z
a
x^ y*

cotangent

(cot)

secant (sec) a

r
x'

cosecant (esc) a

r y'

exsecant (exsec) o
versine (vers) a

sec a

I.

cos a.

coversine (covers) a

sin a.

Note,
y
is

positive

is positive when measured along OX, and negative, along OX'; when measured parallel to OY, and negative, parallel to OY'.

* Expressed as a decimal.

Trigonometry

19 Signs of the Functions

Quadrant


10
sin

Mathematics

22 Fundamental Relations
a = a =
I

Among
I
;

the Functions
tan a
,

CSC a'
I

cos o
sec a

= =

sec a
cos a
tan^

esc

-;

sin a

1,1
=
;

cot a

- =
I

sin

a.

cos a

cot a

tan a
cot^

a = cos
sin

sin^ a -f cos-

sec^

csc^

i,

23 Functions of Multiple Angles

sin 2

a = 2
0-

sin

a cos a
sin^ a.

cos 2 a
sin 3

cos 3
sin 4

a-

a cos 4 a

sinna cosn&

= 2 cos2 a I = I 2 sin2 a = cos^ a = 3 sin a 4 sin^ a; = 4 cos^ * 3 cos a. = 4 sin a cos a 8 sin^ a cos a; = 8 cos'' a 8 cos^ a + i. = 2 sin (n i)acosa sin (n 2) a; = 2 cos (n i) d cos a cos (n 2) a.

24 Functions of Half Angles

sin2
^

y/^
Y
I

-cosa. eos^a = y/ii2if^.

2

tania

cos a
I

sin a

+ cos a

-^
V
i

+ cos
=
^(1
cos 2 a).

25 Powers of Functions
a a sin* a
sin2 sin^

= = =

^ (i

cos 2 a)

cos^ cos^

-f-

^ (3 sin a J (cos 4 a
I
,

sin 3 o)

4 cos 2 a

+ 3)
; '

a = cos* a =
cos''

^ (cos 3 | (cos 4
I

a a

+ 3 cos a). + 4 cos 2 a +

-

3).'

sin" tt

/y

iT
1

(2V-i)V^

yj

(2)

+ Ay/
y

A"
I
.

In the

last

two formulas, expand ( y

f

- j by 3 and then write y* H (

j^

2 cos

kx and

y*

^ J = 2 V^ sin kx.
or Difference of

26 Functions of
sin (a rb P)

Sum

Two

Angles

cos

(tt

zh P)

= =

sin

a cos p cos a cos P

tan
I
tt

cos d sin p.
=F sin
tt

sin p.

tan

(tt

P)

tan P
d tan p

=F tan

27 Sums, Differences and Products of Two Functions = 2 sin H* P) cos ^ (a ^ p). sin a sin p = 2 cos ^ (a + p) cos i (* P). cos tt + cos p
cos a

cos P

2 sin

Htt

+ P)

sin

H* P).

Trigonometry
o tanaitanp ^
.

11

ocos a cos p

sin (a db P) ^

a - sin2 P a cos- p cos- a sin- p sin a sin P cos a cos p

sin2

cos^

= sin (a + P) sin (a - P). = sin (a + p) sin (a P). = cos (a + p) cos (a p). = \ cos (a - p) - | cos (a + P). = ^ cos (a - P) + ^ cos (a + P).

sin a cos p

=\ sin (a + P) +

a sin (a

P).

28 Equivalent Expressions for sin a, cos a, and tan a

cos a

tana

12

Mathematics

30

Some
a

Relations
cos-i

Among
a^

Inverse Functions
a

sin-i

vi

tan-^

vT^^2
, /

cot-^

Vi

.secr^7== =

V I a2

CSC-1--

cos-1 a

= sin-i v l
sec-^i

a^^

Vl
tan-^

cot-^

Vi -a2

cscr^
'

a
tan-i a

Vi -a2
= cos-i .^
I

sin-i

VI
;.:

V^

+ a2
;

V + a2

cot-i -

sec-i

Vi +a

a
;

cot-^

=
=

tan-i -

a
co^-^
(i

set~^ a

cos-^ -

csc-^ a

=
;

sin-^ -

vers-i a
sin-i

a)';

covers-^ a
(a

sin-^ (i

a)

exsec-^ a

= sec-^ (i

+ a).

a d= sin-i b

= ^}h-^

Vi -

b^

b Vi

-a^).

cos-i a

tan-i a
sin-^
if

jtos^i.b. = pqs-i (ab =F Vi - a^ Vi - b). ^^ ^ d= tan-^b =^Hii-i

+ COS"* a
'

',9<);

sin-* a, tan-*

a,''c^,c-*

and cos-*

a, c,ot-*a,

+ cot-* a = 90; sec-* a between 90 and +90 sec-* a lie between 0 and 180".
tan-^ a

+ esc-* a = 90,

lie

31 Solution of Trigonometric Equations

By means of the relations expressed in 18 to 30 inclusive, reduce the given equation to an equatioh containing only a single function of a single angle. Solve the resulting equation by algebraic methods, 9, for the remaining function, and from this find the values of the angle, by 29 and table, page 260.
Test
all

these values in the original equation and discard those which do not

satisfy

it.

Solution of
If sin
If

Some

Special Equations.

If If If
If

= cos a = tana =
a

then a = ( i)" p n 180. (n = any integer) cos p, then a = 2 n 180. p tan p, then a = p + n 180. 2n' 180. cos a = sin p, then a = P=F90 90 tana = cotp, then a = - p n- 180. b sin a = c, and a, b, c are any numbers, and c^ = a^ a cos a
sin p,

+ +

+W

then

a = tan-* -

+ cos-*

Va2

+ b2

Trigonometry

13

32 Properties of Plane Triangles

Notation,
a, p,

angles; a, b, c

sides.

A= r =
*

area; hb

altitude

on b;

^ (a

+ b + c).
cir-

radius of inscribed circle;

R=

radius of

cumscribed

circle.

+P +Y = ^_b_
a b
b^ sin

80

=
c

IT

radians

sin

sin y

a a
a2

+b
=

tanH<^
tan

+ P) . U - P)
a

+ c2 2 be cos a,*

= b cos-y + c cos p."

cos a

2tan a
*

Fig. 33.

Two more
P,

formulas

may be

obtained by replacing a by b, b by

c,

by

a,

a by

P by

7,

Y by

a.


14

Mathematics
(For numerical

34.

Solution of Oblique Triangles.

and any
a.

work, use

tables on page 260.)

I.

Given any two angles a and

y

P,

side

c.

00 = 180

(a

+
,

ox P);

= .

c sin

a
;

c sin p -> -^

II.

Given any two

sides a

and
.

c,

and an angle opposite one

of these, say a.

c sin

tt

a sin p

Note.

may have two

values, yi

<

90 and 72

80

"Yi

>

90.

If

+ 72 >

180, use only yi.

Fig. 34

(I).

Fig. 34 (11).

III.

Given any two

sides

b and

and

their included angle a.

Use any one

of the following sets of formulas:

(I)

MP+7) =90-^a;
P a
J.

tani(P-Y)
-7); 7 =
a
;

=^^tanHP+7);
+7)

HP +7)+ HP
+ c2 C sin
i:

HP
=
(a
/

-HP -7);
;

b
=

sin

sin P

(2)

= Vb2

^^^'

2 be cos

sin p

180

(a

+ P).

(3)

tan7

a
;

c cos a

o o 180

+7);

c sin

sinY

Fig. 34 (HI).

Fig. 34 (IV).

IV. Given the three sides a, b, and c. Use either of the following sets of formulas.

(i) s

Ha + b + c) .' =
tan ^ a

(s

-a)(s -b)(s -c) .

V/
tan ^ P

=
s

r -b
2 ca

tan ^ 7

(2) ^ '

cos a

=^^^^4^
2 be

-, cosP = ^^^^
'

-,

= i8o''-(a

+ P).

Mensuration: Lengths, Areas, Volumes

15

MENSURATION: LENGTHS, AREAS, VOLUMES

Notation
:

a, b, c, d, s

denote lengths,

A denotes

area,

V denotes volume.

35 Right Triangle

A = ^ ab. (For other formulas, see 33) c = Va2 + b2, a = Vc^ - b^ b = Vc2 36 Oblique Triangle

a^.

A=

^ bh.

(For other formulas, see 32, 34)

37 Equilateral Triangle

A=

ah

i a2 V3.

h = iaVT.

38 Square

A =

a2;

d = a VJ.
t

->|

Fig. 38.

39 Rectangle

/d'

A =

ab;

= Va^

+ b^.
Fig. 39.

40 Parallelogram

(opposite sides parallel)

s?

A =
di

d2

ah = ab sin a. = Va2 + b2 2 ab cos a; = Va2 + b2 + 2 ab cos a.

Fig. 40.

41 Trapezoid

(one pair of opposite sides parallel)

A = |h(a+b).

a
Fig. 41.
(non-parallel sides equal)
-6-

42 Isosceles Trapezoid

A = =

Ca

+ b) =
(a

c sin

(a

+ b)
a (b

c sin

c cos a)

c sin

+ c cos a).

'tl
Fig. 42.

16

Mathematics

43 Trapezium

(no sides parallel)

A =

5 (ahi

+ bh2) =

sum

of areas of 2 triangle

Fig. 43.

44 Regular Polygon of n Sides

B

tllf-^y

=
.

i8o

=
,.

IT

radians.

a=

360''

n
2

IT

radians.
Fig. 44.

4 6
8

Mensuration: ^Lengths, Areas, Volumes

17

A(segment)

A(sector)

A(triangle)

| R^ (a

sin a)

- R sin
d2

^j

R2sin-i

11

V4R2 -

12

= R2cos-ig

V R2 -

=R2cos-i?^^- (R-li)V2Rli -hK

46 Ellipse* A = irab.
Perimeter
(s)

Fig. 46.

^^^-^^[Mm-Um^MUh-}
47 Parabola*

A=

f Id.
(s)

Length of arc

V16 d^

+ P + ^In
^

4d

V16 d^

+P
j

-[ (t)'-(v7---}
Height of segment
(di)

.-^

(P

Ix^).

Width

of

segment

d
(1

i)=iV/-

-di

48 Cycloid

(r

radius of generating circle)

A =

3 ^=^Length of arc (s)

r.

Fig. 48.

49 Catenary*
Length
if

of arc (s)

-p J
1.

approximately,

is

small in comparison with

50 Area by Approximation
Let
yo, yi, 72,
. .
,

yn be the measured

lengths of a series of equidistant parallel

chords,

and

let

h be

their distance apart,

j/g i/^

i(^

i/

then the area enclosed by any boundary is given approximately by one of the following
rules.

* For definition and equation, see Analytic Geometry, pp. 22-27.

18

Mathematics

At

= h [Hyo

+ yn) + yi + 72 + + Jn) + I.I

(yi

+ jn-i]
(Trapezoidal Rule)
-H yz

Ad = h [0.4

(yo

+ Jn-i) +
.

+ y3 +

+ yn-2]
(Durand's Rule)
.
.
.

Ab =ih[(yo + yn)+4(yi+y3 (Simpson's Rule, where n is even).

+ yn-i) + 2 (72 + y4 +

+yn-2)]

The larger the value of n, the greater is the accuracy of approximation. In general, for the same number of chords, Ag gives the most accurate, Ax, the least accurate approximation.

51 Cube

V=

a';

Total surface

= aVJ. = 6 a?.
a-FiG. SI.

52 Rectangular Parallelopiped

V=

abc; d

Total

= Va? + surface = 2 (ab

b^

c^.

+ be + ca).

-d 4.

^
Fig. 52.

53 Prism or Cylinder

V =
section)

(area of base)

(altitude).

Lateral area

(perimeter of right

(lateral edge).

54 Pjrramid or Cone

V =
^

I (area of base)

(altitude).

Lateral area of regular figure

(perimeter
of

base)

(slant

height).

55 Frustum of Pyramid or Cone

V =
h
^
is

i (Ai

+ A2 + V Ai X A2) h,
figure

where Ai and A2 are areas of bases, and

altitude.

Lateral
height).

area of regular

=
Fig. s^'

(sum of perimeters of bases)

X (slant

Mensuration: Lengths, Areas, Volumes

19

56 Prismatoid

(bases are in parallel planes, lateral

faces are triangles or trapezoids)

/^k\
/

^
I

\
\y ^

V = i(Ai+A2+4An)h,
where and h
Ai,
is

/
Am
is

l\\\
'^
'

A2 are areas of bases,

area of mid-section,

n^ /

altitude.

Fig. 56.

57 Sphere
A(sphere)

^^^= 4 irR2 = -irD^. = 2 irRh = irDh. = | irR3 = i irD'. = | irR^ = | irDsh.

of

A(zone)
V(sphere)
V(spherical sector)

I_j2l^^^'
h

-D

V (spherical
=

segment
ri2

one base)
1 irhi2 (3

i irh, (3

+ hi2) =

R - hi).
Fig. 57.

V(spherical segment of two bases)

= iirh(3ri2+3r22

+ h2).

58 Solid Angle
by any surface

(+),

at

any point

(P)

subtended

equal to the portion (A) of the surface of a sphere of unit radius which is cut out by
(S), is

a conical surface with vertex at

of

P and
=

the perimeter

for base.

The The

unit solid angle {^)

total solid angle

is

called a steradian.

about a point

4 ir steradians.

59 Ellipsoid

V =

I irabc.

Fig. 59.

60 Paraboloidal segment
V(8egment

V (segment of one base; = of two bases) =

Ti^h.

2 ird (ji^

+ T^).
Fig. 60,

20

Mathematics

61 Torus

V =

2 ir2Rr2.

Surface (S)

ir^Rr.

Fig. 61.

62 Solid (V) or Surface (S) of Revolution,

generated by revolving any plane area (A) or arc
(s)

about an axis
or arc.

in its plane,

and not crossing the area

B--A.

V=

2'irRA;

S =

2 irRs,

where R arc from

distance of center of gravity (G) of area or

Fig. 62.

axis.

ANALYTIC GEOMETRY
I.

Plane

63 Rectangular Coordinates.
Y'Y

(Fig. 63)

Let two perpendicular lines, X'X (x-axis) and (y-axis) meet in a point O (origin). The position of any point P (x, y) is fixed by the dis-

tances X (abscissa) and y (ordinate) from X'X, respectively, to P.

Y'Y and
Fig. 63, 64.

Note, low X'X.

is

+ to the right and to the left of Y'Y, y is + above and

(Fig. 64)

be-

64 Polar Coordinates.
line

Let O (origin or pole) be a point in the plane and OX (initial line) be any through O. The position of any point P (r, 6) is fixed by the distance (vectorial angle) measured r (radius vector) from O to the point and the angle from OX to OP.

Note,
clockwise.

is

terminal side of

produced; 8

measured along terminal side of 0, r is measured along is + measured counter-clockwise, 6 is measured

66 Relations connecting Rectangular and Polar Coordinates

r cos
9,

y
y2.

r sin

9.

= Vx2

4-

tan-i

sine

y
/ Vx2+y2'
,

cose

X
.

Vx2

+ y2

tan 9

V = i.

Analytic

Geometry

21

66 Points and Slopes.

Let Pi
(xi, yi)

(Fig. 66)

and P2

(x2, y2)

be any two points,

to P1P2, measured

and

let

a be the angle from

OX

counter-clockwise.

P1P2

= d = V(x2-xi)2
is

(y2-yi)2.
,

Mid-point of P,P2

(^^^
miya
'

^^j
:

Point which divides P1P2 in the ratio mi

/ miX2

m2 is
Fig. 66.

+ mzXi mi + m2

mi

+ mayi Y + m2 /
=
?^Slll.
X2

Slope of PiP2= tana

Xi

Angle between two lines of slopes mi and m2

is

P
if

tan-i

I -\-

^1" ^^ mim2

Two

lines of slopes

mi and m2 are perpendicular

ma =

mi

67 Locus and Equation

The
collection of all points

locus of that condition;

which satisfy a given condition is called the the condition expressed by means of the variable

coordinates of any point on the locus

The

locus

may

is called the equation of the locus. be represented by equations of three kinds:

Rectangxilar equation involves the rectangular coordinates

(x, y).

Polar equation involves the polar coordinates (r, Parametric equations express x and y or r and

6).

in

terms of a third inde-

pendent variable called a parameter.

The following equations are given in the system in which they are most simply expressed; sometimes several forms of the equation in one or more systems are given.

68 Straight Line.

(Fig. 68)

Ax+By + C = o[-A^B = slope] y = mx + b. [m = slope, b = intercept on OY]

y
,

yi

m (x - xi).
+ +
,

[m =

slope, Pi (xi,

yO

is

a =

a known point on Ax2 C ,. Byz

line]

VA2

[d

..

distance

from

a
Fig. 68.

B2

point P2

(X2, J2)

to the line

Ax

+ By +

C =0]
(radius)

point

69 Circle. Locus of a point at a constant distance C (center). [For mensuration of circle, see 45]
f
^

from a

fixed

(X
r'

h)2

(y

k)2

a2.

M + b2
x2

2 br cos (0 2 ax.
6.

p)

a2.

(2)

+ y2 =
=
2

a cos

C C C C

(h, k),

rad.

(b, p), rad.

(a, 0),
(a, o),

rad. rad.

= = = =

a. a. a.

a.

22
x2 4- y2
(3)

Mathematics

2 ay.

2 a sin

Fig. 69.
x2

+ y2
a.

a2.

(4)

= X =
r

a cos

<|>,

a sin <]>.

C C C

(o, o),
(o, o),

rad.
rad.

(0,0), rad.

= = =

a.
a. a,
j

angle from

OX to radius.
70 Conic.
Locus of a point whose distance from a fixed point (focus) is in a constant ratio, e (called eccentricity), to its distance from a fixed
straight line (directrix).
[Fig. 70]
_y

!x2

+ y2
_
I

e2 (d

+ x)2.
^

[d

distance from focus

to directrix]

de

e cos
is

The
ellipse

conic

called a parabola

when

<

a hyperbola

when e = when e > i

an

71 Parabola.

Conic where e

Analytic

Geometry
[For mensuration of ellipse, see 46]

23

72 Ellipse.

Conic where e

<

Fig. 72 (i).
(X

Fig. 72 (2).

- h)2

k)2 (y + ^=^17^=^

_ =

^_ I.

Center Center

(h, k),

axes

||

OX, OY. OX, OY.

1'

+ ^-'axis axis

(o, o),

axes along
a

> b. Fig.

Major Minor

Distance from center to either focus

Latus rectum
Eccentricity, e

Stun of distances of any point from the

foci,

pr + PF

24

Mathematics

Latus rectum
Eccentricity, e

2b2

_ V a2

+ b2
=
2 a.

Difference of distances of any point from the foci

Asjrmptotes are two lines through the center to which the branches of the

hyperbola approach indefinitely near; their slopes are

&

[Fig.

73 (i)] or

[Fig.

73

(2)].

Rectangular (equilateral) hyperbola, b

(X
(3)

= a. The asymptotes are perpendicular.

(h, k),

h) (y

k)

Center

asymptotes

||

OX, OY.

xy

Where the Where the

+ sign

[Fig.

Center

(o, o),

asymptotes along OX, OY.

in Fig.

gives the

smooth curve

73

(3).

sign gives the dotted curve in Fig. 73 (3).

74 Cubical

74 (0]

and Semicubical

[Fig.

74

(2)]

Parabolas

76 Witch.

[Fig. 75]

Fig. 74.
(i) (2)

Fig. 75.

y = y2 =

ax'. ax'.

8a
x2

+ 4a2

76 Cissoid.

[Fig. 76] [Fig. 77]

77 Strophoid.

Fig. 76.

Fig. 77.

2 a

Analytic

Geometrj

25

78 Sine Wave.

[Fig. 78]

Fig. 78.

y = asin (bx
y y

+ c). a cos (bx + c') =

a sin (bx

+ c), where c =

c'

=m sin bx + n cos bx = a sin (bx + c), where a = v m^ + n^, c = tan-^ ~'

consists of a succession of waves,

The curve
a
2
IT - = wave

where

= amphtude = maximum
length

height of wave.

distance from

any point on wave to the correspond-

D
ing point on the next wave.

X=

q- (called
b
half of the

the phase) marks a point on

OX from

which the positive

wave
79

starts.

79 Tangent

[Fig.

(i)]

and Cotangent

[Fig.

79

(2)]

Curves

80 Secant

[Fig. 80 (i)]

and Cosecant

[Fig.

80

(2)]

Curves

26

Mathematics

81 Exponential or Logarithmic Curves.

(i)

[F%. 8i]

= =

ab^ or X

log6-

(2)

y
X X

ab-^ or X

= logb
logb--

(3)

= ab^or y =

(4)

ab-^ or y

-log6
ae"a:

The equations y =
special cases of above.

and x = aeny are

Fig. 81.

82 Oscillatory

Wave

of

Decreasing Amplitude.

y-n6a;

Fig. 82.

= e-^

sin bx.

Note.

The curve

oscillates

between y = e~^ and y

= c

Curve made by a chain or cord of uniform weight suspended freely between two points [Fig. 83.] [For mensuration of at the same level.

83 Catenary.

catenary, see 49].

y=5(ea + e"i)-

Analytic

Geometry
17

84 Cycloid.
straight line.

Curve described by a
[Fig. 84]

point on a circle which rolls along a fixed

^
Fig. 84.

fx = a y

(<^

(i

sin

<|>)

cos

<^).

85 Epicycloid.
on a
circle

Curve described by a point

along the outside of a fixed

which

rolls

circle.

[Fig. 85]

=
=

(a

+ b) cos a cos
4>

<t).

(a

+ b) sin a sin
|>

<|>

J.

Fig. 85.

86 Cardioid.
and

Epicycloid with radii of fixed

rolling circles equal.

[Fig. 86]

r = a (i + cos 6). r=a(i+sin0).

[Fig.

86 rotated

through

(i

+ 90]
cos
0).

[Fig.

86 rotated through
180'']

r=a(i

+
sin0).
[Fig.

86 rotated through

-90]

87 Hypocycloid.
a
circle

Curve described by a point on

circle.

which
(a

rolls

along the inside of a fixed

X y

=
=

b) cos

<^

+ b cos

bsinf

- ^

(a

b) sin<|>

<{>)

Fig. 88,

88 Hypocycloid of four cusps :

the radius of the rolling
xl
circle.

radius of fixed circle equals four times

[Fig. 88J

+ yi =
=

ai.

a cos ^,

sin^

<^.

28

Mathematics

89 Involute of the Circle.

by the end of a string which
being
is

Curve described
kept taut while
[Fig. 89]

unwound from a

circle.

{X = a cos 4>
y

a sin

<|>

a <|> sin<}>. a <|> cos <^.;

Fig. 89.

90 Lemniscate.

Locus

of a point

which moves

so that the product' of its distances from points (foci) is constant; -or PF' X PF =
I*

two
a^.

fixed

r2

= =

2 a2 cos 2 2 a^ sin 2

0.

'

(Fig. 90]
[Fig.

e.

90 turned through 45!

Fig. 90.

/'

91 N-leaved Rose
(i) r
(2) r

= =

/o
(2)!

asinne.- *[itig.9i (i)]

acosne._^

[^g. 91

There arein
even.

leai^es ifjn is

odd, 2

leaves

if

is

2n

yb^^^^ZsL:^

Figs. 91

(i),

91 (2).

92 Spirals.

[Fig. 92]

Fig. 92 (1).
(i)

Fig. 92 (3).
(3)

Archimedian.

Logarithmic.
r

ae.

ea^.

Analytic

Geometry

29

n. SoUd
93 Coordinates
Let three mutually perpendicular planes,
planes) meet in a point

XOY, YOZ, ZOX

(coordinate

(origin).

P P

Rectangular system. The position of a point (x, y, z) in space is fixed by its three distances

X, y,

and

Cylindrical system.
(r,

XOY

from the three coordinate planes. The position of any point 0, z) is fixed by z, its distance from the plane, and by (r, 9), the polar coordinates
z

of the projection of

in the

XOY
as

plane.

Relations connecting rectangular and cylindrical

coordinates are the same

those

given

in 65.

94 Points, Lines, and Planes

Distance (d) between two points Pi
(xi, yi, Zi)

a
(

= V(X2 -

xi)2

(y2

y02

Direction cosines of a line (cosines of the angle;

any

parallel line

makes with the coordinate

cos2

axes) ar
cos2 7

a b

+
:

cos2 p

If

cos a

cos P

cos 7

a
,

c,

then cos a

=
Va2

+ b2 + c2
:

cos P

=
Va2

+ b2 + c2
(xi, yi, Zi)

Direction cosines of the line joining Pi

cos a cos P
:

cos 7

X2

Xi

y2

yi|

Angle

(0)

between two
cos 9

lines,
tti

whose direction angles

euj

cos
is

cos

+ cos pi cos P2 + cc
0,

Equation of a plane

of the first degree in x, y, ai

Ax
pendicular to the plane.

+ By + Cz + D =

where A, B, C are proportional to the direction

cosij

or per-

Angle between two planes is the angle between tneir normal Equations of a straight line are two equations of the first degree,
Aix

+ Biy +

Ciz

+ Di =
and
xi
c,

0,

A2X

+ B2y + C2Z + D2 =
(xi, yi, Zi)

o.

Equations of a straight Une through the point Pi

cosines proportional to a, b,

with direction

yi

Zi

95 Cylindrical Surfaces
The
locus in space of

an equation containing only two of the coordinates

its

X, y, z is

a cylindrical surface with

elements perpendicular to the plane of

30
the two coordinates.

Mathematics
Considered as a plane geometry equation, the equa-

tion represents the curve of intersection of the cyHnder with the plane of the

two coordinates.

Fig. 95 (i).

Fig. 95 (2).

Fig. 95 (3).

Circular cylinders.
x2
(I)
,

[Fig. 95]
f

[For mensuration see 53]

+ y2
=
a.

a2.

x2

+ y2 =
=

2 ax.
6.

I r

2 a cos

Parabolic cylinder (3) y^

ax.

96 Surfaces of Revolution
curve y

Equation of the surface of revolution obtained by revolving the plane = f (x) or z = f (x) about OX,

y2+z2 =
Sphere (revolve
circle x^
-|-

[f(x)P.

y2

x2

_|_

y2 _^

= a' about OX) 2^ = a^. [For mensuration

y2 e^

of sphere, see 57]

Soheroid

X2 (revolve ellipse -5

about OX)
^

~2

+
_|_

TT =
22

(prolate

if

>

b,

oblate

if

>

a).

[For mensuration of ellipsoid, see 59]

Cone

(revolve line y

= mx
y2

about OX)

m^x^.

Paraboloid (revolve parabola y^

y2
-|-

22

ax.

[For mensuration of cone, see 54] ax about OX) [For mensuration of paraboloid, see 60]

97 Space Curves

A
or

curve in space

may

be represented by two equations

connecting the coordinates

x, y, z of any point on the curve, by three equations expressing the coordinates x, y, z in

terms of a fourth variable or parameter.

Helix.

Curve generated by a point moving on a cylinder

so that the distance traversed parallel to the axis of the cylinder

is

proportional to the angle of rotation about the axis.

X where a

a cos

6,

asinO, z

radius of cylinder, 2 irk

= =

k8, [Fig. 97]

pitch.

Fio. 97.


Differential Calculus

31

DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
98 Definition of Function.

Notation
if,

A variable y is said to be a
y
is

function of another variable x,

when x
of x.

is

given,

determined.

The sjrmbols f (x), F(x), <}>(x), etc., represent various functions The symbol f (a) represents the value of f(x) when x = a.
99 Definition of Derivative.
Let y

Notation
(increase or decrease) given to x,

=
is

f(x).

If

Ax

is

any increment

and Ay

the corresponding increment in y, then the derivative of y with respect to x is the limit of the ratio of Ay to Ax as Ax approaches zero, that is

dy -^ = ,. ]im -~ =

Ay

hm
,.

f (x
-^

Ax)
j-^

f(x) ^-^

^,, , =f (x).

B = S (S) = S*" =
The symbols
. .

*"'W-

t3d derivative]

f'(a), f"(a)

f<>(a)

represent the values of

f (x),

f"(i)

f'"'(2!).

respectively,

when x =

a.

100

Some
= =
f(y).

Relations
then

Among

Derivatives

Ifx Ifx

g = i^|
y

f(t),

and and

F(t),

then

Uy =

m,

u =

F(x),

% = %^% then | = |.^.

u and
v,

101 Table of Derivatives

Functions of x are represented by
n,

constants are represented

by

a,

and

e.

^x

du dv di=*=di=*=-'
.

32

dxVv/

Differential Calctilus

103 Slope of a Curve.

Tangent and Normal

The

slope of the curve (slope of the tangent line

is

to the curve) whose equation

f (x) is

Slope

=
=

tan<|>
Xi is

^=

f'(x).

Slope at X

mi

= f (xi).
(xi,

Equation of tangent line at Pi

yO

is

y - yi = mi (x - Xi). Equation of normal at Pi (xi, yi) is

84
If f"(xi)

Mathematics

=
if

or 00

then for a maximum,

for a

f "(xi) =
f'"(X:)

o or

oo

and

f"^(xi)

minimum,
etc.

o or oo, and f^(xi)

< o, > o,

and

similarly

f^(xi)

o or oo,

In a practical problem which suggests

that

the function, f(x),

or has

has a
in

maximum
interval x

minimum
b,

an

=
X.

a to x

merely equate
largest or

f (x)

to zero

and

solve for the required

find

value of

To

the

smallest values of a function, f(x), in

an interval x
105 at

a to x
S) these

b, find also

the values f(a) and f(b), for (see Fig.

be the largest and smallest values although they are not

values.

L and

may

Fig. 105.

maximum

or

minimum

106 Points of Inflection of a Curve

Wherever Wherever
f"(x) f"(x)
is

< > =

o,

the curve the curve

or 00

is is

o,

concave down. concave up.

The curve
at X

said to have a point of inflection

Xi if f"(xi)

cave up on one side of x

on the other

(see points

Ii

and the curve is conXi and concave down and I2 in Fig. 106).

Differential Calculus

35

Some Standard

Series

The following series are obtained through expansions of the functions by Taylor's or Maclaurin's theorems. The expression in brackets following each series gives the region of convergence of the series, that is, the values of x for
which the remainder, Rn, approaches zero as n increases, so that a number of terms of the series may be used for an approximation of the function. If the region of convergence is not indicated, it is to be understood that the series
converges for
all finite

values of

x.

In

n.)

108 Binomial Series

(a

+ xr =

a^

+ na-x + ^^5^ a-x^ + 5L^^^^^

[x2

<

a2]

Note. The series consists of (n + i) terms when n is a positive integer; the number of terms is infinite when n is a negative or fractional number.
(a

-bx)-^ = -

^i

- +-^ + -^ +

.j.

[b^x^

<

a^]

109 Exponential Series

a*

^ X In a + +
1
.

(xlna)2
.

+
.

(xlna)g
.

+
.

x2

x^

110 Logarithmic Series

In X

(x

i)

Hx

i)''

+ Hx i)'

[x

between o and

2]

x2 x3 X* ln(i+x)=x-| + |-|+

....
J"1

'

L2a

+ x^ 3V2a + x; ^5\2a + xy ^
positive

G between a and +00

Mathematics

^ V~T~) "^ L^^+T + 3(2X +

i)3

+ 5(2X + i)5+

'

J-

[x positive]

111 Trigonometric Series

smx =

-j

h
3
15

[7

tanx

+ i7JE:+62^ ^ x+^V?^ 15 2835 3 315

23 ^ 2.45 ^2.4.67 ^ = x-ix3 + 1x6-^x7+

[-?]
^ J

tan-ix

[x

i]

112 Logarithmic Trigonometric Series

lnsinx

= lnx- X2
6
X2
X*

X*

180
X

2835

x^ -

[x^ ^

< ir2]
^

In cos

x=
=

17X8

2
In x

12

45

2520

Intanx

++ 3 ^

^ +^^ +
90

2835

113 Exponential Trigonometric Series

3X*_8x5
\2

3^
"^
*
'

^^ ^

.tan

x^i.x + -4-^V^ + ^^4-.

[-3

Differential Calculus

37

114 Approximations of Expressions Containing Small Terms

may be derived from various infinite series given in 108-113. Some approximations derived by neglecting all powers but the first of the small positive or negative quantity x = s are given below. The expression in brackets gives the next term beyond that which is used and by means of
These
first
it

the accuracy of the approximation

may

be estimated.

'-^rT-s =
(i+s)" = i+ns.
e'

t+^''

[+ii5-Zi)s]

= r+s.

[+f] [-|]

ln(i+s)=s.
sin s

= =

s.

[-g
+ S2) =
(l

cos s
(l

I.

+ Si)
is

(l

+ Si

[-1] + S2) + 8182]

[

The

following expressions are

where s

some that may be approximated by a small positive or negative quantity and n is any number.

s,

V^i+ns.

2-e-*.

i+nsin|v

i+nlnfi +

^]

cosV- 2S.

116 Evaluation of Indeterminate

Let
f (x)

Forms
and
let

[see Algebra, 2]

and F(x) be two functions

of x,

a be a value

of x-

(i) If
^

i^T^ F(a)
>

- or

00*

use

y.,,

for the value of this fraction.

F'(a)

If -;,

F'(a)

- or

00

use -.,.

F"(a)

for the value of this fraction, etc.

'

(2) If f (a)

F(a)

00 or if f (a)

F(a)

00

00

evaluate by changing

the product or difference to the form - or 00 o

F{a) (3) If f(a)

and use
=

(i).

0 or 00 or i*,

then
.

f ra)F(a)

eF^a) -inffa), [Algebra, 8]

(2).

and

the exponent, being of the form o

00

may be

evaluated by

38

Mathematics

116 Differential of a Function

If

f (x)

increment of
multiplied

x, or

and Ax = increment in x, then the differential of x equals the dx = Ax; and the differential of y is the derivative of y
differential of x,
r//
\

by the

thus

dy

J ^dx

dy

df(x) J

-^ dx = f
-J-

(x) dx,

and

^ = dy

dx.

If X = fi(t) and y = U{t), then dx = fi'(t) dt, dy Every derivative formula has a corresponding from the table loi, we have, for example,

fa'Ct)

dt
thus

differential formula;

(uv)

= u dv

+ V du;
of

(sin u)

cos

u du; d

(tan-^ u)

^,

etc.

117 Functions
Differentials

Several

Variables.

Partial

Derivatives.

Let z be a function of two variables, z

are

f (x, y),

then

its partial

derivatives

~ax ay
ax

5z

ss

dz - when y J
,

dx

is

kept constant, t^
. . ^ kept ^ constant,
,

5z - =

dz -- when X dy
,

is

dx \dx)
if

'

ay2

ay \dyj

'

ax ay
)

ax \ ayj

ay Vax j

""

ay ax*

Similarly,

f (x, y, u,

then, for example,

If

-J-

when

y, u,

are kept constant.

x, y,

=
~ =

f (x, y,

and
"^

are functions of a single variable,

t,

dt
If z

ax dt
f(x, y,

"^

ay dt

'

'

),

then dz
o,

^dx + ~ dy +

If

F(x, y, z,

then

^^^^

+ dy + dz +
Two

- o.

Iff(..y)=o.the|=-|-.|.
118
If

Maxima and Minima

u =
f(x,y), the values of

of Functions of

Variables
or a mini-

x and y which make u a

/d2^\ /a2u\

maximum

mum
au ai

must

satisfy the conditions

=
"^

^'

au a^

a^u \2

'

[didji < [di^l

.

Wr
and
,

[maximum! > also Iminimum J

,
.
.

requires both ^

^,

a^u
-r-r

dx^

a^u^ fnegativel .^. } T, to be [positive J dj^

,
"^

Differential Calculus

39

119 Space Curves.

Let X

Surfaces
z

(see Analytic

Geometry, 95-97)

be the equations of any space curve. The direction cosines of the tangent line to the curve at any point are profi(t),

f2(t),

faCt)

portional to dx, dy,

and

dz, or to-jr, -rr,

and

-rr-

Equations of tangent line at a point

(xi, yi, Zi)

are

(see Analytic

Angle between two space curves is the angle between their tangent lines, Geometry, 94) Let F(x, y, z) =0 be the equation of a surface. Direction cosines of the normal to the surface at any point sire proportional

aF
ax'

aF
ay'

aF
az'
(xi, yi, Zi)

Equations of the normal at any point

are

X -xi _ y -yi ^ z -zi * /aF\ /aF\ /aF\ \dyji Vaxji \dzli

Equation of the tangent plane at any point
(xi, yi, Zi) is

(x-.)(i),+ (y-.)(|).+ (.-z.)(i).==o.

(aF\ --J

is

the value of

aP at the point
is

(xi, yi, Zi), etc.

Angle between two surfaces

the angle between their normals.

INTEGRAL CALCULUS
120 Definition of Integral
F(x)
is

said to be the integral of f(x),

if

the derivative of F(x)

is f(x),

or the

differential of F(x) is f (x) dx;

in symbols:
if

F(x)

= Jf (X) dx

^^ =
+ C,

f (X), or

d F(x)

f (x)

dx.

In general

jf (x) dx = F(x)

where C

is

an arbitrary constant.

121 Fundamental Theorems on Integrals

Jdf(x)

=f(x)+C.

djf(x)dx = f(x)dx.
/[fl(x)

f2(x)
=
a

dx = Jfi(x) dx
where a
is

Jf2(x) dx

. .

/u^i
J
u" du

af(x) dx

j f(x) dx,

any constant.
is

(n ?^

i);

any function

of x.

40

w*

Mathematics

du

=?=

Inu

+ C;

is

any function

of x,

udv =

uy'.-7

j V

du;

u and v

are

any functions

of x.

Table of Integrals
In .the following table, the constant of integration (C) is omitted but should be added to the result of every integration. The letter x represents any variable; the letter u represents any function of x; all other letters represent constants which
In

Note.

may have any

finite

value unless otherwise indicated;

logc;. all angles are in radians.

Functions containing ax
22

+b

J(ax

+ brdx =

^-^^^3p^(ax

+ b)+^

(115^-1)

24 /x(ax

b)" dx

^^^

(ax

+ b)"^^ -

^^^

(ax

+ b)+i.

(n? -I, -2)

J''
25
-,
/

a3Ln + 3
(n 9^

n4-2

ij

-I, -2, -3)

f^Th ^ h \l ^^ +
x2dx
I

l>)'

2 b(ax

+ b) + b2 In (ax + b)]

30 Jo,^+b)^ = ;[ih(^
31 Jx"(ax

fi

+ ^) + ^^Tb-^(.Gr+bpJ'
.

v^

2b

b2

-]

+ b)" dx +n+
r^

= =
^32 J x(ax
*-33

a(m

-^

rr i)L

rx"(ax+b)"+i -mb

fx^Hax+b)"dxl J J
.

^+^
dx dx

[x-^Hax+b)"

+ nb /x'(ax+b)-dx]

^ +^nj
pos.v

[^

+ b) =b^^^Tb' ax + b a = -r^ + ^ln bx x x2(ax + b) b2"*

I
,

'

134 *-^*

f Jx(ax

+ b)2

^
b(ax

i_

+ b)

b^

'

Integral Call

41

10- r '^ J xHm

+ b)^ ~

+ 2ax b^xCax + b)
b

,2a, 2a
b=

"^

*"

^* wr^ v +h

^V~ Hs
.

s>

138 190 139

140

x(ax

Vax rV(ut
J
I

'''x(ax ., + b)5-' , + b)2 b(n - 2)(ax + b^' , v^ \^^J Vb Vax+b b b. + J/c, dx = 2 V ax + (b POS.V 7=b + v b In X Vax+b + Vb
,

'fe

,.

^
-J

/^^Idx = 2VS+b-2V3btan->\/?ii^.
/(5^dx=?(ax + b)5+b/'.5^^^dx. X
dx
/ fJ x^Vax

(bneg.)

\
.

141

(noddandpos.)
,.

142
143

Vax

+b

+b

bx

b Vb

In

Vax Vax
,

+ b - Vb + b + Vb
"
>

-7^'

(b pos.)

r_-J^==-^^^l-_^tan-V^^ bV-b x^Vax bx

+b
-

(^ ^^S')

1*^

/ (ax + bHpx + q)
"^^

bF^
=

'"

!iTb-

(bP-^'I'^o)

^*^ /(ax+b?(px+q) i4e f ^ J (ax

==b?^[sq:b + b^'"S+b]-

(bp-aqp^o)

+ b)" (px + q)""

_ (m -

i)

(bp

? - aq) f L(ax + b)""' (px + q)-i

- a (m + n 1^7 148 ^*

2)

J^^ ^ b)''(px + q)]

>
I,

(m

pos.,

bp

aq

7^ o)

/( ax+b)^x+q) =

= f J (ax+b)2 (px+q) bp

^^

^S>
- aqL
^

^^

+ ^^ -P^ ^^^+^^]^

^'^-^'^^"^
ax
(bp

r
a(ax

+ b)

.__JL_inP^L+Ji"I.
bp

aq

+ bj
aq

7^ o)

149
160

/ v^^d^c =
Vax + b r^li5tidx = ^ px + q
-

px

+q

(3

aq

bp

4- apx)

Vax + b.
_,

Vax

+b

-kV

aq

bp

Jp(ax

+ b)
bp
aq

aq

(p pos.,

>

bp)

42

Mathematics

151

r ^ax + b J ^^ + q

^^

Vax
P

+b

iiApH^ln

pVp
I

^p(ax+b) - Vbp-aq Vp(ax+b) + Vbp-aq*

(p pos.,

bp

>

aq)

152

(, (px J
/-

tan-v/P^5;^. ^T^^ v p Vaq iV aq bp bp + q)vax + b ^J

dx

(ppos.,aq> ^^ ^ bp) ^
*

(px

+ q)Vax + b
*
In

Vp Vbp

^ Vp(ax + b) - Vbp - aq - aq Vp(ax + b) + Vbp - aq

(p pos.,

bp

>

aq)

Vax + b

aVap
(a

(Vp(ax

+ b) + Va(px + q)).
aV ap
(a

and "p, same

sign)

aVpx + q
signs)

and p have opposite

I *

Vi^Tb V^^+^ + _bp-^ 2aV ap _, 2 apx + aq + bp 7 sin (a and p have opposite signs)
.
.

..

Dp

~~

aq

Functions containing ax^

+b

-^

dx

xVa

V b

V ab
I

In

Vb xV3^ p: + 7=-* Vb xV^

X

(a neg.,

pos.)

1K7 ^*"

r
J(ax2

dx

2n-3 r

158

+ b)" 2(n-i)b(ax2+b)-i'^2(n-i)bJ r(ax2 + b)-xdx = ^^^?^-:^'. (np^-i) n 2 a J

-f-

dx /ninteg.N (ax2+b)^i V >i /

xdx
dx

160
ifii *-^'*-

/i (ax2 + b)
f J ax2
x^ x2dx dx

= -Vln
2 b

ax2

+b
^
^

^X
a

b n r

dx ax

162 ^"'^

r J (ax2

^^

+b + b)"

aJ ax2+b'
2(n

i)a (ax^

b)"-i

^ 2(n I

i)a

f
(ax^

^
+ b)-i
>
i)

(n integ.

1^ J x'(ax' + b)" = lf ^(^^% b)"- ~ I / (ax' + b)"

CPO^i"**^-)

a
Integral Calculus

b
43

164
166

fVax2
i/

+ b dx =

Vax^

In +2 "TT^ V a

(xVa + Vax2+b)
^x y/ -

(a pos.)

J Vax2 + b dx = I Vax^ + b + ^==^ sin-i

f J Vax2

^^

(a

negj

166

= -7=1 (x^a + Vax2 + b) -7^= +b V

(a pos.)

168

fVax2
/

+ b X dx =
T
,

/xdx
170
171

3a

(ax*

+ b)^-

1
J

^"; + " dx = Vi?+b + Vbln ^^'+J^-^"

(b pos.)

= V;G?Tb-Vrbtan-^;;^5. f:::^ldx X V Vax2 Vb I b dx + r

,

(b eg.)

,.

174

fVax2+b

x2dx

4a

(ax2

+b + b)^ -^Vax^ o a
In (x

aVa
175

Va +

Vax2

+ b)
b

(a pos.)

bx rVax2+bx2dx = ^(ax2 + b)^-5^Vax2 + oa

4a

76 ^'^ J Vax2
1 1

C^^= +b
/'^

""safe^^^'l^V^)- ^""'^-^ = Vax2 + b In (x Va + Vax^ + b) 2a

2 a

^
Va

(a pos.)

77 ^''

f JVax^ +b

Vax2 + b ^ 2a
-

-V= sin-i 2aV3^

V
_^

v/_ V

a'^
.

(a neg.)

b/
.

178
179

^a^^+b ^ ^ _ V^+b ^ ^-j^ (^^-

v^ii^Tb)

(a pos.)

/^^:^dx =
r
J
X2

^^^ - V:^a
^ax^ + b bx

sin- (x

\/^^

(a neg.)

ion

1^

^
Vax^

+b
_
x^-i

/.

x"dx

Vax*

+b

(n

i)

b f

x**-^dx

b
44

'

Mathematics

182

fx" J

+ "^ - j5^^4^ fx"- VSnpb dx. ViF+b dx = ^7^ (n + 2) a J (n + 2) a

'

(n pos.)

dx

^^^

Vax^

+b

(n 2) a r

dx
^"^

Jx^VSiMTb"

b(n-i)x"-i

(n-i)bJxn-2V^iH^-

>

'^

185 J(ax2

+ b)^dx =

|(2 ax2

+ 5 b)

Vax^
_

+b
(a pos.)

+ ^-;7^1n (x Va + Vax2 + b).

186 J(ax2

3b2

+ b)3dx =

(2 ax2

+ 5 b)

Vax^

+b
(aneg.)

+ ^fesin-i(xV/-^)187

f^^ = _^=. Vax2

(ax2

188
189 190
191

J
-^

fCax^

+ b) b +b (ax2 + b)l + b)xdx = 5a

b)

= r-^^ +
(ax2

^^.
a Vax2
""
,

+b

C-^^- = ^
(ax2

+ b)^

a Vax2

+b

+ -i- In (x V^ -r + V|[ii~+b). ^-r

a

Va

(a pos.) / h
v

-^(ax^

r-i^=---A^= + _^sin-(xv/-^V V b/
+ b)^
aVax2

+b

aV-a

(aneg.)
'
*^

^^^ /x(ax"

+ b)=^^''ax%b'
I

193
194

dx_^
b

j^V^^-x^,
Vax"

^xVax" +
f Vax^

nVb
_
2

+ b +Vb
(beg.)

,^

dx

+b

2=sec-V::^. V

Functions containing ax^

+ bx + c

iokT 195
I

o Jax2

bx + c +V
<1^
i ,

Vb2-4ac
2

1 ftc

dx

,2ax + b Vb2 4 ac In 2ax + b + v'b^ - 4ac 2 ax + b ^

,
,

(b2

>

4 ac)

,, ,

Integral Calculus

45

dx

bx

+c

200
201
A-

f
-^

^
Vax2
,

+ bx + c
dx

= 4-^" (^ ^^ + ^ + ^ ^^ ^^'

Va
I

+ bx + cV
.

(apos.)

r
^
I

vax2

bx

=
c

-7= sin-i
V a

., 2ax b/(a neg.)

Vb^

4ac
-

202
203

<> rVax^+bx+cdx="-i?+5 Vax^+bx+c + 45r:^ f 4a 8 a J vax2+bx+c J

^ Vax2
/

204
oAc 205
one 206

+ bx + c r Vax2 + bx + c
r
dx
,

xdx ^

Vax2

+
a

px bx

__b^ b r
2 a

dx
__
2 a
^
_

X dx

=
I

(^x'

+
\

^^+<^^^

_
^ ^

3 a
,

^ Jf Vax^ + bx +
,
'

c dx.

r V
I

/Vax2

X V ax2
,

+
dx

bx

+c
:^

Vc
I

7=ln
.
,

+ bx + c + Vc +
.
.

ax2

207

fX Vax2 ,
f
-^

+bx + c

+ bx

bx + 2 c v-c X v b2 - 4 ac =-^Vax2 + bx.

= -7^ sin-1

v
.

b \
7^

(epos.]

c/

(c neg.)

208

^^
(ax2

=
(b2

2 (2 ax

+ bx + c)^

4 ac) Vax2

+ b) + bx + c

Functions containing sin ax

209 J

sin

u du = cos u.
ax dx
9

(u

is

any function

of x)

210 J
011 211
I J

sin

cos ax.
sin 2

r sin2 ax dx J = X
I

24a

ax

212

^
I

sin'

ax dx

cos ax

+ 3a
-

cos' ax.

sin* axdx = ^x sin2ax-| sin 4 ax. ^ J 4a 8 32 a sin"-iaxcosax ,n if.^. n^A C sin" n J = sin"^ ax dx. ax dx 214 J J

213

'

(n pos. integ.)

.x^

215 216
o-

= -bi =-lntan r^^ sin ax 2 a a = -icotax.

a

(esc

ax

cot ax).

J sin2ax f
dx

r-T^

^^^

JsS^=

dx I cos ax n 2 / ~a:(5:^:7)sin-iax+J^riJsin-2ax*
,

("^

^"teg.

>

i)

218

Ji+sinax

(-^

itan(^-5?y
a
\4

2/


46

Mathematics

219

r_J?_ = icot(^-!?). I Sin ax a 2/ \4

a Vb2

Jb + csinax
221 000 222
C J b

c^

[_Vb
^^

+c

V4

2 yj

^
^

^^

+ c sin ax
'

~^
^ Vc^
b^

c+bsinax+^^c2-b'^cosax

(^2

r sin ax sm u A = bx dx I J

sin (a

2 (a

b) X
Tr^

b)

+ c sin ax sin (a + b) x 7rr^ 2 (a + b)

b

>

b^)

/ , _^ .on (a^ 7^ b^)

Functions containing cos ax

223
(

cos

u du =

sin u.

(u

is

any function

of x)

224
225

fcos ax dx
fcos^ ax dx
cos'

=
=

- sin ax. - H

/J
axdx=
(cos*

J
I

Vi Vi +

cos x dx

= V2 Jsin ^ dx.
= V2
I

cos x dx

cos - dx.

-sin ax

3a

sin' ax.

227

axdx =

|xH
na

sin2axH

sin 4 ax.
^^
.^^^

228

fcos" ax dx

= cos"-^"sinax

^ n-^ r_^ ^ ^ n ^

230
231
-^^

/^
cos^

ax

=a S*"I

/-dx

^5^^ =
I

sinax.n 2/'dx

ir(S^-r) c-5i=:^^

+ 5^^ J

clS^;^^-

( "''^-

/.^^n > )

232
233

r--J5_
dx

+ COS ax
cos ax

= ltan!?.
a
2
I

rI J

^ax
cot

234
235
00c 236

C^-^ = J b + c COS ax
fi-r^? b + c COS ax J

a Vb^ a Vc^

^^

c^

tan-(v/|Pto")2/^(b^ \Vb c

>=^)

i_,^ c + bcosax + V^?3^siaa;

b^

b
b) X

r u J I cos ax cos bx dx J

= -72 (a
sin (a

^^^ b)

+
,

sin (a ^ . 2 (a

+ c cos ax + b) X (a^ + b)
,
,

5^ b^)

Functions containing sin ax and cos ax

norr

237
238
ooft

fcos C J Jsmaxcosbxdx=--[ \_^^ +

'

1-

(a

b) X

cos (a

+ b) x"l
J.

^^^
(n 5^

(a'^^b^)

...

fsin" ax cos ax dx
,

=
sm

a (n +1;
ax.

sin'H-i ax.

i).

239

rcos ax dx I sin ax

- In


240
nAt

Integral Calculus

47

241

J C cosaxdx

((b
I

-7r (b + c sin ax)"+i. + csinax)**cosaxdx = ac (n I)

-.

(n f^

i)

-]N

J b
J
I I

r,

+ c sin ax

-.

ac

In (b + c sm ax).
I
,

/I.

242
0^0 243

cos" ax sin ax dx

=
a

-.

(,n

+
;

rcos^+^ax.

(n ?^

i).

i;

f sin ax, dx = J cos ax

ICb J

i, In cos ax.

244
245 246
ciATj

+ c cos ax)* sin ax dx =

c cos

-.

ac

(.n

+
;

(b

i;

+ c cos ax)"+i.

(n 5^

i)

fir; J b +

ax

dx =

ac

In (b
^

+ c cos ax).
'

fi-. ^ b sm ax
I

= ^ / + c cos ax ^ Vb^

+ c^

Inftan-fax 2 V L

+ tan-^^^T b J
/

> 9 J = X ax dx 247 C sin2 ax cos^ 8 J

sin 4 ax

32 a

248
249

- In tan ax. ^ sm ax cos ax = a J

.

= i f , ^^ , a J sm2 ax cos2 ax
.

(tan ax ^

cot ax). '

250
251

J cos ax

r52^dz
dx

= ir-smax
a L

+ lntan(?5 + ^)l. 4 J V 2
/

J smax

aL

cos ax

+ In tan

2J

oeo 252

C sm'" m ax cos" n J = ax dx I J
'

sm"*"i ax cos"+i ax
-.

a (m
\

+ n)
j

m 7^
-.

ftco

253

I J

r sm*" . J ax cos" ax dx =

sin"^! ax cos"-i ax
;

c (m +
I
;

j sin'"-^

ax cos" ax dx.

(m, npos.)

n)
sin"*

n
-\

-j-

n
I

c
I

ax cos""^ ax dx.

(m,

pes.)

t/

n-, 254

cos"+i ax cos" ax fCOS"aXj _ .^ dx "" a (m i) sin"^^ ax J sin"* ax

m n 2 cos" ax J + (m-i) Jsl5^^^=^^/

,

(m,

pes.,

m
^

P^ I)

OKK

r sin"* ax J cos" ax

_
a (n

sin"^^ ax

I )

cos"-i ax

m n-f-2
256
dx

sin"*

ax

I f J cos ax cos ax J (i sin^ax)" rcos2"ax, OCT f dx = I 2A1 I . ^dx. J J smax smax

,
-.

dx.

(Expand, divide, and use 224-229)

(Expand, divide, and use 210-215) v f

/t-

..

-j

) )

48

Mathematics
rsin^^+iaXj dx 1 cos ax ax J dx sin ax
;

oeo 268
ocn 269

/-(i
I J

cos^ax)" sin ax
.

cos ax

dx.

J
I

rcos^^H-i

/-(i
^

(Expand, divide, and use 242-243)

sin^ax)^
-.

sin ax

~ cos ax dx.
,

(Expand, divide, and use 238-239)

Functions containing tan ax

cot ax/

or cot ax
of x)

tan ax/

260 J
261

tan u du

= In cos u. = -

(u

is

any function

ftan ax dx
rtan2 ax dx

In cos ax.

262

=-

tan ax

x.

263 /tan" ax dx = ^(^_

^\

t^n^^i ax

- Jtan^^ ax dx.
of x)

(n integ.

>

i)

264
265

cot
J

u du =
dx

In sin u.

(u

is

any function

J
J

cot ax

J tanax

- In sin ax.
x.

266

fcot^ ax dx

= ^ r^ = ~- cot ax J tan^ ax a

267 /cofa^cdx =

/ji^=

-^j~ cot- ax - /cot-axdx.

(n integ.

>

i)

268
269

Ir ctanax = Jbcotax+c Ic r- = Jb +
I
i

i:r~i

b^

;|bx+-ln(bcosax+csinax) a c^L + J

;l bx ln(ccosax+bsinax) { liTT V- = z:^^ Jb b^ + c^L a + ccotax = Jbtanax+c ^J

1

270
271

*^

, f VI

=-sinax.
*

+tan2ax
^'^

{
^^

vb+ctan^ax

'

aVb-c

sin-i (

V/^^ X'^b
)

sin ax),
}

(b pes., b^

>

c')

Functions containing ^ sec ax

=
-

cos ax/

or esc ax
1*

-,

smax/

272

secudu = ln(secu4-tanu)=lntan(
J

+-

(u

is

any function

of x)

273 J'secaxdx=ilntan

(^ + -y

274
276

fsec^ ax dx

= =

- tan ax.
^
, ,

fsec" ax dx
CSC

a(n i) cos"-iax
u

^^^^^

+ '^^ f sec"-^ ax dx. n J

i

(n integ.

>

276 J

u du =

In (esc

cot u) =

In tan -

(u

is

any function

of x)

Integral Calculus

49

277 278

rcscaxdx= J
fcsc^ ax dx

- Intan
Si

cot ax.

279 /csc'^dx =

-^^-^^^-P^ + ^/csc^axdx.

(ninteg.>i)

Functions containing tan ax and sec ax or cot ax and esc ax

280
281 282

(tan u sec u du = sec u.

(tan ax sec ax dx

(u

is

any function

of x)

- sec ax.

ftan" ax sec2 ax dx
sec'^

tan^i

ax.

(n ?

- 1)

283

ax dx tanax

In tan ax.

284
285 286 287 *"'

(cot u CSC u du

= CSC u. =

(u

is

any function

of x)

fcot ax CSC ax dx
fcot'*
/'csc^

esc ax.

J
J
I

ax csc2 ax dx

a (n
,

r ^, I) +

cot"+i ax.

(n 5^

- 1)

ax dx r^ cotax

In cot ax.

Inverse Trigonometric Functions

288
289

fsin-i ax dx
cos-i ax

= X =

sin-i

ax

+ - Vi Vi
2 a

a^x^

f
J

dx

X cos-^ ax

a^x^.

290
291 292 293

ftan-i ax dx
fcot-i ax dx

= X tan-^ ax
= X cot-i ax

In (i

+ a^x^). + a^xa). + Va^x^ + Va^x^ i).

+ 2

In

(i

0.

fsec"^ ax dx
fcsc-i ax dx

X sec-^ ax
csc-i ax

In (ax

= X

- In (ax

i).

Algebraic and Trigonometric Functions

294
295

fX
./

sin ax

dx

= ^ sin a^

ax

x cos ax.
^c^-^

fx"* sin ax

dx =

- - x" cos ax +
3[3
5l5

cos ax dx.

(n pos.)

296

(ax)3 (axy pjn^^^_(^^^(a.y

50

/I
X cos ax dx

Mathematics
X sin ax. +a
I

= cos ax
a-*

298

fx" cos ax dx = - x"

sin ax

J^""^

sin ax dx.

(n pos.)

2[2

4[4

Exponential, Algebraic, Trigonometric, Logarithmic Fimctions

b" du
e"

/b"
j

= jr
e".
b''

(u

is

any function

of x)

301

du =

(u

is

any function

of x)

302

/b^dx = alnb
e*.

e^ dx = i 303 /<

304
305

/^_^, = ^[ax-ln(b +

ce-^)].

/^^, = iln(b +
^-^^^
xb^

ce-).

306/b^Hrf^. = ^g^tan->(e-V^).
307 /xb,o*dx =

(b

and

c pos.)

/pax =^(ax-i).
xe~dx
fx^^e"^

^,(1^1,),

309 /xnb-dx = 310

dx

^^-^/x-bdx.
ix"e''^

(npos.)

- Jx^-ie"^ dx.

(n pos.)

31irTdx
312

= ln:

+ ax^'^^||^....
(ninteg.>i)

/^d^ =

^[-^ + a/^dx].
f dx.
bx bx

313

fe^^lnxdx = -e'"lnx-i aJ X J a

/xe'^
e^ cos

/gOX
e<^ sin

bx dx
bx dx

= =

, a-*

+ b^
,

(a sin

b cos bx).

a''

+
,

(a cos

+ b sin bx).

b cos bx)

b'^

xe"* sin bx dx

(a sin

bx

gOX

~
(a2
-I-

1^^'

^'^ sin

bx

ab cos bx].

b2)2

Integral Calculus

51

xe^ cos bx dx

^^

^^

(a cos

bx

+ b sin bx)
b2) cos

= xlnax

.2

^ ^^y

W-

bx

+ 2 ab sin bx].

318
319

fin axdx

X.

fcin ax) dx

(in

ax)"

nj*(ln ax)-i dx.

(

(n pes.)

320
321 322

/xMn d. = .-+
J
X

[^ - (j^J
+
(^_,)

^ - ,)

r(!naxr^^(ln):l:
n

J xlnax

r-^ =
(In ax)

ln(lnax).

324

fsin

dx dx

[sin (In ax)

cos (In ax)].

325

fcos

(In ax)

=-

[sin (In ax)

+ cos (In ax)].

Some
326 327

Definite Integrals

r^a2 'O

x2

dx
4

r^2ax-x2 dx =
^0

328

329

X"5i^ J^- ("^"dbpos.) r^_^= Jo +b 4 + b Jr^=-^.

ax2
/^

ax2

Vab

(aandbpos.)

330 fsin-azd.
#.!

=X'

0==

'"^f^f^^f:^^- ^"'ST^r
2

/*^

331
332

I
I

^ r^ J sm- ax dx = j; cos ax dx =
.

46

(n

i)

^.^.,.,_,^

i-

(n, pos. odd 'iSteg.)

sin ax sin

bx dx = f cos ax cos bx dx
-

o.

(a p^ b)

333

Jo

r''cos2axdx= r sin^axdx = Jo

334

Jo

re-"dx = i\/^. 2 T a

335 j^'^x^e-'^dx

=^.

(n pos. integ.)

52

Mathematics

336 Definition and Approximate Value of the Definite Integral

If

f(x) is

continuous from x

a to x

inclusive,
.
.

and
.

this interval

is

divided into

n equal
-J-

parts

by the points

a, Xi, X2,

Ax = = a

(b

a)

n,

then the definite integral

of f(x)

b such that dx between the limits

Xn-i,

to X

= b

is

Vx) dx = f J a

lim [f (a) n=

Ax

+ f (xi) Ax + f (x^) Ax +
=
[f(x)]*

+ f (Xn-i) Ax]

=
If yo, yi, yz,
.

[
.

Jf(x) dx]'
.

= F(b)-

F(a).

when x = a, Xi, Xj, then approximate values of this definite integral are given by the Trapezoidal, Durand's, and Simpson's Rules on page 18.
,

yn-i, yn are the values of f(x)

if

Xn-i,

b respectively, and

h =

(b

a)

-i-

n,

337

Some Fimdamental Theorems on

Definite Integrals
Cu{iL) dx

TlfxCx)

+ f2(x) +
-J
I

dx =
(k

pfiCx) dx

k f (X) dx = k
a

f (x)

dx.

is

any constant)

fj{x)dx= - f\{x)6x.
f{x) dx = jj{x) dx
f (x)

+ i{x) dx.
where
Xi lies

dx

(b

a) f(xi),

between a and

b.

a
f (x)

f"' Ja

dx

lim
b=oo

C\{x) dx.

Ja

Some
338 Plane Area

Applications of the Definite Integral

Fig. 338 (a).

Fig. 338 (b).

Fig. 338 (d).

(a)

a,

Area (A) bounded by the curve y X = b.

f (x),

the axis

OX, and the

ordinates

=
Integral Calculus

53

>&

dA = ydx,
(b)

dx.

Area (A) bounded by the curve x

f (y),

the axis

OY, and the

abscissas

c,

d.

dA = xdy,
(c)
t

A =
=

f(y)dy.

J^
fi(t),

Area (A) bounded by the curve x

2(1),

the axis

OX, and

a, t

b.

dA = y dx,
(d)

A = f ^ f,(t) fi'(t)
Ja
r

dt.

Area (A) bounded by the curve

f (8)

and two

radii 9

a,

p.

dA =

r^e,

A =

J^

[f(e)]2 dO.

339 Length of Arc

O),/?)

Y
ia,c)

Fig. 339 (a).

Fig. 339

(c).

(a)

Length

(s) of

arc of curve f (x, y)

o from the point

(a, c)

to the point

'

ds

vwfTm,
(s) of

xV^T^lydx - /;v/^7(|y<iy.
=
fi(t),

(b)

Length

arc of curve x

f2(t)

from

a to

b.

ds
(c)

vwpTm\
(s) of

XV(IJ + (l)'<t=
f (0)

Length
ds

arc of curve r

from

= a

to

= P

= V(dr)2
(s)

+ (rd0)2,

= \r'' +(^)''^x

(d)

Length

of arc of space curve

f!(t),

f2(t),

faCt)

from

54

Mathematics

340 Volume of Revolution

(a) Volume (V) of revolution generated by revolving about the line y = k the area enclosed by the curve y = f(x), the ordinates x = a, x = b, and the line y = k.

jl^]c_
die

dV =

'irR2dx

ir(y

- k)2dx,
k]2 dx.

W
Fig. 340.

y
(b)

='ir C^
'a

[f (x)

Volume

(V) of revolution generated

by revolving about the line x = k the area enclosed by the curve x = f(y), the
line

abscissas y

c,

d,

and the

k.

dV =

<irR2dy

IT

(x

k)2 dy,

V=

ir

J'^

[f (y)

k]^ dy.

341 Area of Surface of Revolution

(a)

Area
f (x,

(S) of surface of revolution

generated by revolving the arc of the

curve

y)

o from the point

(a, c)

to

the point

(b, d).

About y = k: dS

2 irR ds,

s=../;(y-k)v/.+(gydx.
About X = k: dS =
2 irRds,

Integral Calculus

55

343

Mass
of constant or variable density (8).

Mass (m)

dm = 8 dA

or

8 ds

or

dV

or

8 dS,

dm,

342,

where dA, ds, dV, dS are the elements and 8 = mass per unit element.

of area, length,

volume, surface in 338-

344

Moment
of a

Moment (M)

mass (m).

About

OX Mx =
:

fy dm = fr sin 6 dm.
x

About OY:
About

My = J

dm =

fr cos

dm.

Mo =CVx^

+ y^ dm

= fr dm.

345

Moment

of Inertia

Moment

of inertia (J) of a

mass (m).
:

About

OX

Jx

= jy"^ dm =

fr^ sin^ 9

dm.
dm.

About OY: J^ = (x^ About

dm =

Ci'^

cos^

Jo

(x2

+ y2) dm = Jr^ dm.

346 Center of Gravity

Coordinates
(x, y)

of the center of gravity of a

mass (m).

jx dm
X

=
/<>"'

Jy dm

/ dm
may
be taken at
its

Note.
mid-point.

The

center of gravity of the element of area

In the above equations x and y are the coordinates of the center of gravity of the element.

347

Work
= b
against
a.

Work (W) done in moving a particle from s = a to s whose component in the direction of motion is F,.

force

dW =

F,ds,

W=jVds,
s.

where F, must be expressed as a function of

56

Mathematics

348 Pressure
Pressure
(p)

against an area vertical to the sur-

Surface of Liquid
1
1

face of the liquid

and between depths a and

P

b.

dp = wjrx dy,

^^^

^y

where w = weight of liquid per unit volume, y = depth beneath surface of liquid of a horizontal element of area, and x = length of horizontal element of area; x must be expressed in terms of y.

Differential Equations

67

362 Homogeneous Equation

/'

dy

ff

M dx =
v

o.

dv

Solution:

Ce^^")""

and
in

^.

Note.

Here,

-^

can be written

only in the combination y ^ x; this can always be done and is of the same degree in x and y.

a form such that x and y occur if every term in

353 Linear Equation

Solution:

dy

(Xiy

Xa)

dx

o.

e'^'"'''

(jx/^^'^dz + c).
dx

Note.

similar solution exists for

(Yi

Y2)

dy

o.

354 Exact Equation:

Solution:

M dx + N dy =

o,

where

- = -

Jm dx + J [n - |- Jm dx] dy = C,
when
integrating with respect to x.
:

where y

is

constant

355 Non-exact Equation

Solution:

M dx + N dy =

o,

where

^ dy

5^

-
dx

ing factor n

number

of

The equation may be made exact by multiplying by an integratThe form of this factor is readily recognized in a large (x, y). cases. Then solve by 354.

Certain Special Equations of the Second Order.

j^=

x,

y,;p)

356 Equation:
Solution:

5^ =
y

= x Jx dx - fx X dx

+ CiX + C2.

357 Equation:
Solution:

^=
^

^
I

+ ^^'

J0/Ydy + C.
358 Equation:

^^{g)dy = 3^

From

these two equations eliminate p

if

necessary.

58

Mathematics

359 Equation:
Solution:

^=
d2y

dy\
^^j-

f^x,

Place ^^

P and
is

j^ =

J^> thus bringing the equation into the

form -^
355.

f (x, p).

This

of the first order

and may be solved

for

p by 351-

Then

replace P

by

dy and ^

integrate for y.

360 Equation:
Solution:

^=
dy

^(y' 5i)*

Place j^

P and

d^y

^^ = P^

dp

thus bringing the equation into

the form P 3^

f (y P)-

This

is

of the first order

and may be solved

for

p by

351-355.

Then

replace P

dy by ^^ and integrate

for y.

Linear Equations of Physics.

Coefficients.

Second Order with Constant

2
1

^^ +

^ k^x =
0.

f (t)

361 Equation:
Solution:

^x

k^x

Cie

+ CaC"**.
d'x
:

362 Equation of Simple Harmonic Motion

Solution: This

^+

k^x

o.

may

be written in the following forms:

(a)

(b)
(c)

(d)

X X X X

= Cie*^^^ + Cje"**^^!. = Ci cos kt + C2 sin kt. = Cisin(kt + C2). = Ci cos (kt + C2).

363 Equation of Harmonic Motion with Constant Disturbing

Force
Solution:

^+
x

d^x

k^x

a.

Ci cos kt

+ C2 sin kt + oi k' + C2) + ^

or

X = Ci sm

(kt

364 Equation of Forced Vibration

(a)

^+
d^x

k^x

a cos nt

+ b sin nt, where n

5^

k.

Differential Equations

59

Solution: x

Ci cos kt

Cs sin kt

+ ^^^7^2 (* ^^ nt + b sin nt).

(b)

^+
x

k2x

a coskt

+ b sin kt.
(a sin kt

Solution:

Ci cos kt

+ C2 sin kt + r
Vibration

b cos kt).
dx ^ + k^x

365 Equation of
Solution:
Jf

Damped
x
x

^+

d^x

o.

= kS

e""

(d

+ Czt).
Pt)

IfP>k^ If P < k2,

or

X X

= e-"(C:e^^"^^ + C2e-"^^-^'0. = e-" (Ci cos Vk2 - Pt + C2 sin Vk^ = Cie- sin (Vk^ - Pt + C2).

366 Equation of Force

Damped
,

Vibration with Constant Disturbing

dx d^x ^+2l^ + k2x =

,
,

a.

Solution:

xi

+ p

where

Xi is

the solution of equation 365.

367 General Equation

Solution:

^+
x

^ + k^x =
+ I,
is

f (t)

T.

Xi

where

Xi is

the solution of equation 365, and I

k2,

given

by

(a)

P = P

e-" ft fe"

T dt - fe" T t dt"|

(b)

>

k2,

^^
a

[e''^

Je-"^Tdt - e^^Je-/3T dt],

P

where
(c)

a =

- 1 + Vp^^T^,
I

= -1-

VF^^\

<k\
may

= ^FsinptJe-^^cosptTdt-cosPtJe-^'sinptTdtl, =
-1,

where

= Vk^ -

P. in 369.

Note.

also be found

by the method indicated

Linear Equations with Constant Coefficients: nth Order

368 Equation

an^ + an-i^ppT +
Solution : Let
braic equation

^^^-2

dt^ +
,

+ ai^ + aox =

o.

D =

aj, oj, aj,

<i

anD"

+ an-iD"-i + an-2D-2+

be the n roots of the auxiliary alge+ aiD + ao = o.

60
(a)
If all

Mathematics
roots are real and distinct,

X
(b)
If

Cie"''

Cae"'^

Cne'.

2 roots are equal: ai

aa,

the rest real and distinct,

X
(c)
If

e''(Ci

+ Cat) + Cse"^ +
ai

+ Cnc""'.
the rest real and distinct,

p roots are equal:

02

=
.

a-p,

X
(d)

=
If

e'^ (Ci

Cat

C3t2

CptP-i)

Cne-'.
02

2 roots are conjugate imaginary: ai

= P+^v^ i,

= ? "yV

e^' (Ci cos yt

+ C2 sin yt) + Cse^^^ +

i
tt2,

+ Cne*^'.
a4,

(e) If there is a pair of

o-i

conjugate imaginary double roots:

tt3= P

P + 7 ^ = = e^M(Ci + C2t)cos7t +

"y

'^-i =

(C3

+ C4t)siiiYt] +

+ Ce^.

369 Equation

an-^ + an-i^^i +
,

d"x

d"-ix

Solution:

dx + aox + ai^ = xi +
,
,

f(t).

I,

where
Let

Xi is the solution of

equation 368, and where I

may

be found by the
derivatives

following method.
f(t)

Ti

T2

T3

+
.

Find the

ist, 2d, 3d,

of these terms.

If Tj, T2, T3,

Tn are the resulting expressions which have

coefficients),
. .

different functional
I

form (disregarding constant

assume

Ati

Note. Thus, if and t^e*' give terms of the form assume I = A sin nt 4- B cos nt + Ce
sin nt
:

+ Bt2 + Ct3 + + Kn + T = a sin nt + bt^e*', all possible +

Dte*

+ NTn.
e**,

successive derivatives of
te*',
t^e*',

sin nt, cos nt,

hence

Et^e".
solve

Substitute this value of I for x in the given equation, expand, equate coefficients of like

for A, B, C,

terms in the N.
.

left

and

right

members of the equation, and

Note.
in the

If

a root,

ajt,

occurring
of the

times, of the algebraic equation in

in Xi,

(see 368) gives rise to a

term
is

form ta

then the corresponding term

assumed value

of I

Kt^V*.

370 Simultaneous Equations

Complex Quantities

61

in

Regarding this set of equations as a pair of simultaneous algebraic equations X and y, eliminate y and x in turn, getting two linear differential equations of the form 369 whose solutions are X = Xi + Ii, y = yi + I2.
Substitute these values of x and y in the original equations, equate coand thus express the arbitrary constants in yi, say, in
Xi.

efficients of like terms,

terms of those in

Partial Differential Equations

371 Equation of Oscillation;

Solution:

^ = ^^^2'
+ 2) C/e^^-^^
*,

Cie^'+''^ *

where

Cj, Cj', a^ are arbitrary constants.

372 Equation of Thermodynamics:

Solution:

at

=n2_^
3X2

u = 2)
t=i

CiC^^^e"'"'',

where Ci and

a^ are arbitrary constants.

373 Equation of Laplace or Condition of Continuity of Incompressible Liquids:

Solution:
"*"

dx2

dy2

u =

^ de^^+y^-i + ^ C/e^^"^^^**,
COMPLEX QUANTITIES

where

Cj, Cj', a^ are arbitrary constants.

374 Definition and Representation of a Complex Quantity

real, z is called

i and x and y are where j = z is coma complex quantity, pletely determined by x and y. If P(x, y) is a point in the plane (Fig. 374) then
If z

= X

+ jy

P ix*j v)

the segment

to represent the complex quantity z

If
is

magnitude and direction is said = x + jy. the angle from OX to OP and r is the

OP in

length of
z

OP, then

=X
=

+ jy =

r (cos

sin 8)

re'*,

where

tan-^^, r

= +Vx^
x

+ y^,
-|-

and e and x

is

the

^^^' 374-

base of natural logarithms,

quantities.

jy

jy are called conjugate

complex

62

Mathematics

375 Properties of Complex Quantities

Let
z, Zi, Z2

represent complex quantities, then:

:

Sum or Difference
Product:
Zi

Zi

dz Z2

(xi =b X2)

+
j

(yi d= 72).
(0i

Z2

= =

rir2 [cos (81

+ 62) +
=
(X1X2
62)

sin

rir2e^'^^^+^^

yiya)
(61

+ 62)] + (x:y2 + Xayi).

j

Quotient:

?^ Z2

= ^ [cos
r2

(0i

sin

62)]

= ^ Jie^-e^ ^
r2

X1X2
X22
j

+ yiy2 Xzyi - Xiy2 + y22 "^J X22 + y22

,
,

Power:
T> Root:

+ sin nO] = r"e^'"^. n/- y?^ e+2kir-| + 2kir ^r- = -rV V r cos = vre " V z sm
z"
r" [cos nO
e
. .
'

f-

where k takes
Equation:

in succession the values o,

i, 2, 3,

i.

If Zi

Periodicity:

z
z

or

= = =

Z2,

then

Xi
j

X2

and

yi

y2.

r (cos
re^^

sin 6)

r [cos (0

+ 2 kir) +
=
i,

sin (0
is

+ 2 kir)],
integer

re^*(^+2*'^)

and

e^**'

where k

any

Exponential-Trigonometric Relations:
eP'

cos z
(e^'^

cos z

= -

+ +

sin z,

e~^^

cos z

sin z,
e"-'^).

e"^'"),

sin z

= jr

(e^"^

VECTORS
376 Definition and Graphical Representation of a Vector

A vector
is

(V)

is

a quantity which
direction.

is

completely specified by a
(s) is

magnitude and a

scalar

a quantity which

completely specified by a magnitude. The vector (V) may be represented geometrically by the segof

ment OA, the length

the arrow carried by

OA signifying the magnitude of V and OA signifying the direction of V.

V.

The segment

AO

represents the vector

377 Graphical Summation of Vectors

If Vi,

V2 are two vectors, their graphical sum,

V =

Vi

+ V2,

is

formed by

drawing the vector Vi

= OA from any

point O, and the vector V2

= AB
V2

from

the end of Vi, and joining O and B; then and Vi V2 - V = o (Fig. 377a).

V =

OB.

Also Vi

+ V2 =

+ Vi

Similarly,

if

Vi, V2, V3,

is

the

initial

point of one

Vn are any number of vectors drawn so that the end point of the preceding one, then their graphical
. .
.

Vectors

63
initial

sum,

V =

Vi

+ V2 +

+ Vn,

is

the vector joining the

point of Vj

with the end point of

Vn

(Fig. 377b).

r-

Fi4 Fa

= Fi+F2 + r3 + F4
Fig. 377 (b).

Fig. 377 (a).

378 Components of a Vector.

Analytic Representation
xy
its

vector

(V)

considered as lying in the

is

coordinate plane
horizontal

completely determined by

and vertical components x and y. If and j represent vectors of unit magnitude along OX and OY respectively, and a and b are the magnitudes of the components x and y, then V may be represented by V = ai + bj, its magnitude

by

|V|

+ Va2 +

b^,

and

its

direction
Fig. 378 (a).
is

= tan~^ by ^ a
a

A
and
i,

vector (V) considered as lying in space

completely determined by its components x, y, z along three mutually perpendicular lines

OX, OY, and OZ, directed as in Fig. 378. If vectors of unit magnitude j, k represent along OX, OY, OZ respectively, and a, b, c
are the magnitudes of the
respectively, then

components

x, y, z

V may
its

V =

ai

+
cos

'^a^
/3:

+ bj + ck, its + b^ + and

c^,

be represented by magnitude by \V\ =

direction

by cos

a:

Fig. 378 (b).

cos

7 =

a: b: c.

Properties of Vectors

V=
379 Vector

ai

bj

or

V =

ai

bj

+ ck.
) i

sum (V) V=V:+V2+V34-

of

any number =
(c;

of vectors, Vi, V2, Vs,

(ai + + + C2H-c,+

a2 4- as

(bi

+ b2 +

)j

)k.

64

Mathematics
(s)

380 Product of a vector (V) by a scalar sV = (sa) i + (sb) j + (sc) k.

(si

S2)

V =

siV

S2V;

(Vi

V2) s

Vis

+
its

V2S.

Note. sV has the same direction as magnitude of V.

and

magnitude

is s

times the

381 Scalar product of 2 vectors

Vi

Vi
is

V2.

V2

|Vi| IV2I

COS
V2.

<}>,

where

<!>

the angle be-

tween Vi and

Vi.V2=V2.Vi; Vi.Vi = lVi|2. (Vx+V2)-V3 = V1.V3+V2.V3; (Vl+V2).(V3+V4) =Vi.V3+Vi.V4+V2.V3

+ V2.V4.
= j.j=kk = i; In plane: Vi V2 = aia2 +
i.i

ij=jk = ki =
bib2; in space: Vi

0.

Fig. 381.
aia2

V2

+ bib2 + ciCj.

two vectors Vx V2 is a scalar quantity and may physically be represented by the work done by a constant force of magnitude |Vi| on a unit particle moving through a distance IV2I, where is the angle between the line of force and the direction of motion.
scalar product of
<j)

Note.

The

382 Vector product of 2 vectors where is Vi X V2 = 1 |Vi| IV2! sin

|>,
t>

Vi

V2.
1

the angle from Vi to Vj and

is

a unit

vector perpendicular to the plane of the vectors Vi and V2 and so directed that a right-handed screw driven in the direction of 1 would carry Vi into V2.

Vi
(Vi

X X

V2
(V2

= -V2 X

Vi;

+ V2) X V3 =
X X
V3)

Vi

Vi V3
.

X
V3)

Vi

o.

+ V2 X V3;
V3 (Vi
.

Vi
(Vx

V2 (Vx

V2).

Vx.(V2XV3) =V2.(V3XVi) =V3-(Vx XV2);

-f-

V2)

(V3

iXi =

jXj=kXk

+ V4) = Vx X V3 + V, X V4 + V2 X Vs + V2 X V4. = o; iXj=k; jxk = kXi=j.

i;

nxVt

Fig. 382 (a).

Fig. 382 (b).

a2bi) k.
b3C2)
i

In plane: Vx In space Vx
:

X V2 = X V2 =

(aib2
(b2C3

-f (c3ax

is

Cia3)

(axb2

a2bx) k.

Note.
placed so

The

vector product of

two vectors

a vector quantity and

force Vi
(see

may

physically be represented

by the moment of a that the moment arm is y = IV2I sin

<|

about a point Fig. 382 b).

Hyperbolic Functions

65

HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS
383 Definitions of Hyperbolic Functions.
Hjrperbolic sine (sinh) x
(See Table, p. 272.)

| (e*

e~^)

csch x

=
sinhx

Hyperbolic cosine (cosh) x

= =

^ (e*

+ e~^)

sech x

coshx
I

Hyperbolic tangent (tanh) x

e*

+ e-

cothx

tanhx

where e

base of natural logarithms.

were defined with a similar manner, the hyperbolic functions may be defined with reference to a hyperbola. In the above definitions the hyperbolic

Note.

The

circular or ordinary trigonometric functions

in

reference to a circle;

functions are abbreviations for certain exponential functions.

384 Graphs of Hyperbolic Functions

(c)

(a)

sinh x; (b) y

cosh x;

tanh

x.

Fig. 384 (a).

Fig. 384 (b).

Fig. 384

(c).

385

Some

Relations

among Hyperbolic Functions

cosho =
cosh cosh
00
i,

= o, sinh 00 = 00 sinh( x) = sinhx, cosh^x sinh^x = i^

sinho
sinh 2 X
2 sinh^

tanho =
tanh
00

o.
i
.

00

( x) = coshx,

tanh( x) = tanhx.
csch^x

sech^ x

2 sinh x cosh x,

tanh^x = i, cosh 2 x = cosh^ x

2 cosh2 2

coth^x

= i

cosh X

+ sinh^ x. cosh X + I.

sinh (x

y)

cosh

(x it y)

= =

sinh x cosh y rt cosh x sinh y. cosh x cosh y dz sinh x sinh y.

tanh (x

y) =

tanhx
I

dz

tanh y

tanh X tanh y

386 Hyperbolic Functions of Pure Imaginary and Complex

Quantities
sinh jy sinh (x

=
-f-

sin y ;

cosh jy

jy)

cosh (x

+ jy)

= =

sinh x cos y cosh x cos y

+ +

cos y ; tanh jy j cosh x sin y.

j

tan y.

sinh x sin y.

; ;

66

Mathematics

= sinh x; +2 + j'T^ = sinh x; = cosh x; sinh (x + 2

sinh (x
sinh (x
jir) jir)
j

cosh (x cosh (x cosh (x

+2 + +^

jir)

jir)

= cosh x. = cosh x. jir) = j sinh x.

387 Inverse or Anti-Hyperbolic Functions

If

sinh y, then y
sinh-i X

is

the anti-hyperbolic sine of x or y

sinh~i x.

= = =

In (x

+ Vx2 +

i)

csch~

cosh-i X tanh-^ X

In (x

+ Vx2 I

i)

- In 2

; '

388 Derivatives of Hyperbolic Functions

3-

dx

sinh X

cosh x;
'

-r-

dx

cosh x = sinh x; *

^-cothx= csch^x; ^-sechx= sechxtanhx; 3-cschx= cschxcothz.

dx
'

dx

'

dx

dx

3- sinh~i X
1

Vx2+i

-^ cosh"'^ x
<lx

Vx2
^

-j- tanh"^

dx

=
I

x2
T

d xt. x-coth~ix=

I
;

d 1.-1 ^-sech x =

I
;

d ^-csch _,ix =
,

Hyperbolic Functions

67

sinh^ X
sinh"

23 2-4 5 2.4.6 7 I-3-5 ln2x + i^,-i^J 22 X2 2.44X42.4.66X8

I
,

(x<i)

(x>i)

cosh~^ x
tanh-1 x

= ln2x
=
x
x3

1-3
2 2 X2
x^
x^

I-3-5

2.44x4

2.4.66x8

+-+-+- +
3
5 7

391 The Catenary.

(For definition, see 83)

Fig. 391.
-(ea = a/

Equation:

+e

--\
)

a cosh

is

If the width of the span is 1 and the sag found by means of the equations:

is d,

then the length of the arc

(s)

cosh z

= 2d -r- z

+
,

- sinh z

z, '

where z
first

is

to be found approximately

of these equations

If s

and

by means of the table, p. 272, from the and this value substituted in the second. are known, d may be found similarly by means of
sinhz

2 z

(cosh z

i).

MECHANICS
KINEMATICS
Rectilinear Motion
Velocity (v) of a particle which
seconds.

moves uniformly

s feet in t

392
Note.

^
The velocity

^^^^ P^^ second.

(v) of

a moving particle at any instant equals

its

ds
-tt
.

The
no

speed of a moving particle equals the magnitude of

direction.

velocity but has

Acceleration (a) of a particle whose velocity increases uniformly

feet per

second in

seconds.

393
Note.
or

^
The

^ T ^^^^

^^^ second per second.

moving
particle at

acceleration (a) of a

any instant equals

dv
-rr

The acceleration

(g) of

a falling body in vacuo at sea level and latitude

45 degrees equals 32.17

feet per

second per second.

t

Velocity

(vt)

at the end of

seconds acquired by a particle

having an

initial

velocity of Vo feet per second

and a uniform

acceleration of a feet per second per second.

394
Note,
a
is

Vt

=
if

Vo

+ at feet per second.

initial velocity

negative

the

and the acceleration act

in

oppo-

site directions.

Space

(s)

traversed in

seconds by a particle having an

initial

velocity of Vo feet per second and a uniform acceleration of a

feet per second per second.

395

Vot

+ I at2
68

feet.


Kinematics

69

Space
feet per

(s)

required for a particle with an initial velocity of Vo

second and a uniform acceleration of a feet per second per second to reach a velocity of Vt feet per second.

396
Velocity
(Vt)

I^lzLll' feet. 2 a

acquired, in travelling s feet,

an

initial

velocity of Vo feet per second

by a particle having and a uniform accelera-

tion of a feet per second per second.

397

Vt
(t)

Vvo^

+ 2 as

feet per second.

required for a particle having an initial velocity of Vo second and a uniform acceleration of a feet per second per second to travel s feet.
feet per

Time

^ 398

+ ^ = Vo
(a)

Vvo^ a

+ 2 as ^

seconds.

Uniform acceleration
initial

required to

move a
t

particle,

with an

velocity of Vo feet per second, s feet in

seconds.

399

^
^^

"

feet per

second per second.

Circular

Motion

Angular velocity (o) of a particle moving uniformly through

6 radians in t seconds.

400
Note.
d0 dt*

(0

radians per second.

moving
particle at

The angular

velocity () of a

any instant equals

Normal acceleration (a) toward the center of its path of a moving uniformly with v feet per second tangential velocity and r feet radius of curvature of path.
particle

401
Note.

a
The

feet per second per second.

moving with constant
is

tangential acceleration of a particle

zero.

speed in a circular path


70

Mechanics

Angular acceleration (a) of a particle whose angular velocity increases uniformly (o radians per second in t seconds.
402
Note.
,

"^

^a^^i^^s per

second per second.

moving
particle at

The angular
d20

da>

equals -^ or

acceleration (a) of a

any instant

particle having

Angular velocity (o)t) at the end of t seconds acquired by a an initial angular velocity of (Oo radians per second and a uniform angular acceleration of a radians per second per second.

403
Angle
initial
(6)

(Ot

(Oo

+ at radians per second.

in t seconds

subtended

by a

particle having

an

angular velocity of (Oo radians per second and a uniform angular acceleration of a radians per second per second.
e
(0)

404
Angle
velocity of

(Dot

+i

at2 radians.

subtended by a particle with an initial angular radians per second and a uniform angular acceleration of a radians per second per second in acquiring an angular velocity of cot radians per second.
coo

405

^ ~^
2

radians.

Angular velocity (oot) acquired in subtending 8 radians by a having an initial angular velocity of (Oo radians per second and a uniform angular acceleration of a radians per
particle

second per second.

406

(Ot

= Voo^

+ 2 a6

radians per second.

Time
tion of

(t)

required for a particle having an initial angular

(Oo

velocity of

radians per second and a uniform angular acceleraa radians per second per second to subtend 6 radians.
t

407

-''o+VW + 2ae
a

^^^^^^^

Uniform angular acceleration (a) required for a particle with an initial angular velocity of (Oo radians per second to subtend
6 radians in
t

seconds.

408

a =

^^

7^

^ radians per second per second.

Kinematics

71

Velocity (v) of a particle r feet from the body making n revolutions per second.

axis of rotation in a

409

irm

feet per second.

Velocity (v) of a particle r feet from the axis of rotation in a

body rotating with an angular velocity

410

of

(o

radians per second.

(or feet

per second.

Angular velocity
second.

(co)

of a

body making n revolutions per

411

(0

Tm

radians per second.

Path of a Projectile*
Horizontal component of velocity
initial

(Vx) of

a particle having an

velocity of Vo feet per second in a direction

making an

angle of p degrees with the horizontal.

412

Vx

Vo cos

P feet per second.

Horizontal distance

(x)

travelled in t seconds

by a
|B

particle

having an

initial velocity of Vo feet per second at

degrees with

the horizontal and a uniform

downward
cos P feet.

acceleration of a feet

per second per second.

413
Vertical
particle

Vot

component

of velocity (Vy) at the

end of

seconds of a

velocity of Vo feet per second at p degrees with the horizontal and a uniform downward acceleration of a
initial

having an

feet per

second per second.

Vy

414

Vo sin p

at feet per second.

an

Vertical distance (y) travelled in t seconds by a particle having initial velocity of Vo feet per second at p degrees with the
* Friction of the air
is

neglected throughout.

72

Mechanics

horizontal and a uniform

downward

acceleration of a feet per

second per second.

416

y
(tv)

Vot sin p

J at^ feet.

Time

to reach the highest point of the

path of a particle

per second at P degrees with the horizontal and a uniform downward acceleration of a feet per second per second.

having an

initial velocity of Vo feet

416

t.

^^l^l
a

seconds.

Vertical distance (dv) from the horizontal to the highest point

of the path of a particle having

an

initial

velocity of Vo feet per

second at p degrees with the horizontal and a uniform downward acceleration of a feet per second per second.

417

d,

= ^2l!
2 a
t

feet.

Velocity (v) at the end of

initial

seconds of a particle having an

velocity of Vo feet per second at p degrees with the horizontal and a uniform downward acceleration of a feet per second

per second.

418

= Vvx^

Vy2

Vvo^

2 Vo at sin p

+ a^t^

feet per second.

Time

(th)

to reach the

same horizontal

as at start for a particle

velocity of Vo feet per second at P degrees with the horizontal and a uniform downward acceleration of a feet

having an

initial

per second per second.

>iift 419

th

= 2Vosinp
a

seconds.

initial

Horizontal distance (dh) travelled by a particle having an velocity of Vo feet per second at p degrees with the horizontal and a uniform downward acceleration of a feet per second per second in returning to the same horizontal as at start.
d.
to reach

420

= ^.i^ll
a

feet.

Time

(t)

any point

for a particle

having an

initial

velocity of Vo feet per second at p degrees with the horizontal

and

Kinematics

73

if

a uniform downward acceleration of a feet per second per second, a line through P and the point of starting makes 9 degrees with
the horizontal.
2 Vq sin (P

421

6)

a cos e

seconds.

Harmonic Motion
Simple harmonic motion is the motion of the projection, on the diameter of a circle, of a particle moving with constant speed around the circumference of the circle. Amplitude is one-half the projection of
the path of the particle or equal to the
radius of the circle.

Frequency

is

the

number
time.

of complete oscillations per unit

Displacement (x) from the center t seconds after starting, of the projection

on the diameter, of a particle moving Fig. with a uniform angular velocity of o> radians per second about a circle r feet in radius.
422
Velocity (v)
t

422.

r cos (ot feet.

seconds after starting, of the projection on the

diameter, of a particle moving with a uniform angular velocity of

(0

radians per second about a circle r feet in radius.

423

v= (or
t

sin

(ot

feet per second.

Acceleration (a)

seconds after starting, of the projection on

moving with a uniform angular velocity of (1) radians per second about a circle r feet in radius.
the diameter, of a particle

y^

p7

424

= co^
If

cos

<ot

= <o^x

feet per

second per second.

Note.
the time
(t) is

reckoned from a posilag

if

tion displaced
(called lead
if

by

radians from the horizontal

positive

and

negative) the

formulas become: x
sin (t
(t
-f-

r cos (wt

+ 0) feet, v = r
= w^r cos
Fig. 424.

0) feet

+ 9)

feet per

per second and a second per secon.d.

74

Mechanics

RELATIONS OF MASS AND SPACE

Mass
Mass (m)
425
of a

body weighing

pounds.
(grav.).

pounds =w
D

Note. The mass (m) of a body may be measured by its weight (w), designated " pounds (abs.)" etc., or by its weight (w) divided by the acceleration due to gravity (g), designated " pounds (grav.)" etc. latter unit is used throughout.

In this text the

Center of Gravity

Center of gravity of a body or system of bodies is that point through which the resultant of the weights of the component particles passes, whatever position be given the body or system.
Note.

The

center of mass of a
line,

The
it

center of gravity of a

to be the center of gravity of

is

the same as the center of gravity. volume is obtained by considering a slender rod, thin plate or homogeneous body
is

body

surface or

and

often called the centroid.

Moment (M)
a plane
if

of a

body

of weight (w), or of

mass (m), about

is

the perpendicular distance from the center of

to the plane.

gravity of the

body

426
Statical

M
moment

= wx

or

M
(A),

= mx.
about an axis

(S) of

an area

if

is

the

perpendicular distance from the center of gravity of the area to

the axis.

427
Note.
gravity
is

S = Ax.
The statical moment
zero.

of

an area about an axis through

its

center of

Distances
if

(xo,

yo,

Zo)

from each of three coordinate planes

(X, Y, Z) to the center of gravity or mass of a system of bodies,

Sw is

the

sum

of their weights or

Sm is the sum of their

masses

and Swx, Swy, Swz or Smx, Smy, Smz are the algebraic sums of moments of the separate bodies about the X, Y and Z planes.

Relations of

Mass and Space

75

428

Swx

76

Mechanics

of the

an area A about any axis in ternib about a parallel axis through the center of gravity of the area, if Xo is the distance between the two axes.

Moment of inertia (Jx) moment of inertia

of

Jo

432

Jx

Jo

+ Axo2.
A
from an axis about which

Radius
the

of g3n:ation (K) of of inertia

is

an area

moment

J.

433

'fi
of gyration (Kx) of

Radius

an area
if

of the radius of gyration

Ko about a
Xo is

center of gravity of the area,

about any axis in terms through the the distance between the
parallel axis

two
434

axes.

Kx^
of inertia (U) of

Ko'

+ Xo\
two rectangucomponent distances from the two axes
to

Product

an area with respect

lar coordinate axes is the

sum

of the products of the

areas into the product of their

(SAxy).

435
Note. Product of by use of the calculus:

U=
inertia, like

SAxy.
of inertia,
is

moment

generally expressed

U=
In case one of the areas
is

fxy dA.
inertia
is

an axis of symmetry the product of

zero.

Product of inertia (Uxy) of an area A about any two rectanguterms of the product of inertia Uo about two parallel rectangular axes through the center of gravity of the area, if Xo and yo are the distances between these two sets of axes.
lar axes in

436

Uxy

Uo

+ Axj.

of inertia (Ux'/) of

and Jy^) and product ( Jx' an area A about each of two rectangular coordinate axes (X' and Y') in terms of the moments and product of inertia (Jx, Jy, Uxy) about two other rectangular coordinate axes making an angle a with X' and Y'.

Moment of inertia

Fig. 437.

Relations of

Mass and Space

77

437

= = Uxy =
Jx'

Jr

Jy sin2 a Jy cos2 a
(Jx

+ Jx cos^ a 2 Uxy cos a sin a. + Jx sin2 a + 2 Uxy cos a sin a. - Jy) COS a sin a + Uxy (cos^ a - sin^ a).

Principal axes of an area are those axes, through any point, about one of which the moment of inertia is a maximum, the moment of inertia about the other being a minimum. The axes are at right angles to each other. and Y, Angle (a) between the rectangular coordinate axes about which the moments and products of inertia are Jx, Jy and Uxy, and the principal axes through the point of intersection of and Y.

438

tan 2 a

= 2U,

h
+

Note. An axis of symmetry is a principal axis. The product of inertia about principal axes is zero. If Jy and Jx are moments of inertia about principal axes the equations for the moments of inertia about rectangular axes making an angle a with these principal axes are: Jx' = Jy sin^ a JxCOS^a
and J/ = Jy cos2 a Jx sin^ a. The sum of the moments of inertia about rectangular coordinate axes is

a constant for

all

pairs of axes

intersecting at the

same

point,

i.e.,

Jx

Jy

Jx'

+ J/.
of

Polar
the

moment of inertia (Jp) moment of inertia about an

sum
of

an area
is

is

axis perpen-

dicular to the plane of the area

to

and
of

equal
Fig. 439-

the

the

products

the com-

ponent areas into the squares of their distances from the axis
(SAr^).

439
Note.
culus: Jp

Jp
Polar

= SAr^
is

moment

of inertia

generally expressed

by use

of the cal-

= jr^dA.

Polar

moment

of inertia (Jp) of

moments
440

of inertia Jx

an area A in terms of the and Jy about two rectangular coordinate

axes intersecting on the polar axis.

J,

Jx

+ Jy.

78

Mechanics

Relations of

Mass and Space

79

80

Mechanics

Relations of

Mass and Space

81

o
wil r)
II

<

82

Mechanics

Relations of

Mass and Space

83

Xi

84

Mechanics

L::4<!

iH^

'^
5-

+
+

it
II
II

Relations of

Mass and Space

85

l^<J

^^

^
^>
J

d
I

2 S

5 S

+ +
c

oil ro

+
Ol

^1

CS
ctii

^ +

->K

-l

>>

H
T L-^^

Mechanics

Relations of

Mass and Space

87

Moment
Moment
the mass,
is

of Inertia of Bodies

of inertia (Jm) of a

the

sum

of the products of the

body about an axis, in terms of component masses

from the axis (Smr^).
2mr2.

into the squares of their distances

441

Jn,

Moment
weight,
is

the

of inertia (J) of a body about an axis, in terms of the sum of the products of the component weights

into the squares of their distances

from the axis (Swr^).

442

Swr2.
the mass for a case where

the

Moment of inertia (Jm) in terms of moment of inertia in terms of the

j. = J.
The moment
of inertia of a

weight

is

J.

443
Note.
calculus.
solid
is

body

is

generally expressed

by the

Jm =

r^

dm.

j r^

dw.

The

unit of

moment

of inertia of

pound-feet^, etc.

Moment

of inertia (Jx)

of a

body

of weight

axis in terms of the

moment

of inertia (Jo)

about any about a parallel axis

if

through the center of gravity of the body, between the axes.

Xo is the distance

444

Jx

Jo

+ Wxo^.

Radius of gyration (K) of a body of weight about which the moment of inertia is J.

W from an axis

416

= V/|terms of the mass, of a body of

is

Moment
weight

446

W about an axis for which the radius of gyration W Jm = K2.

of inertia (Jm), in

K.

coordinate planes

Product of inertia (U or Um) of a body with respect to two is the sum of the products of the component

88

Mechanics

weights (or masses) into the products of their distances from these planes (Swxy or 2mxy).

447
Note.
calculus.

U = 2wxy
The product
of inertia of a

Um = Smxy.
body
is

generally expressed

by the

U =

xy dw.

Um = Jxy dm.
V'V
in

Moment
of the

moments

of inertia (J) with respect to the axis of inertia Jx, Jy and Jz

terms

with respect to the axes X'X, Y'Y and Z'Z and the products of inertia Uxy, Uxz and Uyz with respect to the planes Yoy and
Xox, the planes Yoz and Xox and the planes Xoz and Xoy respectively, where V'V passes through the origin of these three axes and makes the angles a, p and y with the axes X'X, Y'Y and Z'Z respectively.

448

Jx cos2 a Jy cos^ p 2 Uxz cos a cos y

+ Jz cos^ 7

2 Uxy cos
-y.

a cos p

2 Uyz cos p cos

Principal axes of a body are those three rectangular axes through any point, about one of which the moment of inertia is a maximum and about another a minimum, the moment of inertia about the third axis being intermediate in value. Principal planes are the planes perpendicular to the principal axes. The products of inertia with respect to the principal planes are
zero.

Relations of

Mass and Space

89

Properties of Various Solids *

Solids

Moment

of inertia,

Radius of

gjrration,

Straight

Rod

Kaa =

g/
.

^
u
into a Circular

Jaa=tVW1^
Jcc = iW12sin2a.

V 12
-;=

Kbb =

V3__

Rod bent
Arc

Jaa

Kaa =
4/1/
r

sin a COS a\

Jbb

S-\-

^)

Kbb =

VK

sm a cos a

Jaa =

jBB=iWa2.

Kaa = Kbb = :^

Rectangular Prism

U
JAA = AW(a2 + b2). jBB = I^W(b2 + c2).

Kaa

a2

+ b2

\/

_.L

Kbb

\Jy

+ ^'
12

^^
1^

All axes pass

through the center of gravity unless otherwise noted.

Jni=

W = total

weight of the body.

90

Mechanics
Properties of Various Solids* (Continued)
SoUds

Moments

of inertia, J

Radius of gjTation,

Right Circular Cylinder

^AA=vi"
JBB=i^2W(3r2

+ h2). Kbb

V/3I1?.

12

Hollow Right Circular

Cylinder

JAA=^W(R2 + r2).

Kaa
Kbb

/R^

+ r'
12

i/ 3R^+3r'+h^

Thin Hollow Cylinder

U
Jaa = Wr^.

Kaa =

r.

B-\.l1.b

_+
12

h2

1^

* All axes pass through the center of gravity unless otherwise noted. weight of the body.

J^ =

^.

W = total

Relations of

Mass and Space

91

Properties of Various Solids* (Continued)

Solids

Moments

of inertia, J

Radius of gyration,

Elliptical Cylinder

Kaa

VS +

b2

Kcc

12

Sphere

jAA = lWr2.

Kaa =

Vio

Hollow Sphere

R5

Kaa =

Vi(K)

All axes pass

through the center

of gravity unless otherwise noted.

Jm =

total

weight of the body.

92

Mechanics
Properties of Various Solids* (Continued)

Solids

Moment

of

inertia, J

Radius

of gyration,

Thin Hollow Sphere

U
jAA =

fWr^

''**

^"

EUipsoid

(b^ + c^). Jaa = ^ JBB = iW(a2 + c2). Jcc = iW(a2 + b2).

Kbb =

Kcc

V J

'a2

+
+ b2
3

a?

Torus

Kbb

_5r2

^CEH-*

All axes pass

through the center of gravity unless otherwise noted.

Jjq

-.

W=

total

weight of the body.

Relations of

Mass and Space

*

Properties of Various Solids

Solids

{Continued)
Radius of
of inertia,

Distance to center of gravity, x

Moment

gyration,

Right Rectangular

Pyramid

jAA=3^W(a2+b2),

Kaa

a2

+ b2

Kbb =

Right Circular Cone

Jbb
20

=
\

3r Kaa _ V30 Kbb =

4
J

V/^(4r2+h2).

Frustum

of a

Cone

Jaa

Kaa
T")
y/'

h(R2+2Rr+3r2) 4(R2+Rr+r2)

Aw^^^ 10
(R3

r3)

3 (Rs-r) io(R3-r3)

Paraboloid
r

Kaa
x =
ih.

JBB

^^

T^W(3r2H-h2).

Kbb =

All axes pass through the center of gravity unless otherwise noted. weight of the body,

1xxx= ^

W=

total

Mechanics

Properties of Various Solids * {Concluded)

Solids

Distance to center of gravity, x

Moment

of inertia, J

Radius
gyration,

of

Spherical Sector

U
Jaa
x

Kaa

= f(2r-h)

iW(3rh-h2). y/ilL

Spherical

Segment

3 (2r-h)^ = w(r3-3ih 4(3r-h) J^ For half sphere .3hn 2h x = fr. 20 / 3 r - h ^

^AA

\/J

* All axes pass through the center weight of the body.

of gravity unless

otherwise noted.

]^^

^.

W=

total

KINETICS
Translation

Three laws
force.
(2)

of motion,

(i)

body remains

in

a state of rest
it

or of uniform motion except under the action of some unbalanced

A
is

single force acting

in

on a body causes

to

with accelerated motion

acceleration

the direction of the force.

move The

directly proportional to the force

(3)

and inversely

proportional to the mass of the body.

is

To

every action there

an equal and opposite reaction. Force (F) imparting an acceleration of a feet per second per pounds (grav.). second to a mass of

449
Note.
In terms of
the.

F = ma
weight w,

pounds.

F =

a.

Kinetics

95

Impulse
450

(I)

of a force of
I

F pounds

acting for

seconds.

Ft pound-seconds.

Momentum (9TI) of a body of pounds (grav.) mass moving with a velocity of v feet per second.
451
9fTl

= mv pound (grav.) -feet

per second.

pounds

Force (F) required to change the velocity of a mass of (grav.) from Vi feet per second to V2 feet per second in

m
t

seconds.

452
Note.

F = ^iZLILlsl
The change
in

pounds.
body during any time
interval

momentum

of a

equals the impulse of the force acting on the body for that time.

Work (W) done by

distance of s feet.

a force of

F pounds

acting through a

463
Note.
If

W = Fs foot-pounds.
the force
is

variable,

ds.

Power
rate in
t

(P) required to

do

W foot-pounds of work at a constant

seconds.

454

W P = -

foot-pounds per second.

Potential energy (W), referred to a certain datum, of a

body

pounds weight and at an elevation of datum.

455

of

feet

above the

W = wh foot-pounds.
m

pounds (grav.) mass Kinetic energy (W) of a body of having a velocity of translation of v feet per second.
456

W = mv^ foot-pounds.
m

pounds (grav.) from

s feet.

Force (F) required to change the velocity of a mass of Vi feet per second to V2 feet per second in

467
Note. The change on the body.

F = SiZlLzZs!)
2 S

pounds.
body equals the work done

in kinetic energy of the

96

Mechanics

pounds (grav.) in a Force (F) required to move a mass of constant radius with a speed of v feet per circular path of r feet
second.

458

F=

pounds.

Note. The above force acts along the normal to the path of the body toward the center of curvature, and is called the centripetal or deviating The reaction to this force along the normal to the path of the body force. away from the center of curvature is called the centrifugal force.

Rotation

Torque or moment (T) about the axis of rotation imparting an angular acceleration of a radians per second per second to a body with a mass moment of inertia of Jm pound (grav.) -feet squared about the axis of rotation.
459
Note.
gyration,

T = Jma pound-feet.
In terms of the weight,

pounds, of the body and

its

radius of

K feet,

about the axis of rotation,

(la)

T =

w K^a T

pound-feet.

Angular impulse
t

of a torque of

pound-feet acting for

seconds.

460
Angular
inertia of

= Tt pound-feet-seconds. momentum (^Tla) of a body with a mass moment

la

of

Jm pound (grav.) -feet squared about the

of
co

axis of rotation

and an angular velocity

461
Note.
of
91Ia

radians per second.

Jm<o

pound (grav.) -feet squared per second.

The angular momentum of a body is sometimes called its moment momentum. The angular momentum of a body moving in a plane perSfll

pendicular to the axis of rotation

squared per second where

(grav.)-feet per second,

and

pound (grav.) -feet body in pound equals the perpendicular distance in feet from
is

given by

equals the

SHR^a = momentum

2nir

of the

the line of direction of the

momentum

to the axis of rotation.

Torque (T) required to change the angular velocity of a body of mass moment of inertia of Jm pound (grav.) -feet squared radians about the axis of rotation from (Oi radians per second to

per second in

seconds.

462
Note.
Impulse.

T = J-^'^'-'^^
The change
in angular

pound-feet.
of a

momentum

body is equal to the angular

Kinetics

97

Work (W) done by

an angle
463
Note.
torque of
If

a torque of

pound-feet acting through

of 6 radians.

W = T0 foot-pounds.
the toroue
is

variable,

W
is

Td0.

The work done by a

pound-feet in

revolutions

given by

W = T 2 irN foot-pounds.
of

Kinetic energy (W) of a body which has an angular velocity

(0 radians per second and a mass moment of inertia pound (grav.) -feet squared about the axis of rotation.

of

Jm

464
Note.
gyration,

W = ^^ foot-pounds.
In terms of the weight,

pounds, of the body and

its

radius of

K feet,

about the axis of rotation,

W = ^
wK2a>2

foot-pounds.

of

Torque (T) required to change the angular velocity of a body mass moment of inertia of Jm pound (grav.) -feet squared about the axis of rotation from c:>i radians per second to 0)2 radians per second, the torque acting through an angle of 6
radians.

465
Note.
the body.

T=
The change

J-" (<^^^-

<^^')

pound-feet.

in kinetic energy of a

body equals the work done on

Center of percussion with respect to the axis of rotation

all

is

the point through which the line of action of the resultant of the external forces acting on the rotating
(1)

body

passes.

from the axis of rotation to the center of percussion of a body with a mass moment of inertia of Jm pound (grav.)-feet squared about the axis of rotation, pounds (grav.) mass and Xo feet between the axis and the center of gravity.
Distance

466
Note.

= J2-

Zom

feet.

In terms of the radius of gyration K,

Xo

. .

98

Mechanics

General Formulas for Rotation about a Fixed Aids

Assume a body AB
Z'Z.

rotating about the axis

acceleration at

body; a = angular any instant = angular velocity at any instant and Xo, Jo, Zo = the coordinates
Let

= mass

of the
;

of the center of gravity of the body.

Considering the forces and motions of the

small particles

composed, if components of the forces parallel to the axes X'X, YT, Z'Z respectively; STx, 2Ty, STz = the sums of the torques about the axes X'X, Y'Y, Z'Z respectively; SJm = the moment of inertia of the mass about the axis Z'Z\ SUxzjjj, SUyzm ~ ^^ products of inertia of mass with respect to the
planes

Am) of which it may be SX, SY, SZ = the sums of the

(as

YOZ and XOY and SX = ayom w^xom 2Y = 4-axom w^yom

SZ =
o

the planes

XOZ

and

XOY

respectively.

STx = -aUxz^ + 2Uyz^ STy = -aUyz^ - co^Uxz^ STz = ajm.

Analogy of Formulas for Translation and Rotation

Translation

Rotation

Force Impulse

F
I
. . .

ma
Ft

Torque
Angular impulse. Angular momentum Change of angular
Ft

T = Jma
Ia 3Tla

Momentum.
Change
of

mi

mv

= Tt = Jm

mo-

mentum Work
Kinetic energy

m(vi-vo)

W = Fs W = i mv2
(si

momentum
Work.
Kinetic energy
. .

Jm(i

W = Te W = Jm2
\

o)=Tt

Change

of kinetic

im(vx2-Vo2)

energy

Change

of kinetic

So)

energy

T(0i-eo)

Translation and Rotation

"Work (W) done on a body by a force of F pounds having a torque of T pound-feet about the center of gravity of the body in moving the body s feet and causing it to rotate through an
angle of 6 radians.

467

W = Fs + Xe.
m

pounds (grav.) mass, with Kinetic energy (W) of a body of a mass moment of inertia of Jm pound (grav.) -feet squared about its center of gravity and having a velocity of translation

Kinetics

99

of

feet per

second and an angular velocity of

o)

radians per

second.

468
Note.
If

W = J mv2 + ^
the body weighs

0)2

J^ foot-pounds.
feet radius of gyration

pounds and has

1

about the center of gravity, W=>=

2 g

K I w w 7^+ K^w^.
2 g

Kinetic energy developed in a

IS

body during any displacement

it.

equal to the external work done upon

469

Fs

+ Xe =

mv2

+ ^ (o^Jm

foot-pounds.

Instantaneous axis. Any plane motion may be considered as a rotation about an axis which may be constantly changing to This axis at any instant is called successive parallel positions.
the instantaneous axis.

Note.

If

the velocities, at any instant, of two points in a body are

known

the instantaneous axis passes through the intersection of the perpendiculars

to the lines of motion of these two points.

Distance
cussion of a
of inertia

(1)

from the instantaneous axis to the center of per-

body of m pounds (grav.) mass and mass moment of Jm pound (grav.) -feet squared about its center of

gravity, for a position of the instantaneous axis of Xo feet distance

from the center of gravity of the body.

470
1

Xom

J^ + Xo.

Velocity of translation (Vc) of the center of gravity of a body having an angular velocity of co radians per second about the instantaneous axis which is Xq feet from the center of gravity.

471

Vc

(DXo feet

per second.

Kinetic energy (W) of a body with a mass moment of inertia of J'm pound(grav.)-feet squared about the instantaneous axis and an angular velocity of (o radians per second about the instantaneous axis.

472

W=i

0)2

J'm foot-pounds.

Pendulum
The imaginary pendulum conceived
weightless cord
is

called a simple

as a material point suspended by a pendulum. A real pendulum is called a

compound pendulum.

100

Mechanics
(t)

Time
1

of oscillation (from a

maximum

deflection to the

right to a

maximum
t

deflection to the left) of a simple

pendulum

feet in length.

473
Note.

= irV" v/^
g

seconds (for small vibrations).

An approximate expression for all arcs ist=iry/ (i +T^)t where

of a simple seconds pendulum (one whose time of one second).
1

is

the vertical distance between the highest and lowest points of the path.
(1)

Length
oscillation

is

474

feet.

Time

(t)

of oscillation of a

compound pendulum

of

feet
1

radius of gyration with respect to the axis of suspension

feet length

and

from the axis of suspension to the center of gravity of the pendulum.

475
t

IT

y T

(for small vibrations).

Distance (d) from the center of suspension to the center of a compound pendulum, of K feet radius of gyration about the center of suspension, the distance from the center of suspension to the center of gravity being 1 feet.
oscillation, of

476

d =

K2

feet.

Note. The time of oscillation, for a small vibration, about an axis through the center of susp^ension is the same as that of a small vibration about a parallel axis through the center of oscillation.

Tension (T)

in the

cord of a conical pendu-

lum with a weight

second.

of

pounds and

feet

length of cord, rotating with

revolutions per

477
Note.
per second;

T =
T =

Wl4ir2n2

pounds.
radians

g
In terms of the angular velocity

Wl2

pounds.

Fig. 477Time (t) of oscillation of a simple cycloidal pendulum swinging on the arc of a cycloid described by a circle

of r feet radius.

478

211

v/

seconds.

Kinetics

101

Prony Brake

Power (P) indicated by a Prony brake when the perpendicular distance from
the center of the pulley to the direction
of a force of

F pounds applied at the end of the brake arm is 1 feet and the pulley revolves at a speed of S revolutions per minute.
Fig. 479.

479
Note.

P=
The torque SF

1.903 ISF

10"* horse-power.
If 1 is

of the pulley equals IF pound-feet.

made

inches, feet 3 ^

P =

1000

horse-power. ^

Friction
Static friction
is

the force, in addition to

that overcoming motion one body

bodies,

inertia,

required to

set

in

in

contact with another.

(f)

Coefficient of static friction

between two
static friction.

^yy/y///////A

y////yy//y

when

is

the normal pressure between

Fig. 480.

them and F is the corresponding [N and F in the same units]

480
f

= ^.

Resultant force (R) between two bodies starting from relative rest with a normal pressure of N pounds and a static friction of

F pounds between them.

481

R = Vf2 + W
static friction
(<j))

pounds.

Angle of
pressure
the

for

and a

static friction

F between

two surfaces with a normal them. [N and F in

same

units]
tan<t)

482
Note.
body
will

jj

=
is

f.

The

angle of repose

the angle of incli-

nation of the surface of one

body
it,

begin to slide along

at which the other under the action of its

(<^) is

own

weight.

The angle

of repose

equal to the angle of static friction.

.
.

102

Mechanics

Coefficients of Friction
Sliding friction

Static friction

Materials

Condition
<*>

Cast-iron on cast-iron

wet 0.31 or bronze i7i" Cast-iron on cast-iron 0.08-0.10 greased 4^-51 or bronze Cast-iron on oak (fibers dry parallel) i6r-26r 0.30-0.50 Cast-iron on oak (fibers 0.22 parallel) wet Cast-iron on oak (fibers greased parallel lor 0.19 Earth on earth damp Earth on earth (clay) wet Earth on earth (clay)
.

33

i4"-45" 45
'^

Hemp-rope

on

rough
dry dry dry dry
dry

wood
Hemp-rope on polished

26r

0.50

26r-38f'

wood
Leather on oak Leather on cast-iron Oak on oak (fibers
parallel)

i8r i6r-26r 0.30-0.50 26r-3i 0.56 i6f-26r 29V

,30 251

0.48

3ir

Oak

on

oak oak oak

ice

(fibers

crossed)

dry
(fibers

i8f

0.34
0.25 0.19 0.014
0.09

22^

Oak on
crossed)

wet
(fibers

14

35^
23^

Oak
Steel Steel

on
on

perpendicular)

dry dry dry

lor
vel. 10 ft. per sec.
\

on

steel

vel.iooft, per sec.

0.03

Stone masonry on concrete

dry
.

37^

Stone masonry on undisturbed ground Stone masonry on undisturbed ground ... on Wrought-iron wrought-iron Wrought-iron on wrought-iron Wrought-iron on castiron or bronze Wrought-iron on castiron or bronze
. .

dry

wet
dry
greased
23f

i6f

0.44

4r-5r
loP

0.08-0.10
0.18

dry
,

lof

greased

Elinetics

103

Sliding friction
inertia,

is

the force, in addition to that overcoming

required

to

maintain

relative

motion between

two

bodies.

Note.
is

Laws

of sliding friction,

(i)

proportional to the normal pressure between the surfaces.

is

For moderate pressures the friction (2) For mod-

erate pressures the friction

contact.

(3)

At low

velocities the friction

independent of the extent of the surface in is independent of the velocity

velocity increases.
(4)

of rubbing.
friction
is

The

friction decreases as the

Sliding

usually less than static friction.

CoeflBlcient of sliding friction (f)

is

the normal pressure between

sliding friction.

[N and F

in
f

between two bodies when N them and F is the corresponding the same units]

483

F
=jj.

pressure

Angle of sliding friction (<t)) for two surfaces with a normal N and a sliding friction F between them. [N and F in

the

same

units]

See formula 482. The angle of sliding friction is the angle of inclination of the surface of one body, at which the motion of another body The angle of sliding friction is in general sliding upon it will be maintained.

Note.

less

than the angle of

static friction.

Applications of Principles of Friction

Inclined plane.
of a

body

sliding

inclination of

= weight in pounds Let on the plane, a = angle of plane, p = angle between force =
angle of repose,
<|)

F and

plane,

<|)

coeffi-

cient of friction (tan

f),

and F =
line

force

'

^'

applied to the

body along the

of action indicated.

484

(a)

Force (F) to prevent slipping,

(a

>
J

(j))

_
(b)

F =

_. sin (a
.Q

W cos (p + T(
,

<t>)

pounds. ^
(a

(J))

Force (F) to start the body up the plane,

>

<|>)

_ F =
(c)

(a ~ + ~r W sin cos (p __.

<t>)

pounds.
(a

<t>)

Force (F) to start the body down the plane,

<

<|>)

F =

W^HLf:^ cos
(p
'\- <|)j

pounds. ^

104

Mechanics

Wedge.

Let

W=

force

In

pounds opposing motion, a

^
I
^

angle of inclination of sides of wedge, <)> = angle of friction, and F = force applied to

wedge.
480^. (a)
^ ^

"^ ^"
;

Force (F) to push wedge.

'i

F = F =
of

W tan (a + W tan
force
total
(<|)

<t>)

pounds.

::^^(b)

JForce (F) to

draw wedge

(a

>

<|)).

a) pounds.

I^qu^
p3=
Itin
pitf:h
L t=

threaded screw.
screw,

Let r

= mean
pitch

a = angle

of

^j, F =

applied to screw

ai'en^ ^of arm a, to be Imoved and

i

W=
<j)

weight

In

pounds
[r

angle of friction,

--^

and

"k-

in

same

units]

486/ (a) Force (F) to lower screw.

F
(b)

Wr (tan
Force

<t>

tan a)

pounds (approx.
Fig. 486.

to raise screw.

= Wr F
Sharp
radius of

(tan
^

<t)

+ tan a)
Let
of
r

, pounds (approx.).

threaded
screw,

screw.

a = angle

pitch,

angle between faces of the screw,

in.

= mean p = F = force

pounds applied

to screw at
In

a,
<|)

W=
=
(a)

total

weight

angle of friction,

end of arm pounds to move, and [r and a in same

units]

487

Force (F) to lower screw.

Wr/tan<i)COsa
COS

\
/

pounds
(approx.).
Fig. 487.

(b)

Force (F) to raise screw.

cos a T, = Wr //tan cb F j^

^ tan

\
j

pounds (approx.).

cosf

Emetics

105

Pivot Friction
f = T = r =

= load in pounds. coefficient of friction. torque of friction about the axis of the shaft, radius in inches, n revolutions per second.

Type

of Pivot

Torque

in pound-inches

Shafts and Journals

W///////M

-ffjr
(i8o bearing)

T=

fWr.

Flat Pivot

.\W

^yyyyyyyyy^

Collar-bearing

\w

^^^

CM,
y/yy/////

T = 2fW^=

R2_i.2

Conical Pivot

4imfWr
3
td^yyyyy^.

sma

3X

12 sin a'

Truncated-cone
Pivot

(R^ r2)sma

P =

4irnfW(R3-r3)

3X12

(R2

- r2) sin a

^^^

106

Mechanics

Rolling Friction
CoeflScient
of rolling friction (c) of a

wheel with a load of

r

W pounds and with

'^//////y/y.

inches
center.

radius,

speed by a force
its

moved at a uniform of F pounds applied at

488
Note.

inches.
Fig. 488.

Coefficients of rolling friction.

vitae roller

Lignum

Elm

on oak track on oak track Iron on iron (and steel on steel)

roller

C
c c

=
= =

0.019 inches. 0.032 inches. 0.020 inches.

Belt Friction

Ratio (=r) of the pull Fj on the driving side of a belt to the

pull

F2 on the driven side of the belt,

slipping
is

when

impending, in terms of
[

the coefficient of friction f and the angle

of contact a, in radians.

2.718]

489
F2
Note.
'

Fig. 489.
f

Mean

values of

are as follows:

Leather on wood (somewhat oily) Leather on cast iron (somewhat oily) Leather on cast iron (moist) Hemp-rope on iron drum

0.47 0.28
0.38
0.25

Hemp-rope on wooden drum Hemp-rope on polished wood Hemp-rope on rough wood

Values of =r (Slipping impending)
1<2

040
O.33

0.50

a
2ir

statics

107

Impact

Common

velocity

(v'),

after direct central impact, of

initial velocities Vi

elastic bodies of

mass mi and m2 and

two inand V2

respectively.

490

Vi

miVi

mi

+ m2V2 + m2

Final velocities (v/ and V20> after direct central impact, of two perfectly elastic bodies of mass mi and m2 and initial velocities Vi and V2 respectively.
v.'

= miV
i

m2Vi
-|-

+ 2 m2V2
m2

mi

491

w=
two
partially
initial velocities Vi

miV2 m2V2 miVi ^^ ^ ^^-^2

mi
V2')

+ + m2

Final velocities (v/ and

after direct central impact, of

but equally

inelastic bodies of

and

V2 respectively

mass mi and m2 and and constant e depending

on the

elasticity of bodies.

miVi

492
v,'

= miVi

+ m2V2 em2 (vi V2) mi + m2 + m2V2 emi (v2 vQ mi + m2

the height of rebound of a sphere dropped
of a rigid mass.
If

Note,

T-

where

is

from a height h on to a horizontal surface

inelastic e

the bodies are

o,

and

if

bodies are perfectly elastic e

i.

STATICS
Components of a force F (Fx and Fy) paralto two rectangular axes X'X and Y'Y, the axis X'X making an angle a with the force F.
lel

^x!_

493

Fx

= F cos

a,

Fy

= F

sin a.

Moment

or torque

(M)

of a

force of

Fig. 493-

pounds about a given

494
*

point, the perpendicular distance

from the

point to the direction of the force being d feet.

= Fd
Vi

pound-feet.
V2 in

mi and m2,

and

the same units.

108

Mechanics

Note. A couple is formed by two equal, opposite, parallel forces acting same plane but not in the same straight line. The moment (M) of a couple of two forces, each of F pounds, with a perpendicular distance of d feet between them is Fd pound-feet. The moment, about any point, of the resultant of several forces, lying in the same plane, is the algebraic sum of the moments of the separate forces about that point.
in the

F2,

Resultant force (R) of two forces, Fi and which make an angle a with each other, the angle between the resultant force R and
the force Fi being
0.

495

R=
tane =

a/Fi2

Fa^

+ 2 F1F2 COS a.
Fi
or,

F2 sin

496

sing

Fi

+ F2C0sa'
forces.

sin 6

Parallelogram
force (R) of

of

The

resultant

two forces Fi and F2 is represented in magnitude and direction by the ^^^- 496diagonal lying between those two sides of a parallelogram which represent Fi and F2 in magnitude and
direction.

Triangle of forces.
in

The

resultant force
is

(R) of two forces Fi and F2

represented
the
third
^2

magnitude and

direction
in

by

which the other two sides represent Fi and F2 in magnitude and

side of a triangle
direction.

Fig. 496a.

Fi, F2 and F3 mutually at and not lying in the same plane, the angles between the resultant force R and the forces Fi, F2 and F3 being a, p and -y respectively.

Resultant force (R) of three forces

right angles to each other

497

R=
cos a

VFi2

+ F22 + F32.
F2

498

F ^,

cos p

R'

cos y

R
right

Note.

If

three forces not in the

angles to each other, the resultant force

same plane are not mutually at may be found by formula 504.

Statics

109

Parallelopiped of forces.

The

result-

ant force (R) of three forces Fi, F2 and F3, not lying in the same plane, is
represented in magnitude and direction by the diagonal lying between those
three sides of a parallelopiped which represent magnitude and direction.
^^*

^^

Fi, F2

and F3

in

Resultant force (R) of several forces lying in the same plane,

if

components of the forces parallel to two rectangular axes X'X and Y'Y, the angle between the resultant force and the axis X'X being a.
SFx and
are the algebraic

2F

sums

of the

499
500

R=

V(2:Fx)2

(SFy)2.

SFy
sin

SFy a = -^,

cos a

= SFx

Perpendicular distance (d) from a given point to the resultant

force (R) of several forces lying in the

same plane,

if

2M is the alge-

braic

sum of

the moments, about

that point, of the separate forces.

601
Note.
forces (SF).

d
The
If

SM
R
is

resultant of several parallel forces

SF =

o the resultant

is the algebraic sum of the a couple whose moment is 2M.

Force Polygon.
Fi,

The

resultant force

(R)
is

of

several

forces

F2

Fn, lying in the

same

plane,

represented in mag-

nitude and direction

by the

closing side of a polygon in

Fi, F2
. .
.

remaining sides represent the forces

tude and direction.

Fn

in

which the magni-

Fig. 501.

Note.
forces they

The arrows
must point

indicate the directions of the forces

in the

and for the given same way around the polygon, but for the result-

no

Mechanics
first

ant force in the opposite direction or leading from the starting point of the force to the end point of the last force.

Moment (M)

of a force F,

about a

line, is

the product of the

rectangular component of the force

perpendicular to the line (the other component being parallel to the line)
into the perpendicular

distance be-

tween the line and this rectangular component, or the force F may be resolved into three rectangular components, one parallel and the other ^^' ^^' two perpendicular to the line, as in The moment of the force about each axis is then obFig. 502.
tained as follows:

502

Mx = yF cos 7 zF cos p. My = zF cos a xF cos 7. Mi = xF cos p yF cos a.

Resultant force (R) of several parallel forces, not lying in the same plane, is the algebraic sum (SF) of the forces.
Note.
If

SF =

o,

the resultant

is

a couple whose moments are

2Mx,

2My,

etc.

Perpendicular distances

(dx)

and

(dy)

from each of two axes

X'X and

Y^ to the resultant force

if

(R) of several parallel forces,

not lying in the same plane,

2Mx

and

SMy

are the algebraic

sums of the moments and Y'Y respectively.

603
A

of the separate forces

about the axes X'X

2Mx

SMy

R
(a,
p, 7)

Resultant force (R) and direction

of the resultant

same plane, if SFx, 2Fy and SFz are the algebraic sums of the components parallel to three rectangular axes X'X, Y'Y and Z'Z, and a, P and 7 are the
force of several forces, not lying in the

statics

111

angles which the resultant force

makes with the axes X'X, Y'Y

and Z'Z
604
605

respectively.

R = V (SF,)^ +
2Fx cosa=-^,

(SFy)2

(2Fz)2.

o cosp=-^,

2Fy

cos

-y

SFz = -^^

Resultant couple (M) and direction (am, pm, Vm) of the axis of the resultant couple of several forces, not acting in the same plane,
if

SMx,

SMy and SMz

are the algebraic

sums

of the

moments

about three rectangular axes X'X, Y'Y and Z'Z and am, pm and -ym are the angles which the moment axis of the resultant couple makes with the axes X'X, Y'Y and Z'Z respectively.
606
507

= V(SMx)2

(SMy)2

(SMz)2.

cosam=2M

^^^P^

= 2M'

^^' ^"^

SM

'

Note. In general the resultant of several non-parallel forces, not in the same plane, is not a single force, but by the use of the above principles the system may be reduced to a single force and a couple.

Conditions of equilibrium of several forces, lying in the same

plane,
parallel to

SFx and 2Fy are the algebraic sums of the components two axes X'X and Y'Y and SM is the algebraic sum of the moments of the forces about any point.
if

508

SFx =

o,

SFy

0,

SM =

o.

Conditions of equilibrium of several forces, not lying in the

same plane, components

sums of the Y'Y and Z'Z which intersect at a common point but do not lie in the same plane, and 2Mx, 2My and SMz are the algebraic sums of the moments of
if

SFx, 2Fy and SFz are the algebraic

parallel to three axes X'X,

the forces about these three axes.

609

SFx

o,

SFy

o,

SFz

o.

610

SMx =

0,

SMy =

0,

SMz =

o.

112

Mechanics

Stresses in
Pratt Truss.
508a.

Framed

Structures *

Two

live loads of

lo tons each as shown in Fig.

Fig. 508a.

(a)

Reactions (use conditions of equilibrium, formula 508).

o,

By SM = By SFy = By SFx =
To

0, o,

SMa = o = ioXi5H-ioX30-VbX9o, Vb = 20 - Vb = Va, Va =

Ha =
o. (note that a roller
is

5 tons.

15 tons.

used at B, fixing the

reaction there in a vertical direction)

(b) Stresses in bars.

find the stress in

a bar consider a plane (cutting the bar in

question) to divide the truss into two parts; remove one part

and replace the portion of the bars which are removed by their These stresses which may now be treated as outer forces.
stresses are
is

essential that only three of the bars

stresses.

found by applying the equations of equilibrium. It which are cut shall have

unknown
Note.

If tension is called positive and all unknown stresses are assumed to be tension stresses, a positive sign for the result indicates tension and a

negative sign compression.

Bar .
Let

Truss cut by plane aa.

the vertical
o,

Consider
of
o,

left portion.

V =

component
10

S, the

stress in

bar

By SFy
Bar
(2).

- Va +

+ V =
= Va X

V = 5, S = ^ X
10

25

6.25 tons tension.

Truss cut by plane aa.

o,

Take moments about joint c.

30

By

2M =

SMc =

15

+ S@

20.

41^0 S = -^ +
20

1=50

^-

= 15 =

15 tons compression.

Bar . Truss cut by plane bb. By 2Fy = o, -Va + 20 + S

compression.

o,

S = -5 =
is

5 tons

Due

to live loads only.

Weight

of structure

neglected.

Properties of Materials

113

Roof Truss.
508b.
1.35*

Two

live loads of 3 tons

each as shown in Fig.

Fig. 508b.

(a)

Reactions (use conditions of equilibrium formula 508).

BySM = o, SMa = o = 3Xi3.4+3X26.8-VbX72,

By SFy = By 2Fx =
the
0,
o,

2.69

- Vb - Va=
o,
is

o,

Vb = i.67 Va = 3.7i
tons,
i.e.,

tons. tons.

2.70

+ Ha=
bars.

Ha = 2.70

acting to

left,

(note that a roller

used at B, fixing the reac2.69*

<?'

tion in a vertical direction)

(b) Stresses

in

(See

under Pratt Truss.) Bar . Truss cut by plane aa. Consider left portion. Take moments about joint c. Let

,[^
Fig. so8c.

horizontal

component

of

S.

BySM = 0, SMc = o = VAX24- 2.69 X 12 + I.35 X 6+ H X 12.

H
Let

=-5.34j

S = vs X

5.34

5.96 tons compression.

Bar @.

Truss cut by plane aa.

Take moments about A.

tons.

V@ = vertical component of S@. By SM = o, SMa = o = 3 X 13.4 + V@ X 24, V = - 1.67 S@ = V 5 X 1.67 = 3.73 tons compression.
Bar @.
fewer loads

Truss cut by plane bb.

lie

Consider right portion, as

to the right of cutting plane.

Take moments about

joint d.

BySM=o, SMd = o=- VbX48+SX 12, S = 6.68 tons tension.

PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
Intensity of stress
is

the stress per unit area, usually ex-

pressed in pounds per square inch.

The simple

term, Stress,

is

often used to indicate intensity of stress.

114

Mechanics

Ultimate stress is the greatest stress which can be produced a body before rupture occurs. Allowable stress or working stress is the intensity of stress which the material of a structure or a machine is designed to resist. Factor of safety is a factor by which the ultimate stress is divided to obtain the allowable stress. Elastic limit is the maximum intensity of stress to which a material may be subjected and return to its original shape upon the removal of the stress.
in

Note. For stresses below the elastic limit the deformations are directly proportional to the stresses producing them that is, Hooke's Law holds for stresses below the elastic limit.
:

Yield point

is

in length increases rapidly with little

the intensity of stress beyond which the change if any increase in stress.
is

Modulus
stresses

of elasticity

the ratio of stress to the strain, for

below the

elastic limit.

Note. Modulus of elasticity may also be defined as the stress which would produce a change of length of a bar equal to the original length of the bar, assuming the material to retain its elastic properties up to that point.
Properties of

Common

Materials

Material

Properties of Materials

115

611

= pounds

per sq.

in.

a bar of A square inches crosswhich undergoes a change of sectional area and 1 of P pounds. load axial length of d inches under an

Modulus

of elasticity (E) of

inches length,

612
Note.

E =
The

-T-T

pounds per

sq. in.

the elastic limit.

load must be such as to produce an intensity of stress below If f is the intensity of stress produced and e the ratio of

change of length to total length,

ande=g.

Change

of length (d) of a
1

tional area,

inches length, and

lus of elasticity of material,

A square inches cross-secE pounds per square inch modudue to an axial load of P pounds.
bar of
inches.

613

d = T^ AE

0,0g

0.04

0.06

0.08

0.10

0.12

0.14

0.16

0.18

0.20

0.28

Unit Elongation: Ratio of change of length to length

STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM
Fig. 513.

Note.

Stress-strain diagrams

show the

relation of the intensities of stress

of a material to the corresponding strains or deformations,

116

Mechanics

RIVETED JOINTS
Shearing strength (rg) of a an allowable stress in shear of
rivet
fg

1
in diameter,

d inches in diameter, with pounds per square inch.

pounds.

614
Bearing strength
(rb

'=

ird^
fs

of a rivet

d inches

with an

allowable stress in bearing of fb pounds per square inch, against

a plate
515

inches in thickness.
rb
(r)

=
of

dtfb pounds.

Total stress

on each

rivets resisting

a pull or thrust of

pounds.
r

516

pounds.

Total stress (rm) on the most stressed rivet

of a

group of

rivets resisting the action of a

if

couple of
in

inch-pounds,

is

the distance

inches from the center of gravity of the

group of rivets to the outermost rivet and Sy^ is the sum of the squares of the distances from the center of gravity of the group to each of
the rivets.

617

im

= =^

pounds.
of a group of rivets,
if

Resistance to

moment (M)

the distance
is

of the outermost rivet from the center of gravity of the group

y inches and the sum of the squares of the distances from the center of gravity of the group to each of the rivets is Sy^ and r is the total allowable stress on a rivet.
618

M = '-^
y

inch-pounds.

K-P-|

Resistance to tearing (T) between rivets, of a plate t inches in thickness in which rivets of d inches diameter are placed with

*<5

dl<::)

p inches pitch, 519

if

the allowable intensity

is
ft ft

^^' ^^^*

of stress of the plate in tension

pounds per square

inch.

T =

t (p

d)
is

pounds.

Efficiency of a riveted joint

the ratio of the least strength

of the joint tP th^ tensile strength of the solid plate.

Riveted Joints

117

Strength of Various Tjrpes of Riveted Joints

= = ft = d = t = p = P= tc =
fs

fb

allowable shearing stress in pounds per square inch, allowable bearing stress in pounds per square inch.
allowable tension stress in pounds per square inch.

diameter of rivet in inches.

thickness of plate in inches.
pitch of inner pitch of outer

row of rivets in inches. row of rivets in inches.

thickness of cover plates in inches.

Single-riveted
(i)
C-p-H

Lap Joint
fs.

Shearing one rivet

=
4

(2)
(3)

Tearing plate between rivets = (p d) Crushing of rivet or plate = dtfb.

tft.

Double-riveted Lap Joint

(i)

Shearing two rivets

=
4

fs.

Fp=T

(2) (3)

Tearing between two rivets = (p d) Crushing in front of rivets = 2 dtfb.

tft.

Single-riveted

Lap Joint with inside

outer row
of
rivets

Cover-Plate
(1)

Tearing

between

y~>
-(i)~^

(P

d)

tft.

t.
-p^Hr-

(2)

Tearing between inner row of rivets and

shearing outer row of rivets

-(J)--(t>--(t)-

= (P-2d)tft
(3) (4)
(5)

4 4

fs.

4-

-4>-

Shearing three rivets

f s.

Crushing in front of three rivets = 3 tdfb. Tearing at inner row of rivets and crushing in front of one rivet in outer row

= (P-2d)tft

+ tdfb.

118

Mechanics

Strength of Various T3rpes of Riveted Joints (Continued)

Double-riveted Lap Joint with inside

Cover-Plate
(i )

Tearing at outer row of rivets

Shearing four rivets

= (P d) tft.
fs.

(2)

=
4

(3)
-<|>-

Tearing at inner row and shearing outer

-6-

-<i>

row
(4)

of rivets

(P-lH)tft + ^fs.

Crushing in front of four rivets

4 4 tdf b.

(5)

Tearing at inner row of rivets and crushing in front of one rivet

= (P-

i^d)tft

+ tdfb.

Beams

119

BEAMS
Vertical shear at
braic

any

section of a

beam

is

equal to the alge-

sum

of
is

all

the vertical forces on one side of the section.

The shear

positive

section tends to

when the part of the beam to the left of the move upward under the action of the resultant

of the vertical forces.

Note.

loads and included in shear

In the study of beams, the reactions must be treated as applied and moment. A section is always taken as cut by In
all

a plane normal to the axis of the beam.

the axis.

cases vertical

means normal to

Bending moment at any section of a beam is equal to the algebraic sum of the moments, about the center of gravity of the secMoment which tion, of all the forces on one side of the section. causes compression in the upper fibers of a beam is positive.
zero.

The maximum moment occurs at a section where the shear shears or of moments is a curve the ordinate to which any section shows the value of the shear or moment at that section.
Note.

is

A curve of

at

Simple

Moment and Shear Curves for a Beam with a Uniformly Dis-

Simple

Moment and Beam

Shear Curves for a Concentrated with

tributed Load.
to

Loads.
pounds per unit len^h

I
^-

\Rr

ir--^
Moment

120

Mechanics

Neutral axis at any section of a beam is the line formed by the intersection of the neutral plane and the section. Elastic curve of a beam is the curve formed by the neutral plane when the beam deflects due to bending.
of inertia

Equation of the elastic curve of a beam of J inches'' moment and a modulus of elasticity of the material of E pounds per square inch, if x and y in inches are the abscissa and ordinate respectively of a point on the neutral axis referred to is rectangular coordinates through the points of support and

the

moment

in inch

pounds at that point

620
Note.

M = Ejg

The equation of the elastic curve is used to find the slope and dea beam under loading. A single integration gives the slope, integrating twice gives the deflection; in each case, however, the proper value of the constant of integration must be determined.
flection of

Beams

121

BEAMS UNDER VARIOUS LOADINGS

Beam, loading and moment curve
Reactions

Bending moment

Deflection

,_ Mx=

wlx
2

wx2
2

RL=RR=f'
IVLmax

dmax

TT"

5wl^ 384 Ej"

Rl=Rr = -.

Mx =

PI Twr J-max=

48 Ej"

R.=^.
Rr = ^-

KO-hJ^
Rl

El = Rr =
UC

P.

Rr

Rl = wb(2C

..

122

Mechanics

Beams Under Various Loadings

(Continued)

Mz

Wx /
M,

x2\

0.013044

Wl

2WI

EJ

9^3
M,

Rl=Rr = 7
(at center)

fltnax

Wl^ 60 E J

Rl =

P.

Mx = Px. Mmax = PL

dmaz

Pl

3EJ'

W piin<fi pr unit iKngth

Mx =
Rr =
wl.
JVLinax

wl<

8EJ'

= ^~'

Rl = W.

Mx=
iumaz
"=

^
!

IP

Rl = Rr =

p.

IRl

l^fi

Beams
Beams Under Various Loadings
{Concluded)

123

M at Rl and
Rl = Rr =

w + 2 a)
(1

Mcenter

w(P -4a2)
8

^-re-Rr = :^p i6

10

V548EJ'
4: PI
i6

Mmax =

at X

^..
Mx =
WX2
d center

=
192

Rl

|wl.
wl.

(M)
(atRL)

EJ

Rr

Mma

wl*

^^^
at X

YMz

= IsFej* = 0.4215

Pl/'x_i\
2

4;'
-g"
Pl
dinajfe^

Rl=Rr

Mmax =

192 Ej'

(at supports)

Mmax =
iv/r

PI
-g"*

(at center)

r
Tif p>r unit lensth

wlYi_x^
I^^^^^S

Mx =

Rl=Rr =

wl

).

WP Mmax = -.
12
(at supports)

384 Ej'

124

Mechanics

Three moment equation gives the ratio between the moments Ma, Mb and Mc at three consecutive points of support (a, b and c) on a beam continuous over three or more supports.
i?

i^r

-koli

i^

7Kb

/^c

Fig. 521.

Case

I.

Concentrated loads.
Mall
(li

(See Fig. 521.)

621

+ 2 Mb + + Mcl2 = Pili^ (ki^ - ki) + P2l/(3k22-k23-2k2).

I2)

i^

TKT

Fig. 522.

Case II.

Uniformly distributed load.

(See Fig. 522.)

wili^

522

Mall

+ Mb
2

(li

I2)

Mcl2

= -\

i W2l2^

Intensity of stress

(f)

in tension or

compression on a fiber y

inches distant from the center of gravity of a section of a

with J inches* moment of inertia, due to a bending pound-inches.

beam moment of

623

My =^ pounds =
,

per sq. m.

Intensity of stress

(f)

inches in depth and

of

on the outer fiber of a rectangular beam b inches in breadth, due to a bending

moment
624

pound-inches.
.

-r-r^

6M pounds per sq. m.

,

Intensity of stress

(f)

in

center of gravity of a section of a

a fiber y inches distant from the beam of A square inches area

and J

inches*

moment

of inertia,

due to a direct load

(parallel

Beams
to axis of

125

beam)

of

P
zt

pounds and a bending moment of

pound-inches.

525

-T-

Y^ pounds per sq. m.

Graphical representation of stress distribution in a beam.

-h

(a) bending only

b) direct stress

RECTANGULAR BEAM

and bendinir

TEE BEAM-BENDING ONLY

Fig. 525.

Maximum moment (M)

which can be carried by a beam with

J inches^ moment of inertia and y inches greatest distance from center of gravity to outer fiber, without exceeding an intensity
of stress of f

pounds per square inch

in the outer fiber.

526

M = pound-inches.
beam with J
inches^
of inertia

Section modulus (S) of a section of a

moment
527

and y inches distance from center

of gravity

to outer fiber.

S = y
(f)

inches^.

Intensity of stress

modulus
inches.

of

S inches^ due

on the outer fiber of a beam of section to a bending moment of pound-

528

= -^ pounds

per sq.
(s)

m.

Intensity of longitudinal shear

along

a
if

plane

XX
is

at the

section of a
is

beam

where the
total

total vertical shear

S pounds,

J inches*

the

moment

of inertia of the

about its center of gravity axis, b the width of the beam at plane and Q inches^ the statical moment, taken
section

XX

126

Mechanics

about the center of gravity axis, of that portion of the section which h*es outside of the axis XX.
529
Note.
s

= -TY pounds

SO

per sq.

in.

The maximum

intensity of shear always occurs at the center of

gravity of the section of a beam.

Maximum intensity of shear (s) in a rectangular beam A square inches in area at a section where the total vertical shear is S pounds.
630
Note.
^
^ ^" T pounds

per sq.
is

in.

The

intensity of vertical shear

it.

equal to that of the longitudinal

is

shear acting at right angles to

The

intensity of vertical shear

obtained

by the formula

SO = -r-y'

Beams
Properties of Standard
I

127

Beams*

128

Mechanics
Properties of Standard I

Beams*

{Continued)

Beams
Properties of Standard Angles with Equal Legs

129

130

Mechanics
Properties of Standard Angles with Equal Legs* {Continued)

Size,

inches

Beams
Properties of Standard Angles with Unequal

131

Legs*

132

Mechanics
Properties of Standard Angles with Unequal Legs (Continued)

Beams

133

134

Mechanics

RESULTANT OF SHEARING AND DIRECT STRESSES

Resultant intensity (pO of normal stress and on a plane inclined a to the horizontal at a point in the. beam
stress
(s')

of shearing

where the intensity of the horizontal and vertical shearing stresses is s pounds per square inch, the inten" sity of the stress normal to the ver^'^' ^^^* tical plane is px pounds per square inch, and that normal to the horizontal plane is py pounds per
i

"^

square inch.

531

p'

532

s'

= ^ +
=
sin 2

^ + ^ cos 2 a + s sin 2 a pounds per sq. 2 2

2

in.

s cos 2

a pounds per

sq. in.

Angle

(a)

made with

the horizontal

by the plane on which the

maximum
533

intensity of normal stress occurs.

tan 2 a
Py

2 S

-Px
normal
stress.

Maximum and minimum

534
p'max
nun

intensities of

- V4

s2 -f (px

py)2

pounds per

sq. in.

Note. The maximum and minimum normal stresses are called principal and occur on planes which are at right angles to each other and on each of which the shearing stress is zero.
stresses

Angle
the

(a)

made with

the horizontal

by the plane on which

maximum

intensity of shear occurs.

636
Note,

tan2a = 2i^^^^
2 s

The

planes of the

inclined at 45 to the planes of

maximum and minimum shearing stresses maximum and minimum normal stresses.
intensities of shearing stress.

are

Maximum and minimum

536
s'max min

V4 s2 42

(px

Py)^

pouuds per

sq. in.

Columns

135

COLUMNS
Euler*s formula for the ultimate average
(f)

intensity of stress

on a column 1 inches in length, with a least radius of gyration of r inches and of material of E pounds per square inch modulus
of elasticity,
f

should not exceed the elastic limit.

f

537

Column with end rounded

Column with ends
fixed

= = =

ir^E

-j

pounds per

sq. in.

538
539

4 ir^E 9 t^ ir^E

pounds per

sq. in.

Column with one end

, ,

fixed ^
,

frV
r \1/

and one end rounded

pounds per

sq.

m.

Gordon Formula for allowable average intensity of stress (f) on a column 1 inches in length, with a least radius of gyration of r inches and a maximum allowable compression stress of fc
pounds per square inch on the material.
540
f

^-TTT^

pounds per

sq. in.

Note. The following values of c are commonly used Column with ends rounded Column with ends fixed Column with one end fixed and one end rounded

for steel columns.

9,000 20,000

36,000

Pin-ended columns are generally considered to have ends rounded.

Straight-line formula for

stress
(f)

the allowable average intensity of

in

a column

inches in length, with a least radius of

gyration of r inches and a

stress of fc

maximum

allowable compression

pounds per square inch on the material.

f

541
Note.

fc

c (- j

pounds per

sq. in.

The American Railway Engineering and Maintenance

its specifications.

of

Way
-

Association gives the following formula in

= 16,000 70

Maximum

intensity of stress
1

(f)

in

a column of

A square

inches

inches length, J inches'* moment of inertia about the axis about which bending occurs and y inches dis-

area of cross-section,

136

Mechanics

tance from that axis to the most stressed fiber, due to a direct inch-pounds. load of P pounds and a bending moment of

542

P
a"^

My
Pp P^""^^
c for the

P^"" ^^- ^^-

approx.

Note.

The constant

common

case of pin-ended columns subject

to bending due to a uniformly distributed load

may

be taken as

lo.

Maximum

intensity of stress

(f)

in

a short column of

square

inches area of cross-section,

due

to a load of

pounds applied a inches distant from the X axis of symmetry and b inches distant from the Y axis of symmetry, if Jx inches* is the moment of inertia about the X axis, y inches the distance from the X axis to the most

A..
[F
Fig. 543

Q.

stressed fiber, Jy inches* the moment of inertia about the axis and x inches the distance from

axis to the

most stressed
643

fiber.

P
^ == A

Pay
"'"

"t Jx

"I"

Pbx ~r~ Jy

Po^rids per sq. in.

SHAFTS
Maximum
and
ing
intensity of shear (s) in a shaft of r inches radius
of Jo inches* polar

moment

of inertia

due to a torque

(twist-

moment)

of

M inch-pounds.
s

644
Note.
For a
solid

-= pounds per sq.

Jo

in.

round shaft

r*

Angle
1

(6) of twist in

a solid circular shaft, of r inches radius,

inches in length and with Eg pounds per square inch modulus

of elasticity in shear,

due to a torque of
6

M inch-pounds.

545
Note.

TET radians.
as 12,000,000.

Es

for steel

is

commonly taken

Shafts

137

Horse-power (P) transmitted by a shaft making n revoluinch-pounds. tions per minute under a torque of

646 *^

n= P

2imM
33)000

12

horse-power. ^

Diameter (d) of a soHd circular shaft to transmit H.P. horsepower at n revolutions per minute with a fiber stress in shear of s pounds per square inch.
647
J d

= iV32i,oooH.P. Vns
(s')

mches.

Maximum

intensity

of shearing stress

and (f )

of tensile or

compression stress due to combined twisting and bending in a shaft where s is the maximum intensity of shear due to the torque and f is the maximum intensity of tension or compression

due
548

to the bending.
s'

= - V4 s^
2

-f

f2

pounds per
2

sq. in.

649

f =-f

V4 s2 -f f +i 2

pounds per

sq. in.

HYDRAULICS
HYDROSTATICS
weighing
Intensity of pressure (p) due to a head of pounds per cubic foot.

feet in

a liquid

650
Note.
feet is

= wh pounds

per sq.

ft.

In water, the intensity of pressure corresponding to a head of 0.434 ^ pounds per square inch. (h)

Pressure head

per square foot in a Hquid weighing

corresponding to a pressure of p pounds w pounds per cubic foot.

551
Note.

h = ^

w
is

feet.

In water, the pressure head corresponding to an intensity of

2.3 p feet.

pressure of p pounds per square inch

Total normal pressure (P) on a plane or curved surface A square

feet in area

immersed

in

a liquid weighing
its

w pounds per cubic foot

with a head of ho feet on

552
Note.

center of gravity.

P = wAho
The
total pressure

pounds.

on a plane surface

may

be represented by a
its

re-

sultant force of

pounds acting normally to the area at

center of pressure.

Distance

(Xc) to

the center of pres-

sure of a plane area, measured from the surface of the liquid along the

plane of the area,

if

is

the statical

moment in feet^ about the axis formed

by the
intersection of the plane of

the area and the surface of the liquid

and J is the moment of feet* about the same axis.

663
Note.
If Xo is

inertia in
Fig. SS3.

Xc

=^

feet.

to the surface

sixis,

the distance in feet from the center of gravity of the area Eo the radius of gyration in feet about the center of

138

Hydrostatics
gravity axis,

139

A the area in square feet and Jo the about the center of gravity axis,
^
Jo J

moment

of inertia in feet^

+ 1_^
Axo
Xq

Axo2

fgg^

^^^

Xc

xo

* = KoS feet.

Xo

Special cases of 553.

to the surface:

Rectangle of altitude d feet and base b feet parallel

Xc

d2
feet.

12 Xo

Rectangle with one base coinciding with the surface of the liquid: Xc= f d ft. Triangle of altitude d feet and base, b feet, parallel to the surface of the
liquid with its vertex

upward: Xc

Xo =
its

d2
--q

lo Xo

feet,

Triangle of altitude d feet with

vertex at the surface: Xc

= |d

feet.

Triangle of altitude d feet with

Xc

its

base in the surface and

its

vertex down:

feet.

Circle of radius r feet:

Xc

Xo

4x0

r2

feet.

Circle of radius r feet with a point in the surface: Xc

f r feet.

normal pressure (Pc) on a plane area of A square feet with ho feet head on its center of gravity and a projection of Ac square feet on a plane perpendicular to the component of

Component

of

pressure.

554
Vertical

Pc

= wAcho

pounds.
(Pv)

component

of pressure

on a plane area

of

square feet with ho feet head on its center of gravity and Ah square feet horizontal projection of area.

555

Pv = wAhho pounds.

feet

Horizontal component of pressure (Ph) on any area of A square with Av square feet vertical projection of area and ho feet

head on the center of gravity of the projected area.

556

Ph = wAyho pounds.

Resultant pressure (Pbc) on an area be of Abe square feet with a head above its base
of hi feet

il2

on one side and h^ feet on the other side, or a difference of head of h feet.
'

557

Pbc

= wAbc
(f)

(hi

h2)
t

= wAbch pounds.
of p

^yyyy//^////////?//^^^^^

Fig. 557.

Stress

in a pipe of

inches thickness and d inches inter-

nal diameter

due to a pressure
^

pounds per square

sq. in.

inch.

558

pounds per

140

Hydraulics

Thickness (t) of a pipe of d inches internal diameter to withstand a pressure of p pounds per square inch with a fiber stress of f pounds per square inch.
559

2f

*-; inches.

Practical formula for thickness

(t)

recommended by the
- inches.

New

England Water Works Association.

560
561

For cast-iron pipes

= =

(P

66oo
(P

+ PQ d +

For riveted
p'
is

steel pipes t

+ pO d
2f

mches.

allows for water

in pounds per square inch which the following arbitrary values are recommended for various diameters d of the pipe in inches:

Note,

an additional pressure

hammer and

d 4 to 10
12 to 14 16 to 18

p'

d
24 30 36
42 to 60
(pi

p'

120

no
100

85 80
75 70

20

90

Difference in water pressure

P2)
oil

in

two pipes as

indi-

cated by a differential gage with an

of specific gravity s,

when
oil
is

the difference in level of the surfaces of separation of the

is

and water

z feet

and the

difference in level of the

two pipes
i.

feet.

(a)

When

the

oil

has a specific gravity

less

than

(See

Fig. 562.)

Fig. 562.

Fig. 563.

562

pi

P2

=0.434

[z(i

h]

pounds per

sq. in.

Hydrodynamics

141

(6)

When
pi

the

oil

has a specific gravity greater than

i.

(See

Fig. 563.)

563

p2

0.434

[z (s

i)

h]

pounds per

sq. in.

HYDRODYNAMICS
Conservation of Energy. In steady flow the total energy at any section is equal to the total energy at any further section in the direction of flow, plus the loss of energy due to friction in
the distance between the two sections. Pressure Energy (Wpr) per pound of water weighing

pounds

per cubic foot due to a pressure of p pounds per square foot.

664

Wpr = = 0.016 p foot-pounds.

pound
of

Potential Energy (Wp) per

z feet of the center of gravity of the section

level.

water due to a height of above the datum

665

Wp =

z foot-pounds.

Kinetic Energy (W) per pound of water due to a velocity of v

feet per second, the acceleration

due to gravity being g

feet per

second per second.

666

foot-pounds. W = 2g
v2

Bemouilli's Theorem. In steady flow the total head (pressure head plus potential head plus velocity head) at any section is equal to the total head at any further section in the direction of flow, plus the lost head due to friction between these two sections.

67
Note.

z.+|2l + losthead. ^ 2 g 2 g W+ W + z,+S=|

This
is

also

known

as the conservation of energy equation.

Power (P) available at a section of A square feet area in a moving stream of water, due to a pressure of p pounds per square foot, a velocity of V feet per second and a height of z feet
above the datum
668
level.

P = wvA [ + z

-i

foot-pounds per sec.

"

142

Hydraulics

Horse-power (H.P.) available at any section

of a stream.

wvA
669

H.P. =

\W
550

2g/

horse-power. ^

Power

(P) available in a jet

square feet in area discharging

with a velocity of v feet per second.

670

P=

wv^A
2 g

foot-pounds per second.

ORIFICES
Theoretical velocity of discharge (v) through an orifice due to

a head of h feet over the center of gravity of the

671

orifice.

V =

V 2 gh

feet per second.

(v)
if

Actual velocity of discharge

for the orifice
is Cy.

the coefficient of velocity

672

v =

Cv

V2 gh

feet per second.

area due to a head of

orifice
if

Quantity of discharge (Q) through an orifice A square feet in h feet over the center of gravity of the
the coefficient of discharge
Orifice coefficients are given
is c.

Note.

on page 284.

673

Q =

cA

V2 gh

cubic feet per second.

Coefficient of discharge (c) in terms of the

coefficient of velocity Cy

and the

_ .^^^^^ ~^
t

coefficient of

contraction

Cc.

674

CyCc.

Quantity of discharge (Q) through a submerged orifice A square feet in area due to a head of hi feet on one side of the orifice and
h2 feet

i=^
^^* ^^^*

on the other
c.

side, the coefficient of

discharge being

576
Note.

Q =
If

cA

V2 g (hi

hz,

h2)

cubic feet per second.

cubic feet per sec.

h =

hi

Q =

cA

V2 gh

feet in

Quantity of discharge (Q) through a large rectangular orifice b width with a small head of hi feet above the top of the


Orifices

143
orifice,

orifice

and a head

of h2 feet

above the bottom of the

the

coefficient of discharge being c.

57g

Q =

f cb

vTg (h2 hi^)

cubic feet per second.

Velocity of discharge (v) and quantity of discharge (Q) through an orifice Ai square feet in area, considering the velocity of ap-

proach in the approach channel of A2 square feet area, due to a pressure head of h feet, if the coefficient of discharge is c and the
coefficient of velocity is Cy.

__ 677

V = Cy

-(x)
Ti
/

2 ffh

r5 feet

per second.

678

Q=
(t)

Ai

\o

/A

cubic feet per second.

'-(!)
Time
to lower the water in a vessel of Ai square feet confeet over the orifice to

stant cross-section through an orifice A2 square feet in area,

from an original head of hi

h2 feet.

final

head of

579
Note.

2 Ai .^"/

CA2
in a reservoir of

(Vhi V2 g e

Vh2) seconds =

In general, problems involving the time required to lower the water

any

cross-section

area of the reservoir (this

may

may be solved thus: Let A be a variable in terms of h),

cross-sectional

Q =

the rate of

discharge through an orifice (or weir) as given

hi

by the ordinary formula and

and

hi the initial

and

final heads.

/hi
I

Adh

77- seconds.

For a suppressed weir

this

would be
hi

Jh. hj

Adh
seconds.
3.33 bh*

Mean
feet per

velocity of discharge (Vm) in lowering water in a vessel

if

of constant cross-section,

the initial velocity of discharge

is

Vi

second and the

final velocity is V2 feet

per second.

680

Vm =

feet per second.

of discharge as

Constant head (hm) which will produce the same mean velocity is produced in lowering the water in a vessel of

144

Hydraulics
initial

constant cross-section from an

orifice to

head of hi

feet over the

final

head of hz

feet.

581

h = (:^5LVh^)%eet.

WEIRS
width due to a head of
682
Note.
If

Theoretical discharge (Q) over a rectangular weir b feet in feet over the crest.

Q =

V2g H^

cubic feet per second.

the velocity head due to the velocity of approach v feet per

h)^ h'l second in the channel back of the weir is h feet: Q = f b ^2 g [(H cubic feet per second. The actual discharge may be obtained by multiplying the theoretical discharge by a coefficient c which varies from o.6o to 0.63 for

contracted weirs and from 0.62 to 0.65 for suppressed weirs.

feet in

Francis Formula for discharge (Q) over a rectangular weir b width due to a head of feet over the crest.

For a suppressed
683
'

weir.

Q =

3*33

bH^

cubic feet per second.

For a suppressed weir considering the velocity head the velocity of approach.

h due

to

684

Q =

3.33

b [(H

-f h)^

h^] cubic feet per second.

For a contracted weir.

685

Q =

3.33 (b

0.2

H) Hi cubic

feet per second.

For a contracted weir considering the velocity head h due to

the velocity of approach.

586
for

Q = 3.33

(b

0.2

H) [(H
H).

+ h)^ - h^] cubic feet per second.

Note.

In case contraction occurs on only one side of the weir the term
o.i

width becomes (b

Bazin Formula for discharge (Q) over a rectangular supfeet over the crest and a height p feet of the crest above the bottom of the
pressed weir b feet in width due to a lead of
channel.

687

Q=[o405 + 2:^][i + o.5s(p-^)]bVriH

cubic feet per second.

Weirs

145

Fteley and Steams* Fonnula for discharge (Q) over a suppressed weir b feet in width due to a head of feet over the

crest.

588
Note.

Q =

3.31

b H^

+ 0.007 b

cubic feet per second.

Q =

Considering the velocity head h due to the velocity of approach. 0.007 b cubic feet per second. 1.5 h)^ 3.31 b (H

Hamilton Smith Formula

coefficient of discharge
is c.

for discharge (Q) over a rectangular

weir b feet in width due to a head of

Note.

H feet over the crest,

if

the

table on page 285 gives values of c for both suppressed

and con-

tracted weirs.

for the

For a contracted or a suppressed weir type of weir).

(c to

be properly chosen

589
Note.

Q =

c f

VTg H^
Vi^

cubic feet per second.

For a suppressed weir considering the velocity head h due to the

|h)^ cubic feet per second. For a (H Q = cf b contracted weir considering the velocity head h due to the velocity of apvelocity of approach,

proach,
second.

Q =

cf

VJg (H +

1.4 h)* cubic feet per

Discharge (Q) over a triangular weir, with the sides making an angle of a degrees with the vertical, due to a head of

Fig. 590.

feet over the crest.

590
Note.

Q =
If

c T% tan

V2g H^ cubic feet per second.

Q =
2.53

a =

45 (90 notch),

H^ cubic

feet per second.

Discharge (Q) over a trapezoidal weir. Compute by adding the discharge over a suppressed weir b feet in width to that over

^=r
Fig. SQia.

Fig. S9ib.

the triangular weir formed

solution
is

by the obtained by summing up

sloping sides.

general

the discharges through a

146

Hydraulics

series of differential orifices, giving:

Q =

WVTg h^ dh cubic
orifice,

feet per second,

(b',

the width of the differential

TT

varies

with

h.)

Note.

In the Cippoletti weir d

is

made equal to and the formula becomes

4

Q =

3*37

bH^

cubic feet per second.

Discharge (Q) over a submerged weir b feet in width due to a head of Hi feet over the crest on the upstream side and a head of

H2
591

feet

on the downstream

side.

Q =
(t)

cbH2 (Hi - H2)^ I cb cubic feet per second.

VTg

V2 g (Hi -

H2)

.^H'

Time

to lower the surface of a prismatic reservoir of

square feet superficial area by

in width,

means of a suppressed weir b feet

feet

from an

initial

head of Hi

over the crest to a

final

head of
692
Note.

H2

feet over the crest.

*=-^t(A-^)^^^"'^"
This value
is

based on formula 583.

VENTURI METER
an area

^^1

Quantity of water (Q) flowing through a Venturi Meter with of Ai square feet in the main pipe and an area A2 square feet in the throat and a pressure head of hi feet in the main pipe and of h2 feet in the throat, if the coefficient of the meter is c.

593

Q =

= V2 g (hi h2) cubic feet per second.

PIPES
If

FLOW THROUGH
Solution by Bemouilli*s Theorem.

the total head at

is

point in the pipe-system (preferably at the source)

velocity of discharge at the end can be
Bernouilli's
losses of

any known, the

computed by applying

Theorem between

these two points, provided the

head can be determined.

Following are expressions for

the important losses of head which

may
full

occur.
under pressure, otherwise the

pipe

* These formulas apply to pipes flowing may be treated as an open channel.

Flow through Pipes

Friction loss (hj) in a pipe of d feet internal diameter
feet length

147"

and

with a velocity of v feet per second and a friction

factor f

594
Note.
0.02.

h, i

=f~feet.
d2g

v2

A mean value for the friction factor for clean cast-iron pipes is A table on page 286 gives values for various sizes of pipes and different
In long pipe-lines
it is

velocities.

accurate enough to consider that the total

head

is

used up in overcoming friction in the pipe.

cubic feet per second.

Then

V2

feet

and

Q = Av

pipe

Loss at entrance to a pipe is V feet per second.

he

(h)

if

the velocity of flow in the

595

0.5

2g

feet.

followed

Loss due to sudden expansion (h,) where one pipe is abruptly by a second pipe of larger diameter, if the velocity in the smaller pipe is Vi feet per second and that in the larger pipe
V2 feet

is

per second.
^^

596

(Zl^ll3}lf,et.

2g

Loss due to sudden contraction (he) where one pipe is abruptly followed by a second pipe of smaller diameter, if the velocity in the smaller pipe is v feet per second and Cc is a coefficient.
597
Note.
Values of
Ce
Cc:

he

Cc

2g

feet.

Ratio of areas

o.i

0.2

0.362

0.338
(hb).

0.3 0.308

0.4 0.267

0.5 0.221

0.8 0.053

.00

0.00

Loss due to bends

598
Note.

hb=Cb
Values of Cb: (d
is

2g
0.6

feet.
is

the diameter of the pipe in feet and r

the

radius of the bend in feet).

d -

0.2
0.131
if

0.4
0.138

0.8
0.206
is

1. 00

1.58

0.294

Nozzle loss (hn)

the velocity of discharge

v feet per second

and the velocity

599

coefficient of the nozzle is Cy.

hn

i) feet. f~/ 2 g VCv'

148

Hydraulics

where the velocity

600

Quantity of discharge (Q) in a pipe is v feet per second.

square feet in area

Q = Av

cubic feet per second.

Diameter

of pipe (d) required to deliver

cubic feet of water

is f .

per second under a head of

feet

if

the friction factor

601

d=iyS?^^feet.
is

Hydraulic Gradient

line the ordinates to

which show the

It

pressure heads at the different points in the pipe system.

Flow

in

Open Channels

149

604

A =

feet,

v = c Vrs

feet per second.

Q = Av cubic
or

feet per second.

is

Note, c is the coeflficient and by the Bazin Formula.

usually found either

by the Kutter Formula

Kutter Formula.
605

Y = c

V rs

feet per second,

, ,

1.811 0.00281 , ^ 41.6+-5-+

where

c
,

o.oo28i\

n
on page 287.

Note.

Specific values of c are given in a table

is

the

coefficient of

roughness and has the following values:

Channel Lining

n
0.009 o. 010 0.012 o 013 0.017 o. 020 0.025 o, 030 o 035
.

Smooth wooden flume Neat cement and glazed

pipe

Unplaned timber Ashlar and brick work Rubble masonry Very firm gravel E^rth free from stone and weeds E^rth with stone and weeds Earth in bad condition

Bazin Formula.
606

V = c Vrs
c

feet per second,

where

87
0.552

+ -7=
vr

values of c are given in a table on page 287. coefficient of roughness and has the following values:
Spjecific

Note.

m
m

is

the

Channel Lining

Smooth cement or matched boards Planks and bricks Masonry

Regular earth beds Canals in good order

0.06 0.16 o 46 0.85 i 30

. .

Canals in bad order

.75

150

Hydraulics

orifice

Reaction of being h

DYNAMIC ACTION OF JETS a Jet (P) A square feet in area, the head on feet and the weight of the Hquid w pounds
P=
2

I
the

per

cubic foot.

607
Note.

Awh

pounds
pounds

(theoretical).
(actual).

equals about 1.2

Awh

Energy
second.

of

a Jet (W) discharging with a velocity of v feet per

608
Note.
If

W = wv^Ai foot-pounds.
hv
is

the velocity head and

cubic feet per second,

W = wQhy foot-pounds.

Q =
(

Av) the quantity of flow in

by a

Force (F) exerted on a fixed curve vane jet A square feet in area and v feet
^_^
(i

per second velocity.

609

F =

V2

cos a) pounds.

P^^,

^
on a
fixed

Vertical

component

of force (Fy) exerted

by a

jet

curved vane.
610 Fy

= Awv' sin a pounds.

o

Horizontal component of force (Fh) exerted fixed curved vane.

by a

jet

on a

611

Fh =
o

(i

cos a) pounds.
flat fixed

Force (F) exerted by a jet on a

the
jet.

plate perpendicular to

612

F =

pounds.

vane by a

Force (F) exerted on a moving curved jet A square feet in area with a velocity of V feet per second, the vane

moving
jet

in the direction of the flow of the

F
Fig. 613.

with a velocity of Vo feet per second.

613

F =

-
o

\/2

(i

cos a) pounds.

Dynamic Action
Vertical

of Jets

151

component
"P

of force (Fy) exerted

by a

jet

on a moving

curved vane.
01A 614

Fv

wA (v
^^

Vo)2

sm a
.

J pounds.

Horizontal component moving curved vane.

of force

(h)

exerted

by a

jet

on a

615
Note.
If

Fh =
there
is

^^
a

(^

~
o

^o)'
(I

cos a) pounds.
(v

series of vanes.

wAv Fh =
g

Vo)

(i

cos a)

pounds,

Fv

= wAv

(v

Vo) sin

a pounds.

Power
616
Note.
there
is

(P) exerted

on a (moving) vane.
Vo foot-pounds per second.

Ph = Fh
Maximum

efficiency for

series of

vanes occurs where vo

y =

if

no

friction loss; then,

wAv^ P =

(i

cos a) foot-pounds per second.

HEAT
In the following formulas,

when

specific units are

not stated,

any units may be used, provided identical properties are expressed in the same units. Absolute pressure is indicated by P, gage pressure by p, absolute temperature by T, and thermomIn all formulas containing indicated eter temperature by t. units, the temperature is measured in Fahrenheit degrees.

PERFECT GASES
Pressure (P), volume (V), or temperature (T) of a given weight of gas which at volume (Vi) and temperature (Ti) produces a pressure (Pi).

Note. If Pi is measured in pounds per square foot, Vi in cubic feet per pound and Ti in Fahrenheit degrees, R for air equals 53.34. When the pressure and volume in any case change at constant temperature it is called an
" isothermal change."

The

dual relation between pressure and volume, pressure and

temperature, or volume and temperature may be represented by an

exponential equation, or
pressure and volume, pressure

by the curve of the equation plotted with and temperature, or volume and

temperature as coordinates. Exponent (n) of an equation representing the relation between pressure and volume for a given weight of gas which at pressure Pi has a volume Vi and at pressure P2 has a volume V2.

R1

log Pi

-l0gP2

logV2

logVi

Case I. Pressure (P) or volume (V) of a given weight of gas which at pressure Pi has a volume Vi.

619

PV^ =

PiVi^.

152

Perfect Gases

153

Case II.
of gas

Pressure (P) or temperature (T) of a given weight which at pressure Pi has a temperature Ti.
l-n
l-n

620
Case III.
of gas

TP
Volume
which at volume
(Vi)

TiPi ^

(V) or temperature (T) of a given weight

has a temperature

(Ti).

621

The value of Note. an " adiabatic change," or change

subtracted from the gas,
at constant pressure

TV^-i = TiVi-^ the exponent n may

in

be found from 6i8. For which no heat energy is added to or

heat

equals K.

K equals where Cp is the specific Cv

and Cv is the specific heat at constant volume; for air Values of Cp and Cv are given on page 291. For an " isothermal change," or change at constant temperature, n equals unity.
equals 1.40.

Volume

(Vt) at t

degrees of a given weight of gas which at

32 degrees has a volume of V32 cubic feet.

622
Note.

Vt

V32 [i

L
The
pressure
is

^^

492

^^n cubic
J

feet.

constant.

degrees of a given weight of gas which at 32 degrees has a pressure of P32 pounds per square inch.
(Pt) at t

Pressure

[(t 32)1 pounds per square

I

inch.

Note.

The volume

is

constant.

External work (W) of w pounds of gas during a change from pressure Pi pounds per square inch and volume Vi cubic feet to pressure P2 pounds per square inch and volume V2 cubic
feet.

Case

I.

For any change,

624

W=IMM.[,_^j-]=i44mZ^foot-pounds.
See 618 for expression for value of
n.

Note.

Case II.

For an

**

isothermal change," or change at constant

temperature

degrees.

626

V foot-pounds. W = 144 PiVi In W = wRT ~ foot-pounds.

In

Note.

For explanation

of

R see 617.

In equals lege.

154

Heat

Case III. heat energy

is

For an " adiabatic change " or change added to or subtracted from the gas.

in

which

627 628
629
Note.

W = '-^^ [i - (1-;)^"] foot-pounds. W = ^^ (PiVi - P2V2) foot-pounds.

W = ^5_

(Tj

T2) foot-pounds.
617 for value of R.

See 621 for value of

K and

to or subtracted from a given weight change from pressure Pi pounds per square inch and volume Vi cubic feet to pressure P2 pounds per square inch

Heat energy (Q) added

of gas during a

and volume V2 cubic feet. Case I. For an " isothermal change," or change at constant
temperature

degrees.

630
Note.

Q =

0.185 PiViln^^

B.t.u.

For expression of external work see 625 and 626.

Case II.

heat energy

is

For an "adiabatic change," or change added to or subtracted from the gas.

in

which no

631

Q =

by

definition.

Change in internal energy (W) of a given weight of gas during any change from pressure Pi pounds per square inch and volume Vi cubic feet to pressure P2 pounds per square inch and volume 627 and 629 also apply. V2 cubic feet.
632
Note.

= r^^^
ix
I

(PiVi

P2V2) foot-pounds.

the internal energy

For an "isothermal change," or change at constant temperature, = o. For value of K see 621. is constant or

** Entropy is that function which remains constant for any change represented by a reversible adiabatic expansion or com" Increase of entropy is a quantity which, when pression."

multiplied

by the lowest
of entropy
(<|>2

available temperature, gives the inof a given weight

(Pi),

curred waste as heat."

Change

<t>i)

during a change from pressure

(Ti) to pressure (P2),

volume

(V2)

w pounds of gas volume (Vi), and temperature and temperature (T2).

Saturated Steam

165

Case

I.

Expressed in terms of pressure and volume.

4)2

633
Case II.

<t)i

= Cvln^

+ Cpln^^ +
+
(cp

w.

Expressed in terms of pressure and temperature.

+2
<l)i

634
Case III.

rcpln|-'

Cv) In

~^1 w.

Expressed in terms of temperature and volume.

<t)2
<t>i

635
Note.
specific

[cvln

^^

(Cp

Cv)

In

w.

^J

Cv equals the Cp equals the specific heat at constant pressure. Specific values are given on page 291. heat at constant volume.

SATURATED VAPOR
While the following expressions are stated and constants are evaluated for steam vapor, the general relations hold for any saturated vapor. For one pound of dry saturated steam at
absolute pressure (P) or gage pressure
,

(p)

values of temperature
(q),

(t),

specific
(r),

volume

(s),

heat of the liquid

heat of vapori(p),

zation

total heat

(H), internal latent heat of vapor

entropy of the liquid (n) and total entropy (N) the steam tables on page 288.

may

be found in

SATURATED STEAM
Pressure (P) or volume (V) of a given weight of steam which
at pressure (Pi) has a

volume

(Vi).

636
Note.

PV ^-^ =
is

PiVi^-^

constant (very nearly).

During an "isothermal change," or change at constant temperaconstant.

ture, the pressure

Volume
of

(V) of

one pound

of

dry steam which has a pressure

P pounds

per square inch and a temperature of

degrees.

637

V=

0.5962

1-

(I

+ 0.0014 P) (152:^1222 _

0.0833)

cubic feet per pound.

Volume has a volume

638

(V)

of

one pound of vapor x* per cent dry which

of s cubic feet

when

dry.
<r

V=

(s

c) +

cubic feet.

Note. <r equals the volume of one pound of liquid at the same pressure. For one pound of water a equals .01 6 cubic foot approximately. Values of s in the steam table are for the weight of one pound of steam.
*

Expressed as a decimal fraction.

156

Heat
of the liquid (q) of

Heat
ature
t

one pound of liquid at any temperq32.

degrees, the heat of the liquid at 32 Fahrenheit being

639
Note.

q = The value

q32

+ c (t

32) B.t.u.

water equals approximately unity. Values of q in the steam tables are for the heat of the liquid above that of the liquid at 32 Fahrenheit.
of the constant c for

Total heat (H) or heat content

at a temperature of
t

(i)

of

one pound of dry steam

degrees

Regnault.

640
Davis.

H
For
1 t

= =

1091.7

+ 0.305
t

(t

32) B.t.u.

212 to

400,

641

H=
i

150.3

+ 0.3745 (t -

212)

0.00055

(t

212)2 B.t.u.

Goodenough.
642

0.320

+ 0.000063 T2
23,583
6.188

io^QP(i

+ 0.0342 P^)

+ 0.00333 P + 948.54
Note.

B.t.u.
I

Goodenough's value of i is for the "heat content" which 1ST The pressure P in Goodenough' slightly different than the " total heat." fh's I equation is measured in pounds per square inch.

Heat
pressure

of

vaporization (r) of one pound of dry vapor at which has a heat of the liquid of q B.t.u. and a total
B.t.u.

heat of

643
Note.
steam.

r
Values of
r in the

H - q B.t.u.
for the weight of

steam tables are

one pound of

Heat energy

(h)

at pressure

of

one pound of vapor x*

per cent dry which has a heat of the liquid of q B.t.u. and a heat of vaporization of r B.t.u.

644

h = q xr B.t.u. During an " isodynamic change," or change in which the internal energy remains constant, the external work done by or upon the vapor is equal to the loss or gain of heat energy. For expression for external work see note under 646.
Note.

Heat energy
of

(h) added to or subtracted from one pound vapor which changes at constant pressure (isothermally) from
* Expressed as a decimal fraction.

Saturated Steam

157

Xi* per cent

r B.t.u.

dry to

X2* per cent dry.

The heat

of vaporization

is

645

h=r (X2 -

Xi) B.t.u.

External work (W) in changing at constant pressure P pounds per square inch one pound of Iquid with volume of c cubic feet
to

vapor X* per cent dry with a volume

of

cubic

feet.

646

144

(V

(t)

144

Pxu

foot-pounds.

Note. For values of V and <r see 638. If s equals the volume of one pound of dry vapor, u = s a where u is the change of volume from liquid to dry vapor. For external work during an " adiabatic change " see 650. The external work may be calculated approximately by 624 in the section on Perfect Gases, providing the pressure and volume are known at two instants
during the change.

constant pressure of

changing one pound of vapor at pounds per square inch from a condition Xi* per cent dry with a volume of Vi cubic feet to a condition X2* per cent dry and a volume of V2 cubic feet.
External work

(W)

in

647

144

(V2

Vi)

144

Pu
and

(X2
V2.

Xi)

foot-pounds.

Note. See 638 for expression the change of volume u.

for Vi

See 646 for explanation of

External latent heat (p) in changing at constant pressure of pounds per square inch one pound of liquid to vapor x* per

cent dry.

Note.

See 646 for expression for value of the external work

W and note
changing

for explanation of

change of volume

u.

Internal latent heat or "intrinsic energy"

(p)

in

at constant pressure of
of
liquid

to

pounds per square inch one pound dry vapor whose heat of vaporization is r

B.t.u.

649
Note.

r-i^Pu
778

p B.t.u.
(r)

The steam

tables give values of heat of vaporization

and

Inter-

nal latent heat (p) for the weight of one pound. external latent heat p and change of volume u.

See 648 for explanation of

It follows

from the above

that r

p.

Exoressed as a decimal fraction.

158

Heat

Internal energy
of one

pound

liquid of

(W) at pressure P pounds per square inch vapor x* per cent dry which has a heat of the q B.t.u. and an internal latent heat of p B.t.u.
of

650

W = 778

(q

+ xp)

foot-pounds.

Note. For explanation of q see 639 and consult 649 for value of p. During an "isodynamic change " the internal energy remains constant; if vapor changes from a pressure Pi and a condition Xi* per cent dry to a pressure P2 and a condition X2* per cent dry, qi + Xipi = q2 + X2P2. This expression affords means of determining the quality Xi or X2. During an " adiabatic change " or change in which no heat energy is added to or subtracted from the vapor the external work done by or upon the vapor is equal to the loss or gain of internal energy. If the vapor changes from a pressure Pi and a quality of Xi * to a pressure P2 and a quality of X2*, (done by vapor) = 778 (qi - qj + XiPi - X2P2) foot-pounds. the external work

Change of entropy (n2 nO of one pound of liquid which changes from a temperature of Ti degrees to a temperature of Ty
degrees.

651
Note,

n2

ni

= cln=^and
for

c is the specific heat of the liquid

one pound of water

equals unity very nearly.

The steam

tables give values of the entropy of

one pound of water above that of water at 32 Fahrenheit.

Change of entropy (N') due to vaporization of one pound which changes at constant temj^erature of T degrees and constant pressure of P pounds per square inch from liquid to dry
vapor.

At

pressure

the heat of vaporization

is

r B.t.u.

652

N' =

ir

Total entropy (N) above that of liquid at 32 Fahrenheit of

one pound of vapor x* per cent dry and at pressure P.

equals entropy of vaporization at pressure P and n equals entropy of the liquid above that of liquid at 32 Fahrenheit.

653

N = n + xi.

Note. For one pound of dry steam values of N are given in the steam tables. During an " adiabatic change," or change in which no heat energy is added to or subtracted from the vapor, the entropy is constant. That is, if at pressures Pi and P2 the entropy of the liquid is ni and 112 and the entropy of
*

Expressed as a decimal fraction.

Superheated Steam

159

vaporization

is =5-

and

=|-

and the quality

of the

vapor

is

respectively Xi*

and

Xj*

li

I2

per cent dry,

it

follows that ni

= + Xi =li

Ua

+ X2 =- I2

SUPERHEATED VAPOR
expressed and constants are the general relations hold but quoted superheated well above A vapor vapor. for any superheated perfect gas and many of a the dry saturated state resembles may used as approximate perfect be gases the relations given for The table on page 290 gives vapors. relations for superheated heat for one pound N, total V, entropy and values of volume

The

following

relations

are

particularly for steam,

of superheated vapor.

SUPERHEATED STEAM
Volume
pressure of
degrees.
(V) of one

pound

of superheated

steam which has a

pounds per square inch and a temperature of

654
666 656
TT

V =

0.6490

T p

22.58

p7 cubic

feet.

V =
V=
0.596
/r

0.596
.
,

0.256 cubic feet.

Tp

(I

P) + 0.0014 ^.

/l50,300,000

(^-^-^%^

0.0833
j

cubic

feet.

results;

Zeuner's (654) and Tumlirz's (655) formulas give approximate Note. more accurate results are given by Linde's formula, (656). At very high temp)eratures vapors resemble perfect gases following closely the law PV = RT where for steam R = 85.8.

Total heat (H), or heat content (i) of one pound of superheated vapor whose temperature is t degrees and pressure is P pounds per square inch. The total heat of dry saturated vapor at pressure P is Hgat B.t.u. and the corresponding temperature
is tsat

degrees.

657

Hsat

+ Cp (t -

tsat)

B.t.u.

Expressed as a decimal fraction.

160

Heat
for superheated steam,

Goodenough's equation
658 3
6.188
Note.
i

0.320

T2 - 21^ 0.00 + 0.000063

B.t.u.

loio

P (i
^4
is

+ 0.0342 P^) + 0.00333 P + 948.54

In 658 the temperature

In 657 Cp
is

average value

0.48.

the specific heat at constant pressure, for steam an is T degrees absolute.

Internal energy (W), or "intrinsic energy," of one pound of superheated steam with pressure of P pounds per square inch and temperature of T degrees.

Goodenough.
659

0.2099

+ 0.000063 T2 - ?^^ _ 4.950 X 10^0 Pji + 0.02992 P^) ^ ^3 g^ 3^ ^

T
internal energy equals the total heat

Note.

The

minus the external work.

Entropy (N) of one pound of superheated steam with pressure of P pounds per square inch and temperature of T degrees.

Goodenough.
660

0.73683 log

T+0.000126T- "^^^^'^ lo^QP (i Jo

0.25355 log

4.950

+ 0.0342 P) _

^j^g^g

FLOW OF FLUIDS AND GASES

Flow
of Fluids*

The following relations for the flow of a fluid hold during an " adiabatic change," or change in which no heat is added to or
taken from the
fluid.

Velocity (v) of one

pound

of fluid with pressure of

pounds
this
Vi.

per square inch, volume of

cubic feet and internal energy of

flow.

W
661

foot

pounds during an adiabatic

At pressure Pi

fluid

has a volume of Vi, internal energy

Wi and

a velocity of

= + (Wi - W) + 2g 2g
111
ft.

144 (PiVi
is

PV) foot-pounds.

Note,
(32.2

vis expressed in feet per second, g

per sec. per sec).
If initial

the acceleration due to gravity

is

velocity Vi

small

it

may
If

be neglected
is

giving:

= Wi +
2 g

144 PiVi

W 144 PV foot-pounds.

the fluid

in-

compressible there

is

practically

no change of volume or change of internal

* Neeflectinsr friction.

Flow

of

Gases

161

energy (Wx
is

-W =
feet,

o).

Then -^ =
2 g

(Pi

- P)

144 Vi foot-pounds.

If

the fluid

incompressible and the change of pressure (Pi

P2)

is

due to a difference

in

head

of

=h g
2

foot-pounds.

See chapter on Hydraulics for detailed

analysis of flow under the latter conditions.

FLOW OF GASES*
Equation 661 for the flow of a fluid may be modified for the flow of a perfect gas through an orifice or nozzle giving: Velocity (v) in the orifice of one pound of gas with a pressure of P pounds per square inch and volume of V cubic feet during an adiabatic flow. At a pressure of Pi the gas has a volume of Vi.
662

2g

= ^^
Jk
I

(PiVi

PV) foot-pounds.

663

(I) J Note, v is expressed in feet per second. K is explained in note 621. In 663 RTi may be substituted for PiVi because PiVi = RTi by 617, where Ti'.is
the temperature in degrees of the gas at pressure Pi. due to gravity. The velocity of approach is neglected.

= I^PiVi 2g K
j^

1 ^ foot-pounds
g
is

the acceleration

Weight (w) of gas discharged at a velocity of v feet per second during an adiabatic flow through an orifice with an area of A square inches. One pound of the gas at the pressure in the
orifice

has a volume of

V
Av

cubic

feet.

664
Note.
the
orifice,

w =
P
is

-77

pounds per second.

and volume
(Vi)

Given the pressure

(Pi)

on the reservoir side of

obtained by 619.

not less than 0.58 Pi approx. and

is

Weight (w) of gas discharged through a rounded orifice of A square inches area from a reservoir at pressure of Pi pounds per square inch and temperature of Ti degrees to a small straight pipe; the pressure within the pipe being P2 pounds per square
2

TT

Ji.

Mw m-$)
\
v

K+r K
pounds per sec.
I

-n

see 617

Note, g equals the acceleration due to gravity. For explanation of R and of K see 621. If Pi is not less than 2 P2, Fliegner's formula may

be used, as follows:

w=

0.530

/ pounds per second.

* Neglecting friction.

162

Heat

Velocity (v) of flow of air through a vertical flue

feet high,

the temperature of the air in the flue being Ti degrees and of the air outside the flue T2 degrees

666
Note.

feet per second. ^ I2 V ^-^^V^ li

~
is

This formula
less.

theoretical

and the actual velocity may be 40 per

cent to 50 per cent

Velocity

(vi), final

pressure (P2), or coefficient of friction

(f)

a pipe at a constant temperature of T degrees from a point, where the pressure is Pi pounds per square inch and the velocity is Vi, to a point 1 feet distant where the pressure is P2. The hydraulic radius, or the result obtained by dividing the area of the pipe by its perimeter, is inches. J
for the flow of a gas in

667
668

V.

= |f3^x?i^|*feetpersecond.
=
Pi
]

I l

P2

p-^

> '

pounds per square

inch.

669

^^gRTm
i2Vin

Pi^-P2^
Pi2
in long pipes is small

Note. It is assumed that the velocity of the gas and the change of kinetic energy is therefore neglected.
cross section

For pipes

of circular

- where d

is

the diameter,

is

the acceleration due to

f,

4
gravity and equals 32.2 feet per second per second approximately,
coefficient of friction,

the

can be obtained experimentally and for air equals 0.0030 to 0.0045 approximately. See note of 617 for explanation of R.

FLOW OF A SATURATED VAPOR*

The following relation holds for the flow of a saturated vapor during an " adiabatic change," or change in which no heat is added to or taken from the vapor. Velocity (v) of one pound of vapor, xf per cent dry, with a
pressure of P pounds per square inch, after an adiabatic flow from a reservoir where the vapor is Xit per cent dry and has a pressure of Pi pounds per square inch and no velocity. At pressure Pi or P the volume is Vi or V cubic feet, the heat of the
* Neglecting friction.

t Expressed as

a decimal fraction.

Flow

of a Saturated

Vapor
pi

163

liquid qi or q B.t.u., the internal energy vaporization ri or r B.t.u. respectively.

or p B.t.u., the heat of

67^

7^ =778

(qi

+ x,pi - xp) +
+ Xifi - xr) +

144 (PiVi

P2V2)

foot-pounds.

671

Jv
is

= 778

(qi

144

o"

(Pi

P)

foot-pounds.
Note,
expressed in feet per second.
is

For explanation

of

o-

see 638.

In
xr)

671 the last term

foot-pounds,
adiabatic flow

small and

may be omitted giving:

=778(qi q+Xiri
If

g
is

is

the acceleration due to gravity.

the work done

by
is

this

expended

in increasing the kinetic energy, this

change

one

of constant entropy, see 653.

Weight (w)
inches area;
at the of

of

vapor discharged through an

orifice of

square

the vapor in the orifice has a velocity of v feet

per second and

is x* per cent dry. same pressure has a volume of fluid a volume of <r cubic feet.

One pound

of

dry vapor

cubic feet and one

pound

672
Note.

w=
144

Av
rTTT
[x

(V

r-;
(t)

pounds ^
?

per second.
steam and water.

<r]

See note of 638 for values of

V and

<r

for

Weight (w) of steam flowing from a reservoir at pressure Pi pounds per square inch through an orifice of A square inches to a pressure of P2 pounds per square inch.
If

Pi

or

>

f P2.

Rankine.
673
Grashof.

w
w

= APi pounds

per second.

674

= 0.0165 APi^ pounds per

second.

IfPi<^P2.
Rankine.
675

w=

0.029
*

A [P2 (Pi

P^)]^

pounds per second.

Expressed as a decimal fraction.

164

Heat
(d) of a pipe

Diameter
foot.

through which

pounds of steam flow

per minute, the density of the steam being 5 pounds per cubic

676
Note.

d = 0.175 (-^Y
The formula
is

inches.

based on experimental data and assumes an

It is

allowable velocity of the steam of 6000 feet per minute.

customary

in

the case of flow of steam through nozzles, etc., to solve neglecting friction and then apply a percentage friction loss to the available head.

Weight (w) of steam that will flow through a pipe of d inches diameter from a point at pi pounds per square inch to a point 1 The weight feet distant at p2 pounds per square inch pressure.
of a cubic foot of

steam at the pressure

^

pi is

Wi pounds.

677

w =cy

^^^

^"
.

pounds per minute.

678

w = 87

fZlMEM^
(c)

pounds per minute.

Note.
for

In 677 the coefficient 24 inch pipe.

varies from 45.3 for

inch pipe to 63.2

FLOW OF A SUPERHEATED VAPOR*

The following relation holds for the flow of a superheated vapor during an "adiabatic change," or change in which no heat is added to or taken from the vapor. Velocity (v) of a vapor which flows adiabatically from a reservoir, where the vapor is superheated and one pound has a total heat of Hi B.t.u., to a point where the vapor is X2t per cent dry and one pound has a heat of the liquid of qa B.t.u. and a
heat of vaporization of
T2

B.t.u.

679
Note,
gravity.

=
2 g
v
is

778 (Hi

X2r2

q2)

foot-pounds.
g
is

expressed in feet per second,

for the total heat
friction.

the acceleration due to

For expression
*

Hi

see 657.

Neglecting

Expressed as a decimal fraction.

The Steam Engine

165

THE STEAM ENGINE

The Carnot
and
cycle for a steam engine consists of a reception
rejection of heat energy at constant temperature

and con-

stant pressure, and an adiabatic expansion and compression

without transmission of heat through the cyHnder walls. Camot efficiency {r\) of an engine receiving heat energy of Qi B.t.u. at a temperature of Ti degrees and rejecting heat energy of Q2 B.t.u. at a temperature of T2 degrees. 680
Note,

n =
This expression
is

-^rtrue for

-Q^.

any substance.

cycle for a steam engine consists of a reception dry saturated steam at constant pressure, an adiabatic expansion, without transmission of heat through the cylinder walls, to the exhaust pressure, and a rejection of steam at constant
of

The Rankine

pressure.

steam engine receiving steam at a steam having a total heat of Hi B.t.u., and rejecting steam at an exhaust pressure (P2), one pound of steam having a total heat of H2 B.t.u. and a heat of
efficiency
(r\)

Rankine

of a

pressure (Pi), one

pound

of

the liquid of q2 B.t.u.

681

11

r==
i:li

q2

Note. The total heat (H2) is that of steam at pressure (P2) after adiabatic expansion at constant entropy from pressure (Pi). The exhaust steam is usually wet and its quality is assumed constant during the constant pressure
exhaust.

Efficiency of an actual engine (t]) which is developing P horse-power while using w pounds of steam per hour, the difference between the heat energy of one pound of steam entering the engine and the heat energy of one pound of the condensed steam being Q B.t.u.

682

= iS4lP.
'

wQ

Mean

effective pressure (M.E.P.) in the cylinder of a

steam
square

engine, as

shown by an
*

indicator card with

an area of

Expressed as a decimal fraction.

166

Heat

inches and length of

dicator being

inches, the scale of the spring of the inof the card.

S pounds per inch height

M.E.P. =

683

AS -:=

pounds per square

inch.

Mean

effective pressure (M.E.P.)

on one side of the piston

of P2

in

the cylinder of a steam engine, with an admission pressure of Pi

pounds per square inch and an exhaust pressure

per square inch.

pounds

The valve has

the following events in terms of

the stroke of the piston, a cutoff of C.O.*per cent, a release of

100 per cent, and a compression of C* per cent, the clearance in

the cylinder at the end of compression being CI* per cent of the
stroke.

684

M.E.P. = Pi
P2
(i

X CO. + Pi (CO. +

CI) In

^^j^^
per square inch.

C)

P2 (C

+ CI) In

CI

prj

+ c pounds

Note. The expression equals the foot-pounds of work done per revolution on one side of the cylinder divided by the product of 144 and the piston displacement in cubic feet. It affords a means of obtaining an approximate M.E.P. if the valve events are known and no indicator card is available.

Indicated horse-power (I.H.P.) of one end of a cylinder of a steam engine which has a stroke of L feet and a speed of N revolutions per minute, the piston area exposed to the steam pressure being A square inches and the mean effective pressure on this side of the piston being P pounds per square inch. PT AN"

685

I.H.P.

^^-^^^ horse-power. 33)000

Note. The indicated horse-power should be figured for the head end and crank end separately as the mean effective pressure and the exposed piston area are not the same for both ends.

Total expansion (E) of a

ratio (R) of the

compound engine with a

cutoff in

the high pressure cylinder of C.O.*per cent of the stroke and a

volume

of the

low pressure by the volume of

the high pressure cylinder.

686
Note.
the
is

E = R X CO.
The
and
total expansion
final pressures.
4,
is

approximately the same as the ratios of

cylinder ratio (R) for

initial

The

compound engines

roughly 3 or

and

for

a triple expansion engine 2 or

2.5.

Steam Calorimeters

167

CONDENSERS
pound of steam which enters the condenser Xi* per cent dry at an exhaust pressure (Pi) with the corresponding heat of the Hquid of qi B.t.u. and a heat of vaporization of fi B.t.u. The condensed steam leaves the condenser at a temperature of t2 degrees, the corresponding heat of the Hquid being q2 B.t.u. The injection water enters at a temperature of ts degrees and leaves at t4 degrees, the
Injection water (w) required to condense one

corresponding heat of the liquid being

qa

and

q4 B.t.u.

687
Note.
Xi

w=
q4
I.

^
qa

pounds.

The exhaust steam is often assumed to be dry and saturated or With jet condensers the temperatures t2 and t4 are identical.

Cooling surface (A) of a surface condenser in which w pounds of exhaust steam at a temperature of T degrees and with a total heat
per pound of
liquid per

pound
is

ing water

condensed to water with a heat of the The initial temperature of the coolTi degrees and the final temperature is T2 degrees.
B.t.u. are

of q B.t.u.

688
Note.
for brass

A = ^ ^^ ~
The

^^

square

feet.

coefficient of heat transmission is

B.t.u. per hour, per degree

difference in temperature, per square foot of cooling surface,

u varies

greatly;

tubes with water velocities of 50 to 100 feet per minute an average

is

value of u
*

250.
'

'P
,

__ 'P

T -T, In T -T2

degrees or

is

given approximately by

'P

'p

degrees.

STEAM CALORIMETERS
Quality of steam (x*) at pressure
throttling calorimeter within
of Pi

P sampled by a Peabody which the steam has a pressure

of the liquid

and a temperature of ts degrees. At pressure P the heat is q B.t.u. and the heat of vaporization is r B.t.u.,
is ti

also at pressure Pi the corresponding temperature of saturated

vapor

degrees, the heat of the liquid

is

is qi

B.t.u.

and the

heat of vaporization

B.t.u.
^p (^^

689
Note.

X =

^^

+ q^ +

ti)

q
It is

necessary to

The priming equals i x. Cp equals 0.48 approximately. know Cp accurately, as the superheat is not great.
*

not

Expressed as a decimal fraction.

168

Heat

P sampled by a Thomas which takes Pi watts of electric energy to dry the steam and P2 watts to superheat it 30 degrees FahrenQuality of steam (x*) at pressure
electric calorimeter
heit.

The heat

of vaporization

is

r B.t.u. at pressure P.

690
Note,

x =
k
is

i--^^ rPz

a constant determined from the Thomas calorimeter diagram.

INJECTORS
Weight
of

Water (w) entering the

injector per

pound

of

steam

when
is

the water has a heat of the liquid of q2 B.t.u. entering the injector and qs B.t.u. leaving the injector. The entering steam
at pressure Pi
liquid of qi B.t.u.

691

and is Xi* per cent dry, having a heat and a heat of vaporization of ii B.t.u. = ^^ + ^^^^-^^

of the

qa

pounds.

q2

Velocity (v) of water at the smallest section of the delivery

tube,
if

Vi feet per

pounds of water enter the injector at a velocity of minute for each pound of steam entering at a velocity
V =

of V2 feet per minute.

692
Note,

ZLZIi
I

+w

feet per ^ second.

w may
if

perimentally are known.

be obtained by 691 and Vj by 671. Vi may be found exthe weight of water per second and the size of the water pipe

Area (A) of the delivery tube of an injector into which w pounds of water enter per second through the supply pipe, each pound of steam forcing through the injector n pounds of water with a velocity of v feet per second.
693
Note.
livery tube.

A = ^^^g^^
For value of v see 692.
8
is

square

feet.

the density of the fluid in the de-

SAFETY VALVES
Area (A) of a spring-loaded safety valve set to blow at a P pounds per square inch on a steam boiler in which w pounds of water per second are evaporated.
pressure of

694

A =

5 square

inches.

* Expressed as a decimal fraction.

steam Boilers
"Note.

169

This formula

is

that given in the Massachusetts Boiler Rules and

it.

gives the size of the valve or area of the pipe leading to

opening between the valve and the seat of a P pounds per square inch on a steam boiler in which w pounds of water per second are evaporated.

Area (A)

of the

spring loaded safety valve set to blow at

696
Note.
for

A = --^P rr
0.95

square inches.

The

of the valve is

If the diameter value, 0.95, was determined experimentally. d inches and the lift is 1 inches, the area of the opening is irdl

flat-seated valve, or 0.707 irdl for

a 45 degree

seat.

at a pressure of

on a steam boiler set to blow pounds per square inch. The valve is located a inches from the fulcrum and weighs, with the spindle, pounds; a weight of Wi pounds is located b inches from the fulcrum and the center of gravity of the lever weighing W2 pounds is located c inches from the fulcrum. Area (A)
of a lever safety valve

axA 696

A = Wa + Wib + W2C A p

square mches.

STEAM BOILERS
Maximum
drum with a
mate
x\

allowable working pressure

(p) of

a steam boiler

shell of r inches radius, t inches thick

and an

ulti-

tensile strength of f
is

pounds per square

inch.

The

factor

of safety

F.S.

and the

efficiency of the longitudinal joint is

per cent.

697

p = ^

J*

pounds per square inch.

Thickness (t) of a bumped head of bumped radius r inches, the ultimate tensile strength of the plate being f pounds per square inch with a factor of safety of F.S. The working pressure
is

p pounds per square inch.

t

698
Note.

'

'*

inches.

2 for convex heads

is

and

K i.2

for concave heads.

The

factor of safety (F.S.)

commonly

5.

170

Heat

Boiler horse-power (Pb).

boiler of

evaporates 34.5 pounds

of water per

rer one boiler horse-powe: hour at 212 degrees and nd

I I

atmospheric horse-power

pressure.
is

Under

any

other

conditions

boiler

given by

699
Note.

Pb =

^ ^^ ~

^'^

boiler horse-power.

33,520

H
is

is

the total heat per pound of steam at the Indicated boiler

pressure, qi

the heat of the liquid per pound at feed water temperature

and

is

the number of pounds of water evaporated per hour.

Factor of evaporation (F) of a steam boiler which makes B.t.u., the dry steam at a pressure P with a total heat of feed water having a heat of the liquid of qi B.t.u.

700

F =

^^^.
971.7

Note. 971.7 is the heat of vaporization at 212" F. or heat energy "from and at 212*'." The total heat of the steam may be obtained from 640, 641 and 642 or 657 and 658. If the quality of the steam is x,* H = H'x + q/ (I x), where H' and q/ are the total heat and heat of the liquid respectively
at the given pressure.

Equivalent evaporation (We) from and at 212 degrees of a when its factor of evaporation is F and the actual evaporation is w pounds per hour.
boiler

701

We =

Fw

pounds per hour.

rate of combustion being

Grate area (A) of a steam boiler of Pb boiler horse-power, the C pounds of coal per square foot of grate per hour and the rate of equivalent evaporation being E pounds of water per pound of coal.

702

A = ^^^^'^ V/ X
Jc

square

feet.

FUELS
carbon,

Heating value (Q) of a crude oil which contains C* per cent of H* per cent of hydrogen and O* per cent of oxygen.

703

Q =

14,500

+ 53,400 H ^
f

B.t.u. per

pound.

Expressed as a decimal fraction.

Internal Combustion Engines

171

fixed

Heating value (Q) of a solid fuel which contains C* per cent of and volatile carbon, H* per cent of hydrogen, O* per cent of

oxygen, S* per cent of sulphur and

H2O*

per cent of water.

704

Q =

14,500

+ 53,400 H-l] + 4000 S

are
all

1000

H2O

B.t.u. per pound.

Note.

The percentages

based on the fuel as sampled.

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

(Vt),

Compression ratio (r) of an engine with a cylinder volume a clearance volume (Vc) and a stroke volume (Vs).

,4;.
Note.
Vt

= Vs
(r])

+ Vc
of the Otto

Efficiency

and Brayton cycle when the engine

(r).

cylinder has a compression ratio

706
Note.
For explanation
r.

^
of

1-^see section 621

on perfect

gases.

See 705

for value of

Efficiency

(i])

of the Otto cycle

is

when

the pressure and tem-

Pi and Ti respectively at the beginning of compression and P2 and T2 respectively at the end
perature in the engine cylinder
of compression.

Note. The Otto cycle consists of an adiabatic compression, addition of heat energy at constant volume (burning of the charge), adiabatic expansion, and rejection of heat energy at constant volume. See the section on perfect
gases for the relation between pressure, volume, and temperature and 621 for the explanation of K.

engine cylinder

Brayton cycle when the temperature in the Ti at the beginning and T2 at the end of compression, and T3 at the beginning and T4 at the end of expansion.
Efficiency
ir\)

of the

is

708

,,

Ti i
A2

^ I

T4 i.
I3

Expressed as a decimal fraction.

172

Heat

The Brayton cycle consists of an adiabatic compression, addition energy at constant pressure (burning of the charge), adiabatic expansion, and rejection of heat energy at constant pressure. See the section on perfect gases for the relation of pressure, volume, and temperature.
Note.
of heat

Efficiency

(r])

of the Diesel cycle

(r)

when

the engine cylinder

has a compression ratio

and a

cut-off ratio (8).

Note.
and
rr^
is

The

Diesel cycle consists of an adiabatic compression, addition of

heat energy at constant pressure (burning of the charge), adiabatic expansion,

rejection of heat energy at constant volume.

The

cut-oflF ratio (8)

equals

where Ve is the stroke volume at cutoff plus the clearance volume and Vc Vc the clearance volume. See the section on perfect gases for value of and

relations of pressure

volume and temperature.

of the Sargent cycle
is

Efficiency

(t])

when

the temperature in

Ti at the instant the admission valve closes during the suction stroke, T2 at the end of compression, T3 at the maximum pressure at the beginning of expansion, and
the engine cylinder

T4 at the end of expansion.

^^^
Note.

"1

tt^t;
is

a variation of the Otto cycle, the admission For the rest of that stroke Adiabatic the charge expands, the pressure dropping below atmospheric. compression follows, then addition of heat energy at constant volume (burning of the charge), adiabatic expansion and a rejection of heat energy at constant
cycle

The Sargent

valve closing before the end of the suction stroke.

volume.

Diameter

(d) of

an engine cylinder designed for a

maximum

obtainable indicated horse-power (I.H.P.) with a

pressure (M.E.P.) pounds per square inch, the

mean effective number of ex(1)

plosions per minute at full load being n and the stroke X times the diameter, or 1 = xd.
711

being

.V300(I.H.P.) ,,
I.H.P. usually exceeds the rated full

Note.
article

The maximum obtainable

load by 15 or 20 per cent.

Mean
in

effective pressure tables are given in

an

by Sanford A. Moss

Power, July 1906.

Air Compressors

173

cyHnders of Brake horse-power (B.H.P.) of an engine with d inches diameter and 1 inches stroke at N revolutions per minute.

712

B.H.P.

= ^2E5
14,000

(at ^

any i' J speed) ^

speed)
rating

713
Note.

B.H.P.

H2tn
(at

maximum
is

Both formulas are empirical; 712

common

and 713

is

the rating of the Association of Automobile Manufacturers.

AIR
Power

COMPRESSORS

(P) required to compress a given weight of air per from a pressure of Pi pounds per square inch and a minute volume of Vi cubic feet to a pressure of P2 pounds per square
inch.

714
Note.

P=

144 PiVi

1
I

p^ )

foot-pounds per minute.

ture see the section on perfect gases.

For general relations between the pressure, volume, and temperaFor air compressors n equals 1.2 to 1.4.
air after
(Ti) to

(Pi)

Temperature (T) of and temperature

being compressed from a pressure

n-l

a pressure (P).
""

716
Note.

T=
its

Ti

(^)

degrees.
if

For value of n see 714.

natural moisture.

This formula applies

the air

is

dry or

contains only

Volume
(Pi)

(V) of free air at pressure (P)

and temperature (T)

required to supply Vi cubic feet of compressed air at pressure

and temperature

(Ti).

716

V =

^^^

cubic feet.

Piston displacement (V) of a double-acting air which receives Vi cubic feet of free air per minute The (Pi) and makes N revolutions per minute. the compressed air in the clearance at the end of the
stroke
is

compressor
at pressure pressure of

discharging

P2.

174

Heat
I.

Case

The

air

compressor has no clearance.

717
Case II.

^ = 2N
The
air

\
"^

cubic

feet.

compressor has a clearance of y* per cent

of the stroke.

718

V=
2

cubic feet.

n(. -,(!;)%,)

Note,

n as

in 714.

which compresses

(P) of a two stage air compressor from a pressure of Pi pounds per square inch to a pressure of P2 pounds per square inch.

Intermediate presstire
air

719

P = VP1P2

pounds per square

inch.

Power (P) required to compress a given weight of air per minute in a two stage air compressor from a pressure of Pi pounds per square inch and a volume of Vi cubic feet to a pressure of
P2 pounds per square inch.

720

P =

288 PiV,
n

(5= j

I
I

foot-pounds per minute.

Note,

as in 714.

First intermediate pressure (P'), and second intermediate pressure (P'O of a three stage air compressor which compresses air from a pressure of Pi pounds per square inch to a pressure of P2 pounds per square inch.

721

722

= VPi2P2 pounds per square inch. P" = v^FW pounds per square inch.
P'

Power

required to compress a given weight of air per min-

ute in a three stage air compressor from a pressure of Pi pounds per square inch and a volume of Vi cubic feet to a pressure of P2

pounds per square

723

inch.

n W = 432 PiVi n
n
as in 714.
*

I
I

/P2\ s^ \ir\j

"

I
I I

foot-pounds per minute.

Note,

Expressed as a decimal fraction.

Air Refrigeration

176

COMPRESSED AIR ENGINES

Work (W) done by a compressed air engine when a given weight of air is admitted at a pressure of Pi pounds per square inch and a volume of Vi cubic feet at cut-off and is expanded to a pressure of P2 pounds per square inch and a volume of V2 cubic The pressure at which the feet when the exhaust valve opens. air is rejected (or " back pressure ") is P3 pounds per square inch. For value of n see note to 621.
724

W = 144 (PiVi + ^'^ Z f'^' - P3V2) foot-pounds.

AIR REFRIGERATION

Air from the cold-storage room enters the compression cylinder, is compressed and delivered to the cooler where there are pipes containing

Note.

the cooling water.

and

Leaving the cooler the air enters the expansion cylinder expanded and cooled to a low temperature and then is delivered to the cold-storage room.
is

(P) required to compress w pounds of air per minute a compressor without clearance from a pressure of Pi pounds per square inch, a temperature of ti degrees and a volume of Vi

Power

in

cubic feet per pound to a pressure of P2 pounds per square inch

and temperature
725

of

t2

degrees.
n-l

P='44wP.V.^I(g)-'For explanation
of

foot-pounds per minute.

If

Note.

see 618.

the compression

is

adiabatic

the value of

778 wcp (ta ti) foot-pounds per minute. For explanation of Cp see 621. The power (P) of expansion in the expansion cylinder is also given by the above formula if the exhaust pressure, or " back pressure," of P4 pounds per square inch, the corresponding volume of V4 cubic feet per pound and temperature of t4 degrees are substituted for Pi, Vi, and ti and the pressure of P3 pounds per square inch and temperature of ts degrees at cut-off in the expanding cylinder are substituted for P2 and tj. P4 equals Pi very nearly, but P3 is less than P2 due

n equals

(see 621),

and 725 becomes

P =

to friction losses.

Heat energy per minute (Q) withdrawn from the cold room when w pounds of air per minute pass through the machine
entering the compression cylinder at a temperature of
ti t2

degrees
degrees.

and leaving the expansion cylinder at a temperature of

726
Note.

Q=

wCp

(ti

t2)

B.t.u. per minute.

For value of Cp see page 291.

176

Heat

Net power
of air per

(P) required to produce refrigeration if w pounds iHs minute pass through the machine entering the comti

1
1

pression cylinder at

degrees, leaving

it

at

t2

degrees, entering
it

the expansion cylinder at

degrees and leaving

at

ti

degrees.

B.t.u. per

room.

minute of heat energy are withdrawn from the cold Compression and expansion are adiabatic.
778 wcp 778
(t2

727 728

P=

ti

t3

t4)

foot-pounds per minute.

P =

/_
of Cp see

x^

-)

foot-pounds per minute.

Note.

For value

page 291.

Heat energy per minute (Q)

if

pounds

of air per

carried away by the cooling water minute pass through the machine entering

the compressor at ti degrees, leaving it at U degrees, entering the expansion cylinder at ta degrees and leaving it at t4 degrees. The heat energy withdrawn from the cold room is Qi B.t.u. per minute and the net power required to produce refrigeration is

foot-pounds per minute.

729

Q=

Qi

+ zzg
(t2

B.t.u. per

mmute.

730
731

Q=
Q=

wCp

r
14

ta)

B.t.u. per minute.

Qi r ti

is

B.t.u. per minute.

Note. For value of Cp see page 291 and expansion is adiabatic.

730 and 731 hold when the compression

Weight (w)
liquid of the

of cooling water required per

minute
it,

if

B.t.u.

per minute of heat energy

leaving q2 B.t.u.

carried

away by

the heat of the

qi B.t.u.

water on entering the cooler being

and on

732

w=

q2

pounds per minute.

qi

Note. The weight of cooling water may also be expressed in terms of the heat energy withdrawn from the cold room and the temperatures of the air ti, t2, ta, and t4 by the relations given in 731 when compression and expansion are adiabatic.

Apparent piston displacement (Va) of a compression cylinder into which w pounds of air per minute are admitted at a pres-

Compression Refrigeration

177

sure of
specific

pounds per square inch, temperature of T degrees, and volume of V cubic feet per pound when the compressor
revolutions per minute.

makes
733

^*

"

7N

" Tnp

^^^^^

^^^^*

Note. The piston displacement may be expressed in terms of the heat energy in B.t.u. per minute withdrawn from the cold room instead of the pounds of air per minute passing through the compressor by use of 726. The above expression assumes that there is no clearance. If there is clearance

and the

air is

compressed from

pounds per square inch to Pi pounds per

square inch, the apparent piston displacement

may

be obtained by divid-

ing 000

by the

factor

M ~7

"W
is

+7

|>

where the clearance

is

y* per cent of

the piston displacement and

as explained in 618.

Apparent piston displacement (Va) of an expansion cylinder the apparent piston displacement of the compression cylinder is V cubic feet and the air enters the compression cylinder at a pressure of Pi pounds per square inch and a temperature of Ti degrees, and leaves the expansion cylinder at a back pressure of P2 pounds per square inch and a temperature of T2 degrees.
if

734

Va

VP T = -if;^ F2I1

cubic

feet.

Note. The above expression assumes no clearance. The expansion cylinder will have a larger clearance than the compression cylinder. If the expansion and compression of the expansion cylinder are complete the apparent piston displacement may be found by dividing by the same factor as used
ill

733*

For explanation

of

see 618.

COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION
compression refrigeration system uses a volatile liquid and its compressor draws in vapor, compresses it and discharges it to coils of pipe in a condenser. These pipes are surrounded by cooling water which condenses the vapor. The condensed vapor is drawn out and after

Note.

vapor.

passing a regulating valve enters the pipe coils of the vaporizer, or refrigerator,

where the liquid vaporizes and again

is

drawn to the compressor.

Heat energy per minute (Q) withdrawn from the expansion when the machine uses w pounds per minute of the fluid which has for each pound a heat of the liquid of qi B.t.u. as it
coil
*

Expressed as a decimal fraction.

178

Heat

approaches the expansion valve and a total heat of Hj B.t.u. as the vapor leaves the expansion coils.
736
Note.

Q = w (H2
The vapor

qij B.t.u.

per minute.
is

leaving the expansion coils

dry and saturated or

perhaps slightly superheated.

Horse-power (P) of the compressor if w pounds per minute of vapor are admitted with a total heat energy for each jKXind of H2 B.t.u. and leave with a total heat energy for each pound of

Hi
7QA 736

B.t.u.
r = P

778 w (Hi
^

H2)

33ooo

horse-power.

Note. The vapor leaving the compressor is superheated and Hi includes the heat energy of superheat. By substituting for w its value from 735 the horse-power (P) may be expressed in terms of Hi and Hj and the heat energy
withdrawn from the expansion coils (Q). The temperature of the vapor leaving the compressor (TO may be calculated by the perfect gas relation, 620, if the pressures of vapor entering and leaving (Pj) and (Pi) and the temperature of K-i
the entering vapor (Tj) are known; that
is,

Ti

Tj

=;i
J

degrees.

Heat energy per minute (Q) carried away by the cooling water when a compressor delivers w pounds per minute of vapor whose heat of vaporization per pound is ii B.t.u., the temperature of the vapor being t, degrees and the temperature corresponding to the pressure being ti degrees.
737
Note.
Cp

Q=w
is

[Cp(t,

ti)

-h r,] B.t.u. per minute.

the specific heat at constant pressure and for

ammonia

is

approximately 0.520.

Weight
tg
ti

of vapor are delivered

water (w) required if Wi pounds per minute by the compressor at a temperature of degrees, the temperature corresponding to the pressure being
of cooling

degrees and the heat of vaporization per pound Tj B.t.u. One of the cooling water enters the cylinder jacket with a heat of the liquid of q2 B.t.u. and leaves with a heat of the liquid

pound

of qa B.t.u.

738
Note.

w=

^^f^(^-^i^+''ii
qs

pounds per minute.

qa
Cp.

See page 291 for values of

Piston displacement (V) of a compressor making N strokes per minute and drawing in w pounds per minute of vapor, each pound having a volume of Vi cubic feet.

Heating and Ventilation

179

739
Note.
piston

V=
displacement

wVi

cubic

feet.

This formula assumes no clearance. If there is clearance the may be obtained by dividing 739 by the factor

[-'(gy + y

where the clearance is y* per cent of the piston displace-

ment, n is explained in 618, and P2 is the pressure of the vapor entering the compressor and Pi is the pressure as it leaves.

HEATING AND VENTILATION

Heat energy per hour (Q) transmitted through
titions, floors, etc.,

walls, par-

square feet in sectional area normal to the flow of heat; the temperature of the air at one surface is ti and at the other surface t2 degrees Fahrenheit.

740
Note.
below.*

Q = kA (ti Average values

of

tg)

B.t.u. per hour.

for the usual building structures are given

Walls.

Thickness in inches.

Brick, without interior plaster.

Brick, with interior plaster.

Concrete, without interior plaster. Concrete, with interior plaster.

Masonry, without interior plaster. Masonry, with interior plaster. Wood, shingled or clapboarded, without

interior plaster

0.31

Wood, shingled
Partitions

or clapboarded, with interior plaster

0.20

Hollow

tile,

plaster

two
sides

sides

Wood, Wood,
Floors

plaster one side

plaster

two

0.21 to 0.30 o 49 o 36
.

180

Heat

Roofs
Cinder, tar and gravel concrete (4") Cinder, tar and gravel concrete (6")

o 60
.

Concrete, cement

Concrete, with hung plaster ceiling

Galvanized iron on rafters

Shingle, rafters unsheathed

0-54 O.42 0.22 5 to 2 o

.

o. 42

Shingle, rafters sheathed

0.31
o.

Slate on

matched boards

30

Glass
Single

window

10

Single skylight

06

Double window

0.41

Double skylight

0.51

Doors

Wood, Wood,

I inch I inch

o. 55

0.48

Wood, Wood,

5 inch

2 inch

o 40 o 34
.

Heat energy (Q) required to increase the temperature of cubic feet of air by t degrees Fahrenheit.
741
Note.
person.
It is

Vt British Q = -7 56
. .

thermal units.
70**

assumed that

is

the volume of the air at

is

F.

The

average amount of air supplied to a room

2000 cubic

feet per

hour per

Heat energy (Q) given out by

Adult at rest Adult at work
Electric lights per kilowatt

persons, lights, motors, etc.

380 470 3415 2100
3500
B.t.u. per hour. B.t.u. per hour.
B.t.u. per hour.
B.t.u. per hour. B.t.u. per hour.

Welsbach gas burners

Fish-tail gas burners

Motors and machinery per horse-power

2547 B.t.u. per hour.

Relative humidity

(p)

as indicated

by a

"

wet and dry-bulb

hygrometer

" at 29.9 inches barometric pressure.

Difference between wet and dry bulb

Temperature, dry biilb

i6

60''

F.

65 F. 70 F. 75 F. 80*' F.

88 89 90
91 92

77 79 81 82 83

66 69
72 74 75

57

48
52 55 57

60
63 65

68

60

39 43 47 50 53

22 27

32 36

40
45.

Note.

The

relative

humidity should range between 35 and

Chimney Draft

181

Maximum
livers air

pressure

(p) of
is

whose density

a blower, or exhauster, which depounds per cubic foot with a velocity

of V feet per second.

742

pounds per square mch.

Note. With different types of blowers, or exhausters, K varies widely and should be obtained for each type by experiment. Trowbridge quotes an average value of K = 0.617. An approximate value of 8 is 0.08 pounds per
cubic foot.

Capacity (V) of a centrifugal fan with a wheel of c feet

cir-

cumference, running at

N revolutions per minute and discharging

A
square feet area.

into free air through an outlet of

743

V=

0.65

cNA

cubic feet per minute.

Horse-power (P) of a centrifugal fan required to move

second through a short pipe
efficiency
is Vi
is i^.

cubic feet per second of air with a velocity of flow of v feet per

square feet in area

when

the fan

The

velocity of air flow through the fan outlet

is pi

feet per

second and the pressure producing the flow

inch.

pounds per square

..

744
Note,
multiplied

-, = P
vi equals

144

PiAv

Vi^V 0.0000022
11

horse-power.

550 Tl

the peripheral velocity of the fan in feet per second

by

0.65.

CHIMNEY DRAFT
Intensity of draft (p) of a chimney h feet high whose gases have a temperature of T degrees and a density of 8 at 32 F. and atmospheric pressure. The temperature of the outside air
is

Tl degrees. p

746

=h

(^ - 2^)

inches of water.
of
friction

draft

Note. This formula neglects the by 20 or 25 per cent.

effect

which reduces the

Horse-power (P) of the boilers which may be served by a chimney A square feet in effective area and 1 feet in height above
the grate.

746
Note.
This
is

P=
If

3.33

Avl

boiler horse-power.
is

the inside area at the top

Ai square feet, then

A=

Ai

0.6 vAi.

Kent's formula.

182

Heat

PUMPS
Duty (D)
of a

pump which

does

W foot-pounds of work per

Q

minute while using

B.t.u. per minute.

pounds of dry steam per minute or

747

D=

1000

748

D=

1,000,000 rr-.

of

Displacement (V) of a pump which makes N pumping strokes 1 feet forward per minute and has a piston of A square inches

effective area.

749
Note.
If

ANl
144
the

, cubic feet per

mmute.
is

pump

is

double acting the total displacement

the

sum

of the displacements

on the forward and return strokes, the

is less

effective area (A)

varies for the

the actual displacement

etc.,

and

is

749 gives the theoretical displacement, due to clearance, slip, imperfect valve action, reduced even to 50 per cent in certain cases for air pumps.

two

sides of the piston.

THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

in time (t) through a material normal to the flow of heat and of thickness (d) in the direction of the flow of heat with a temperature difference (T) between its surfaces. K is the thermal conductivity of the material (see page 294 for definite values) in gram-calories per centimeter-cube per Centigrade degree per second.

Heat energy (Q) conducted

of sectional area (A)

750
Note.
lows:

cKATt ^ Q =
-^

,.,

units in time

(t).

is

a constant depending upon the units of measurement as

fol-

gram-calories
kg.-calories Brit, therm, units joules joules

kw.-hrs kw.-hrs

Thermal Properties

of Materials

183

Heat energy (Q) absorbed or given up by a material of mass (m) and specific heat (c) when its temperature changes from ti
to U.

751

Q = kcm (t2 ti) units.

of
c.

Note. See page 291 for definite values upon the units of measurement, as follows:

is

a constant depending

gram-calories kilogram-calories British thermal units British thermal units

joules joules

grams
kilograms

pounds pounds grams pounds

kilograms

Cent. Cent. Cent. Fahr. Cent.

I
.

1.8
I

Fahr
Cent. Fahr.

4.18 1054

kilowatt-hours kilowatt-hours

1.16X
2.93

pounds

10-3 10-*

Length (l^ of a solid body at a temperature of t degrees Centigrade which has a length (lo) at a temperature of o degrees
Centigrade.

752
Note,
a
is

1,

lo(i

+ at).
is

the Centigrade
see page

definite values

292.

mean coefficient of linear expansion. For The mean coefficient of cubical expansion
the temperature expressed in Fahrenheit

equals 3 a approximately.

When
l32[ 1

d^jees 752 becomes

It

(t

1.8

32)-

']

ELECTRICITY
MAGNETISM
Pole strength (m) required to produce a force of

dynes between

two poles

* of equal strength separated

by a

distance of

centimeters.

753

= d Vf

unit poles.
(cr)

Pole strength per unit area

of

a pole of

unit poles

strength distributed uniformly over a surface of

square centimeters.

754

^^

Force (F) between

respectively separated

T ^^ P^^^^ P^^ ^^* ^^' two poles * of m and m' unit

by a
distance of

poles strength

d centimeters.

755
Note.

F=

-T2- dynes.
repel.

Unlike poles attract and like poles

Field intensity (H) at a point distant

of

centimeters from a pole *

m unit poles strength. 756 H = -n dynes per unit N pole or lines of force per sq. cm.
Note.

The

field intensity

at a point

is

measured

in

magnitude and direction

by

the force acting on a unit

pole concentrated at the point

and may be due

to poles or electric current.

Difference of magnetic potential (V) between a point distant d unit poles strength and a point at centimeters from a pole * of

an

infinite distance
'

from the

pole.

757

V= J gilberts.

Note. The difference of magnetic potential between two points is measured by the work done in moving a unit N pole from one point to the other against the force due to all existing poles and is independent of the path.
*

The dimensions

of the surface over

all

which each pole

is

distributed are assumed

to be negligible compared with

other dimensions

and the permeability

of the

surrounding

medium

is

unity.

184

Magnetism

185

Field intensity (H) at a point distant d centimeters from the

center of a
strength.

magnet * 1 centimeters [1 small compared with d]

in length

and

of

unit poles

758
Note.
6

H = -p- Vi + 3 cos^

lines

per sq. cm.

line joining the

center of the

is the angle between the axis of the magnet and a magnet and the point d centimeters distant.

Field intensity (H) at a point on the axis of a cylindrical magnet

1

centimeters in length and r centimeters in radius uniformly magne-

tized

on the end surfaces to a density of

cr

imit poles per square centi-

meter.
h
i

A
i
AT

_.i

^-^r-

-^X

Fig. 759.

759 760 ol

H(due to N pole)
H(due
to

pole)

= =
=

ircT (i TTO" (i

COS 9) Hncs per sq. cm. COS 6') Hncs per sq. cm.

-"-(due to both poles,

P P
2

outside magnet)

TTo-

(cos 6'

COS 0)

COS

lines

per sq. cm.

762

-tlCdue to both poles,

inside magnet)

TTO- (2

COS

0') lincs

per sq. cm.

Field intensity (H) at a point in a narrow air gap between two

plane surfaces each magnetized uniformly to a pole strength per unit
area of

unit poles per square centimeter,

and

of opposite polarity.

763

Force (F)
magnetic

field

764

H = 4 TTd lines per sq. cm. acting upon a pole of m unit poles strength placed in a of uniform intensity H lines per sq. cm. F = mH dynes.
field

Force (F) between two poles of equal pole strength per unit area,
0-

unit poles per square centimeter, distributed uniformly over

*

two

The dimensions of the surface over which each

all
is

pole

is

distributed are assumed

to be negligible compared with

other dimensions and the permeability of the

surrounding medium

unity.

186

Electricity

plane surfaces each

a

square centimeters in area and separated by

narrow

air gap.

765

F=

TT(T^

dynes.
* of

Torque (T) acting upon a magnet

I

m unit poles

strength and

centimeters in length placed in a field of imiform field intensity

lines

per square centimeter, the axis of the magnet making an angle 6 with the direction of the field intensity.

766

T = Hml sin 6 cm.-dynes.

of

Flux of induction () due to a pole

m imit poles strength.

pole.

767
Note.

$ = 4 inn
The
flux leaves a

maxwells.

N pole

and enters a S

Intensity of magnetization (J) at any point in a magnet of constant section which has a pole strength per unit area of
<r

unit poles

per square centimeter distributed uniformly over the end surfaces of

the magnet.

768

tJ"

unit poles per sq. cm.

in a

Flux density (B) at a point

magnet where the

field intensity is

H
is

lines

per square centimeter and the intensity of magnetization

J unit poles per square centimeter. 769 B= 4 IT J gausses.

H+

Note.

The

addition

is

vectorial.

square centimeter in a

Flux density (B) produced by a field intensity of lines per medium where the permeability corresponding
is
|JL.

to the stated field intensity

770
Permeability
(|Jl)

B =
of a

jiH gausses.
in

medium

which a

field intensity of

H lines

per square centimeter produces a flux density of

gausses.

771
Susceptibility (k) of a
lines

,.

= |.
in

medium

which a

field

intensity of

per square centimeter produces an intensity of magnetization

poles per square centimeter.

of

J unit

772
*

= i.

to be negligible compared with

The dimensions of the surface over which each pole is distributed are assumed all other dimensions and the permeability of the surrounding medium is unity.

Electromagnetism

187

Permeability
173

(|i)

of a

medium
p.

of susceptibility K.

+ 4 TTK.

Force (F) between two poles distributed over two plane surfaces square centimeters in area and separated by an air gap in which
is

the uniform flux density

gausses.

774

F = -s O IT

dynes.

Energy of magnetic field per cubic centimeter (W) in a medium where the flux density is B gausses and the constant permeability is |i or where the field intensity is lines per square centimeter and the constant permeability is |i.

775

W = -^ = ^^ ems
maximum
f

in a

Hysteresis loss per cubic centimeter per second (P per ex.) medium in which a variable magnetic flux of maximum density
gausses changes from positive to negative to positive

times per second.

776
Note.
sheet iron.
r\

P per
I.

c.c.

ilfB^-^ ergs

per second.

equals 0.004 for ordinary sheet iron and o.ooi for best annealed

For other values see Journal

of the Franklin Institute, July, 19 10,

page

Reluctance (R) between the bases of a right prism or cylinder

of permeability

points

in which the direction of the flux density at all normal to the bases, the area of each base being A square centimeters and the perpendicular distance between the
fji

is

bases

centimeters.

777

R = -r |jlA

oersteds.

Note. The total reluctance of several reluctances connected in series without abrupt change of section at any point equals the sum of the several reluctances. The reciprocal of the equivalent reluctance of several reluctances connected in parallel equals the sum of the reciprocals of the several reluctances.

ELECTROMAGNETISM
Current
portion of
in

required to produce a force of F dynes upon a conductor 1 centimeters in effective length placed a magnetic field of uniform flux density B gausses.
(I)

its

778

'^

^bamperes.

188

Electricity

Note.

The

effective length of a portion of the

conductor

is

the shortest

distance between the ends of a projection of the portion of the conductor on a plane normal to the flux density. The respective directions of the force, flux

density and current in the effective length are represented by the directions in which the thumb, index and middle fingers of the left hand point when held
in positions respectively perpendicular to each other.

Torque (T) acting on a circuit, conducting a current of I abamperes and enclosing an effective area of A square centimeters, placed in a magnetic field in which the uniform flux
density
is

gausses.

779
Note.

T = lAB
The

cm.-dynes.
is

effective area of a closed circuit

the

maximum
summation
field

area obtained

by

projecting the closed circuit on a plane parallel to the flux density.

The

closed circuit will turn in such a direction that the

of the fluxes

enclosed by the circuit due to

itself

and the external

respectively will be

a maximum.

Field intensity (H) at a point distant d centimeters on a normal from the axis of a cylindrical straight wire conducting a current of I abamperes with uniform density throughout the
wire.

Case

I.

and not
780

less

Distance d negligible compared with length of wire than radius of wire.

2I H = -T-

lines per sq.

cm.

Case II.

Distance d not negligible compared with length of

wire and not less than radius of wire.

781

^ ^ H ^^^^ ^ "^ ^^ ^^^

-h
1

^^^^^ P^^ ^^'

^^'

4~

Fig. 781.

Case III. Distance d negligible compared with length of wire and not greater than the radius R of the wire.

782
Case

2 Id H = -^

lines per sq.

cm.

IV.

centimeters and external radius

hollow cylindrical wire of internal radius r R centimeters. Distance d

Electromagnetism

189

not greater than R, not the length of the wire.

less

than
r^)
^.

and

negligible

compared with

783

H = 2 I (d^ _
.

.j^.^

lines

per sq. cm.

Note. In each case the direction of the field intensity at the point is normal to a plane including the point and the axis of the wire and is in a clockwise direction when viewing the wire from the end at which the current enters.

The
in

field intensity
is

at a point on the axis of the wire in each case

is

zero

and

Case IV

zero throughout the air core.

Field intensity (H) at a point on a line through the center and normal to the plane of a circular turn of wire of negligible section conducting a current of I abamperes, the radius of the circular turn being r centimeters and the distance of the point from the

wire being d centimeters.

784
Note.

H
The

= -T^

Imes per

sq.

cm.
2
"tI
is

field intensity

at the center of the circular turn

of curvature of

lines
1

per square centimeter.

At the center

an arc

of length

centimeters and radius of curvature r centimeters the

field intensity is

lines

per square centimeter. When its section is negligible the above formulas also apply to a compact coil of N turns each conducting a current of I abamperes if the current is taken as NI abamperes. The direction of the field intensity in each case is along a line through the center of curvature and normal to the plane of the wire and away from a viewing point at which the current is seen
to flow in a clockwise direction.

Field intensity (H) at a point inside a long coil of constant

section

wound uniformly with n

I.

turns of wire per centimeter of

axial length, each turn conducting

a current of
in

abamperes.

Case

Field intensity at

any point

the plane of the

central turn

when the section of the coil is of any shape and its dimensions are negligible compared with the axial length of the
coil.

785

H = 4 iml lines per sq. cm. G.P O O O O O O O Q.Q

'_

ooooooooooo
Fig. 786.

190

Electricity

Case II.
drical helix

Field Intensity at

any point on the

lines per sq.

axis of a cylin-

wound with

wire of negligible section.

786
Note.
in 784.

H = 2 iml (cos 6i + cos 82)

The

cm.
Is

direction of the field intensity in either case

determined as

d centimeters from the and within a toroidal coil N of turns conducting a current axis of and wound uniformly abamperes on surface I a generated by of the revolution of a circle r centimeters in radius about an axis R centimeters from the center of the circle.
Field intensity (H) at a point distant
norr

787

NI H=2 TTT

-.

Imes per sq. cm.

within the
coil is ~
^^

Note.
lines per

The average

field intensity

Formula 787 also applies to a coil wound on a by the revolution of a rectangle, with sides a centimeters and b centimeters in length respectively, about an axis R centimeters from the center of the rectangle. The average field intensity within this coil, taking b
square centimeter.
surface generated

parallel

and a perpendicular to the

In equals loge.

2NI
axis,
is

In

^+5 R. ~
2

lines per

square

centimeter.

ducting a current of

Magnetomotive force (3^ due to N turns of wire each conI abamperes in the same direction of rotation.

788
gilberts in a

^ = 4 ttNI

gilberts.

Magnetic flux ($) established by a magnetomotive force of ^ magnetic circuit of R oersteds reluctance.

789
Note.

^ =

maxwells.

IS.

See 777 and note to 859.

Force (F) per centimeter length between two parallel straight d centimeters apart and conducting currents of Ii and I2 abamperes respectively, [distance between wires negligible compared with their lengths and section of each wire of negligible
wires

dimensions]

790

F =

?^ dynes.
direction

Note, The force is an attraction If the currents flow in the same and is a repulsion if the currents flow in opposite directions.

Electromagnetism

191

Force (F) per centimeter length between two circuits each

composed
Ii

parallel planes as

and

I2

negligible

two straight wires of negligible section, located in shown in Fig. 791 and conducting currents of abamperes respectively, [distance between planes compared with length of wires and all dimensions in
of

centimeters]

-^
I

Fig. 791.

791
Note.

F = 4lil2dr
(a

b)2

+ d2

(a

+ b)2 + d^A
circular

dynes.

attraction

With the current directions as shown in Fig. 791 the force is an and if the current in either circuit is reversed the force is a repulsion.
(F)

Force
of
Ii

between two

parallel

coaxial

turns

of

negligible section located as in Fig. 791

and conducting currents

and
I.

I2

Case

abamperes respectively. Radii a and b nearly equal and d very small com-

pared with either a or b.

792
Case II.

4 TTadIil2 F = (a-b)^+d^

^y"^a.

Radius b small compared with

793
Note.

F =
(a2

+ d')i
is

r-

dynes.

The

direction of the force

determined as in 791.

circular turn enclosing an square centimeters, conducting a current of I2 abamperes and with its center coinciding with the center of a large circular turn r centimeters in radius and conducting a current of Ii abamperes, the angle between the planes of the two coils

Torque (T) acting upon a small

area of

being

6.

794
Note.

T =
The

2 1rAIil2 sin 6

cm. -dynes.
in 779.

direction of the torque

is

determined as

192

Electricity

Self-inductance (L) of a

coil of

turns of wire of negligible

section through which a current of I

abamperes establishes a

magnetic flux of maxwells.

795
Note.
If

L=

abhenries.
the turns the self-inductance
is

the flux does not link

'

all of

given

by
<^2

"^

Y^

abhenries, where

<|>i

represents the flux linking Ni turns,

the flux linking N2 turns, etc.

The

self-inductance of a wire of appreciable

is

section conducting a current of I

abamperes

given by
Ii,
<j>2

-^
I.

^^
If

'

abhenries, where

<|>i

represents the flux linking the current

the flux linking

the con-

the current

I2, etc.,

the summation of

Ii, I2,

etc.,

being equal to

ductors and the

medium surrounding any

is

circuit are of constant permeability,

the self-inductance

independent

of the current

and may

also be determined

by 808

or 842.

When

the conductors or the surrounding

medium

are not

of constant permeability the self-inductance of a circuit varies with the current

and has no

definite meaning since its values determined by 795, 808 or 842 do not agree. In the following cases when no mention is made of the dimensions of a conductor section it is assumed that they are negHgibie and when such
it is

dimensions are given

section
is

assumed that the current density throughout the

uniform.

Self-inductance (L) per centimeter axial length of the turns

near the center of an air solenoid,

sectional area,

square centimeters in
turns per centimeter

wound uniformly with n

length,

[dimensions of sectional area negligible compared with

the axial length]

796
Note.
If
/x

L = 4 ira^A
the solenoid
is

abhenries.

filled

completely with a
length with a

medium
is

permeability

the self-inductance per centimeter length

of constant 4 irnVA abhenries

of constant perself-

and

if

filled partially

throughout

its

medium

meability n and B square centimeters in constant sectional area the inductance per centimeter length is 4 irn^OxB -|- A B) abhenries.

Self-inductance (L) of a single-layer short solenoid of

1

turns,
[1

centimeters in axial length and r centimeters in radius.

r]

small compared with

797

L =

4 irrN^
|

In^ - i + -j^, fln^ + -)

abhenries.

turns,

Self-inductance (L) of a multiple-layer short solenoid of 1 centimeters in axial length, R centimeters in external

Electromagnetism

193

radius and r centimeters in internal radius.

[1

small compared

with

or

r]

798

L=
a

4TraN^

{ln^(i
and b

^) (1

(2

+ j|^)j

abhenries.

Note,

0.2235

+ R r).

In equals logg.

Self-inductance (L) of a toroidal coil wound uniformly with turns on a surface generated by the revolution a single layer of centimeters of a circle r centimeters in radius about an axis

from the center of the

799

circle.

L =

4 ttW (R

- VR2 -

r2)

abhenries.

Self -inductance (L) of a toroidal coil of rectangular section,

r

and

centimeters in internal and external radius respectively,

sides of section
tively

(R r) centimeters and 1 centimeters respecand wound uniformly with a single layer of N turns.

800
Self-inductance
their axes
in

L =
(L)

2 N^l In

abhenries.

per centimeter length of one of two

parallel straight cylindrical wires

each r centimeters in radius,

d centimeters apart and conducting the same current [distance d small compared with the opposite directions,

length of the wires]

801
Note.
millihenries

L =
The
and

2 In

h 0.5 abhenries.
is

self -inductance of

each wire per mile

twice as great.

0.08047

+ 0.741 1 log
also gives the

for

two wires

is

Formula 801

self-inductance per centimeter length of one of three wires, located at the ver-

an equilateral triangle (d is the distance between the axes of any two and (approx.) for three wires located in the same plane (d is the distance between the axis of either outside wire and the axis of the middle
tices of

wires)

wire), provided the algebraic

respectively

sum of the instantaneous currents conducted by the three wires in the same direction equals zero.
(L)

Self-inductance

per centimeter length of two straight

cylindrical concentric wires of equal section conducting the

same

current in opposite directions; the inner radius of the outer con-

ductor being b centimeters and the radius of the solid inner

conductor being c centimeters.

802

L = 2ln-H
c

c^

c*

r^ 3 b^

rn H Tb 12 b^ 30 b

abhenries.

194

Electricity

Self-inductance (L) of a single circular turn of wire of circular

section, the

mean

radius of the turn being

centimeters and the

radius of the section r centimeters.

803

L =

4 ttR {(i

+ gj) In

^+^abhenries.

I.7S

abhenries.

Mutual-inductance (M) of two coils in which a current of Ii abamperes in one establishes a flux of $2 maxwells through the N2 turns of the other.

804

M=
=
li

Mutual-inductance (M) of two parallel circular coaxial turns each r centimeters in radius and their planes d centimeters apart. [d small compared with r]

805

M = 4 irrjln iJ (i + fg) - (2 + j|l;)

abhenries.

Mutual-inductance (M) of two concentric solenoids, the ex-

Ni turns and length 1 centimeters and the interior of N2 turns and sectional area A2 square centimeters, [the axial length of the interior solenoid small compared with the axial
terior of

length of the exterior solenoid]

806

M = IZ^lMi abhenries.
and mutual inductance M12 abhenries.
fluxes are in conjunction

Self-inductance (L) of two series circuits of self-inductance L] and

L2 abhenries respectively

807

L=

Li

+ L2 =h 2 M12 abhenries.
and
is

Note. The sign is -h when the mutual when the mutual fluxes are in opposition.

Energy
I

of

magnetic

field

(W)

established

by a

circuit of con-

stant self-inductance

abhenries and conducting a current of

abamperes. 808
Note.

W = i LP
and
I in

ergs.
in joules.

in henries

amperes gives energy

Energy (W) required to change the magnetic flux linking a coil of N turns conducting a current of I abamperes from 1 to 2
maxwells.

809
Note.

W = NI(#2 When
the flux
is
is

$1) ergs.

increased the circuit supplies energy

and when the

flux is decreased energy

supplied to the circuit.

Electrostatics

195

ELECTROSTATICS
Charge
810
(q)

required to produce a force of

F dynes between two

equally charged bodies* separated

by a

distance of d centimeters.

q = d

VkF

statcoulombs.

Charge per unit area

(a)

on a body charged uniformly with q

statcoulombs over a surface area of

square centimeters.
sq.

811

^ ^ A statcoulombs per

cm.

Force (F) between two bodies* charged with q and q' statcoulombs respectively, and separated by a distance of d centimeters.

812
Note.

^=

kd^

^y^^^-

Unlike charges attract and like charges repel.

Field intensity (H) at a point distant d centimeters from a

body* charged with q statcoulombs.

813

H = r^ dynes per statcoulomb or lines of force per square

centimeter.
tion

Note. The field intensity at a point is measured in magnitude and direcby the force acting on a positive charge of one statcoulomb concentrated at the point and may be due to charges, changing magnetic flux or contact The field intensity within a conducting body is zero if it conducts no e.m.f.
current.

Field intensity (H) at a point where the magnetic flux density

changes at a rate of -rr gausses per second.

814

3 Note. If the point moves through a magnetic field of B gausses magnetic flux density at a velocity perpendicular to the flux density of v centimeters
per second,

H = -TT X QX
X

lines of force

per sq. cm.

H=

io-^ lines of force per sq.

cm.

Field intensity

may also

be due to contact e.m.f.; a contact e.m.f. of a distance of d centimeters establishes a

sq.

E statvolts

produced uniformly in

field intensity of -r lines of force

per

cm. throughout that distance.

*

The dimensions

of the surface over

assumed to be

negligible

compared with

all

which each charge is distributed are other dimensions and the dielectric

constant of the surrounding

medium

is

k.

196

Electricity

Potential difference (V) between a point distant d centimeters from a body* charged with q statcoulombs and a point at an infinite distance from the charged body.

815

V = r%

kd

statvolts.

Note. The potential difference between two points in any medium is measured by the work done in moving a positive charge of one statcoulomb from one point to the other against the force due to all existing charges and
is

independent of the path.

Field intensity (H) at a point on a normal through the center

on one side with <r statcoulombs per square centimeter, the angle between the normal and a line from the point to the edge of the disc being 0. [the
of a circular disc uniformly charged
dielectric constant of the

surrounding

medium

is

k]

816

H=

(i

cos 9) lines of force per sq. cm.

Field intensity (H) at a point opposite the centers and between

two plane
sitely

parallel surfaces f each charged uniformly

<r

and oppo'

with

statcoulombs per square centimeter.

817

-r

lines of force per sq.

cm.

placed in a

Force (F) acting on a body charged with q statcoulombs lines of force per square field of uniform intensity

centimeter.

818

F = qH

dynes.

Force (F) acting between two parallel surfaces f each

<r

square

centimeters in area, and charged uniformly and oppositely with

statcoulombs per square centimeter.

819

F=

T-

dynes.
of

Charge (Q) per surface required to produce a force

*

F dynes

The dimensions

of the surface over

assumed to be
t

negligible

compared with

all

which each charge is distributed are other dimensions and the dielectric

constant of the surrounding

medium

is

k.
is

The
all

distance between the surfaces

k.

assumed to be

negligible

compared

with

other dimensions and the dielectric constant of the

is

medium between

the surfaces

Electrostatics

197

between two parallel surfaces! each uniformly and equally charged over an area of A square centimeters.

820

Q ^ = V V t

statcoulombs.
217 2 IT

Potential difference (V) between two parallel surfaces f each

uniformly, equally and oppositely charged over an area of

square centimeters, spaced d centimeters apart and acted upon by a force of F dynes.

821

V=

dy^- statvolts.
o*

Potential difference (V) between two parallel surfaces f charged

uniformly and oppositely with

dielectric constant of the

statcoulombs per

sq. cm., the

medium between the surfaces being ki for

a distance of di centimeters and k2 for a distance of dz centimeters.

822
Flux ombs.

V=4
of induction

w (^ + ^)
4

statvolts.

(<|))

due to a body charged with q statcoulirq lines of induction.

823

<|)

Intensity of electrisation (J) in a nonconducting plate charged uniformly and oppositely over two of its parallel surfaces with o"

statcoulombs per square centimeter.

824
Note.

1
The

0"

statcoulombs per sq. cm.

body
is

intensity of electrisation within a conducting

zero.

Flux density (B) at a point in a nonconducting body where the intensity is lines of force per square centimeter and the intensity of electrisation is J statcoulombs per square centimeter.
field

825

B =

H + 4 irj lines of induction per sq.

medium

cm.
a conducting

Note. The addition is vectorial. The body is zero if it conducts no current.

Dielectric constant (k) of a
t

flux density within

in

which a

field intensity of

The
all

with

distance between the surfaces is assumed to be negligible compared other dimensions and the dielectric constant of the medium between
is k.

the surfaces


198
Electricity

H
B

lines of force

per square centimeter produces a flux density of

lines of induction per

square centimeter.

826
Note.

^ = 1*
The
dielectric constant of various substances is given

on page 297.

Capacitance (C) of a condenser which is charged with Q coulombs when the potential difference between its terminals is V
volts.

827

^ " V

^^^^^^*

tive

Capacitance (C) of a parallel plate condenser in which the posiand negative charges are each distributed uniformly over a

surface area of A square centimeters, the uniform distance between

the oppositely charged surfaces is d centimeters and the medium between the oppositely charged surfaces is of dielectric constant k. [d is assumed to be small compared with all other dimensions]

828

C =

-7

36 ird

kA X
T-TT

10^

microfarads.

Capacitance (C) of two concentric spheres; the inner ri centimeters in external radius, the outer T2 centimeters in internal radius and separated by a medium of dielectric constant k.

829

C = -7
9 fe

^'^'^

rO

, X

10^

microfarads.

length; the inner

Capacitance (C) of two coaxial cylinders per centimeter axial ri centimeters in external radius, the outer 12

centimeters in internal radius and separated

dielectric constant k.
[In

by a medium

of

equals lege]
microfarads.

630

C =

iSln-Xio^
ri

Note.

The

capacitance per mile

is

-^

microfarads.

Capacitance (C) of two parallel cylinders per centimeter length each cylinder r centimeters in radius, their centers separated by a distance of d centimeters and immersed in a medium of di-

Electrostatics

199

[r small compared with d and all dimensions with distance to surrounding objects] compared small

electric constant k.

831

C=

-^

microfarads.

36 InNote.

id'

1.Q4.1 k The capacitance per mile is ^

X
,

10
microfarads.

The capac-

logitance per conductor (to neutral) of a balanced 3-phase transmission line with

conductors located at the vertices of an equilateral triangle equals

-r

logmicrofarads per mile.

Total capacitance (Co) of several series condensers of capaci-

tance Ci, C2 and C3 farads respectively.

832

Co

- + C3 + C2 Ci
respectively.

farads.

Total charge (Qo) on several series condensers charged with

Qi,

Q2 and Q3 coulombs

833
series condensers

Qo = Qi = Q2 = Q3

coulombs.

Potential difference (Vo) between the end terminals of several

when
Vo

the potential difference between the teris

minals of each condenser

Vi,

V2 and V3 volts respectively.

834

Vi

V2

+ Va volts.

Total capacitance (Co) of several parallel condensers of capaci-

tance Ci, C2 and C3 farads respectively.

835

Co

Ci

+ C2 + C3 farads.

Total charge (Qo) on several parallel condensers charged with

Qi,

Q2 and Q3 coulombs respectively.

836

Qo = Qi

Q2

Q3 coulombs.

Potential difference (Vo) between the

several parallel condensers

common
is

terminals of

when

the potential difference beVi,

tween the terminals of each condenser

respectively.

V2 and V3 volts

837

Vo

Vi

V2

V3 volts.
in a

Energy

of electrostatic field

medium

of dielectric

(W) per cubic centimeter constant k where the flux density is B

lines

200

Electricity

of induction per square centimeter or the field intensity

lines of force

is

per square centimeter.

^ = 8^=8^^^^^-

Energy (W) stored in a condenser of C farads capacitance charged with Q coulombs, the potential difference between its terminals being V volts.
839

CV2 = i ^ = i QV W=i 2 2^2

joules.

DIRECT CURRENTS
Electromotive force (E) induced in a
coil of

turns linked

by
per

magnetic flux which changes at a rate of a magn

second.

-^ maxwells

840

E =

N^X at

10-8 volts.

Note. The direction of the e.m.f. is such that any current produced by it would establish a magnetic flux through the coil opposing the change in flux to which the e.m.f. is due.

Electromotive force (E) induced in a conductor

in effective length all points of
lines

centimeters

with an effective through a magnetic field

which move in parallel straight velocity of v centimeters per second of uniform flux density B gausses.
Blv

841
Note.

E =
The

10-8 volts.
is

effective length

of the conductor

the shortest distance

conductor on a plane normal to the flux density. The effective velocity of the conductor is the component velocity of its projection normal to the effective length and in a plane normal to the flux

between the ends

of a projection of the

density.

The

respective directions of the effective velocity, the flux density

and the induced e.m.f. in the effective length are represented by the directions in which the thumb, index and middle fingers of the right hand point when held
in positions respectively perpendicular to each other.

Electromotive force (E) induced in a circuit of

henries self-

inductance in which the current

is

changing at a rate of tt

amperes per second.

842

E=

L^ at

volts.

Direct Currents

201

current

Note. An increasing current induces an e.m.f, opposite in direction to the and a decreasing current induces an e.m.f. in the same direction as

the current.

Eo, E3, etc.,

Total electromotive force (Eo) of several sources of e.m.f., Ei, connected in series, each e.m.f. being measured in

volts.

843
Note.

Eo

=
is

El

+ E2 + E3,

etc., volts.

The

addition

algebraic.

Resistance (Ri) between the ends of a conductor li in length and Ai in uniform section made of a material a specimen of which I2 in length and A2 in uniform section has a resistance of R2 ohms.

844

Ri

= ^4^I2A1

ohms.

Note, The temperature and the respective units of length and area in each case must be the same. When the length I2 and the area A2 of the specimen are each unity the resistance R2 is called the resistivity (p) of the

and area specifying the units of length, area and and the temperature. The resistivity of various materials is given on page 297. The resistance obtained by 844 or 845 applies rigorously only to conductors in which the current is constant.
material per unit length
resistance

Resistance (Ri) between the ends of a conductor li in length and mi in mass made of a material a specimen of which I2 in length and m2 in mass has a resistance of R2 ohms.

845
Note.

R,
Read note

=L^ohms. l2^mi
mass"
for " area " throughout.

to 844 substituting "

Conductance (G)
846

of a conductor of

ohms

resistance.

""

5;

"^^^-

Resistance (R2) of a conductor at

t2

degrees Cent, which has

a resistance of Ri ohms at ti degrees Cent, and is made of a material which has a resistance-temperature coefficient of a at ti
degrees Cent.

847
Note.

R2

Ri
a

[i

+a

(t2

t,)]

ohms.
on page 297.

Specific values of

for various materials are given

Temperature (tg) of a conductor when its resistance is R2 ohms and which has a resistance of Ri ohms at a temperature of ti

202

Electricity

degrees

Cent.,
ti

the

resistance- temperature

coefficient

of

the

material at

degrees Cent, being a.

t2

848

= ^'^~

^'

ti

degrees Cent.

centimeters in height with bases of

Resistance (R) between the bases of the frustum of a cone, ri and T2 centimeters radius

respectively,
resistivity,

made
[ri

of a material of p
T2

ohms

per centimeter-cube
1]

and

small compared with

849

R=

-^
11X112

ohms.

centimeters in axial length, the exterior

Resistance (R) between two concentric cylindrical surfaces 1 T2 centimeters and the

interior ri centimeters in radius, the resistivity of the

medium

between the cylindrical surfaces being

cube.
[In

ohms

per centimeter- I

equals loge]

850

R=-^ln^ohms.

Total resistance (Rg) of a series circuit the respective parts of || which have resistances of Ri, R2, R3, etc., each resistance being measured in ohms.

851

Rs

Ri

+ R2 + R3,

etc.,

ohms.

Equivalent resistance (Rp) of a parallel circuit the respective branches of which have resistances of Ri, R2, R3, etc., and contain

no

e.m.f.,

each resistance being measured in ohms.

852
Note.

5" = 5"
J\.p

Ivi

+ rT + S"' iX3
J\.2

etc.,

mhos.

When

there are only

two branches 852 reduces to Rp

of equal resistance

= ^7-^ K2
Ki
-\-

ohms and when there are n branches each

ohms.

Ri ohms, Rp

^
part-circuit in

^A/C^V^-^
Fig. 853.

Potential dilBference (Vab) between the ends

A
to

which the current flowing from

and B of a| is Iab am-

Direct Currents

203

peres, the resistance

in the part-circuit acting

from A to B from A to

is

Rab ohms and the

is

e.m.f.

Eab

volts.

853

Vab
The
is

= +Eab and
is

IabRab
is

volts.
positive

Note.
direction

sign of the e.m.f. or current

Fig. 853
it is

when

acting in the

shown in
it

negative

when acting
from

in the opposite direction.

When Vab
negative

positive

called a potential rise

to

is

called a potential

drop from

to B.

If

B and when Vab is Eab is zero, Vab =

volts.

IabRab

volts

and

if

either

Iab or

Rab

is

zero,

Vab = +Eab

Potential difference (Vad) between the ends

part-circuit,

and

of a

the potential differences in

its

constituent parts

being Vab, Vbc and Vcd measured in volts.

854
Note.

Vad = Vab
The
addition
is

+ Vbc + Vcd volts.

B
in

algebraic.

circuit

Current (Iab) flowing from the end A to the end under the conditions indicated in Fig. 853.
Iab
T

a part-

occ 855
Note.

= +Eab 5 Vab
A
to

amperes.

The

direction of the current

sign indicating a flow from

B and
^AB

is determined by its sign, a positive a negative sign a flow from B to A.

When Vab
Iab

equals zero, Iab

+Eab = "5

amperes and when Eab equals

zero,

Rab When Vab is

known

Vab
"^^

amperes, these simple forms of 855 being

known

as

Ohm's Law.

a function of the current the value of

Vab

substituted in 855 must

be

for the particular current Iab-

Total current
currents
in
Ii, I2,

(lo)

flowing toward a junction from which the

flow away,
all

I3,

etc.,

currents being measured

amperes.
lo
(Ii)

856
Current

Ii

+ I2 +

I3,

etc.,

amperes.

flowing in a branch of Ri

ohms

resistance con-

nected in parallel with a branch of R2

a current of
I2

ohms

resistance conducting

amperes, the e.m.f. within either branch being zero.

T
Ii

857
Current
(Ii)

ocrr

= I2R2 -^

amperes.

flowing in a branch of Ri

nected in parallel with a branch of R2

ohms resistance conohms resistance, the sum

204
of the currents in the

Electricity

two branches being

I0R2

lo

and the

e.m.f.

within either branch being zero.

858
Current
(I)

Ii

R1

+ R2

amperes.
of a

flowing in

any branch
^i

The magnitudes
respectively in

of the current, total e.m.f.

network (Fig. 859). and total resistance

^1

any branch
(as
in

are

indicated

the

branch
bols
Ii,

ACB) by

the sym-

:J-^^->yWW

El and Ri, and the respective directions of the

current and e.m.f. are indicated

^wwv
iVWV
Fig. 859.

B,

-^

by

arrows,

any
being
Since

unknown
assumed

direction
arbitrarily.

the difference of potential

between any two points is independent of the path

(for

example, Vacb
(i) (2)

= Vadb =
+Ei +Ei -

Vafb)
IiRi IiRi

869

we may write from = -E2 - I2R2, = +E3 + I3R3,

853.

and from 856

(3)
I3

ii

12

Note. The magnitude and direction of each current may be determined by solving the simultaneous equations, a positive value of the current indicating the same direction and a negative value indicating the opposite direction to that assumed in the figure. The equations written under 859 state the principles known as Kirchhoff's Laws. In a magnetic circuit containing
several branches of

known permeability

similar equations

may

be written

substituting magnetomotive force for electromotive force, flux for current

and

reluctance for resistance.

Power

(P) delivered to or

from a part-circuit conducting a curis

rent of I amperes and across which the potential difference

V volts.
860
Note.

P=
A

VI watts.
power
in the direction of the current indicates

potential rise in the direction of the current indicates

delivered from,

and a potential drop

power delivered to the part-circuit. Multiply 860 or 861 by seconds to obtain ioules or by hours divided by 1000 to obtain kilowatt-hours.

^
Direct Currents

205

Power
861

(P) delivered to a part-circuit of

R ohms

resistance con-

taining no e.m.f.

and conducting a current

of I amperes.

P = FR
I

watts.

Quantity circuit conducting a current of

862

of electricity (Q) transmitted in t seconds

through a

amperes.

Q =
resistance

It

coulombs.

Quantity of electricity (Q) transmitted through a circuit of

R ohms
is

when
(|>2

the flux linking

turns of the circuit

changed from ^i to

maxwells.

863

(%^MI Q ^ = R X 10^ coulombs.

Vg
volts.

ohms
864

Voltage (Vl) at the load end of a transmission line of Ri total resistance and conducting a current of Ii amperes,

the voltage at the generator end being

Vl = Vg

IiRi volts.

Power
865

(Pl) received at the load

end

of a transmission line

under

the conditions stated in 864.

Pl = VgIi

Ii'Ri

watts.
of a transmission line in
in 864.

Energy (Wl) received at the load end

h hours under the constant conditions stated

866
Efficiency

Wl =
(r\)

[VgIi

Ii'Ri]

-^ kilowatt-hours. 1000
VlIi

of a

transmission line under the conditions

stated in 864.
ftA7 ^^

^=

VgIi

- PRi

Vl
*

VgIi

V^ = V^
is

Current
resistance

(li) conducted by a transmission line of Ri ohms total when the power delivered at the load end is Pl watts

and the voltage at the generator end

Q 868
T Ii
^^

Vg

volts.

= VGd3V(VG)^-4RiPL

amperes.
I

Area (A) of 1 feet of copper wire conducting a current of amperes and in which the potential drop is V volts.
869
Note.

A=

-^

circular mils.
is 10.8.

For stranded wire the constant

206

Electricity

Weight (G)
distance of
1

of copper wire required

feet at

to transmit energy a a rate of Pl watts when the load end and

generator end voltages are Vl and

Vg

volts respectively.

870

G=

0.000128

Pl12

(Vg

TTz

Tr-TTr VlJ Vl

pounds.

Sectional area (A) of copper wire required to transmit energy under the conditions stated in 870.

871

A=

-7TZ

(Vg

'

--

--

circular mils.

Vlj Vl

Sectional area (A) of a copper wire for which the total annual
cost of transmitting energy over a line conducting a constant

current of I amperes will be a

minimum.
c p

872
Note,
c' is

A=
c
is

593

I y/ -7- circular mils.

/ch

the cost of the generated energy in dollars per kilowatt-hour,

line is in use

the cost of the bare copper wire in dollars per pound,

hours per year that the

taxes

on the capital invested in and depreciation of known as Kelvin's Law.

h is the number of and p is the annual percentage rate of interest copper which will pay the annual capital interest, the copper. Equation 872 states the principle

TRANSIENT CURRENTS*
Current
(it)

flowing in a series circuit of

t

R ohms resistance and

E

henries self-inductance
is

seconds after a constant e.m.f. of

circuit.
Rt\

volts

impressed upon the

it

Rt

873
Note.
I
is

|(i- ^)+l'

amperes.

before the e.m.f.

the current in amperes flowing in the circuit at the instant is impressed. It is a positive quantity if flowing in conif

junction and

is

a negative quantity

-flowing in opposition to the e.m.f.

Current

(it)

flowing in a series circuit of

t

R ohms
its

resistance

and
is

henries self-inductance

seconds after

source of e.m.f.

short-circuited, the current flowing in the circuit at the instant

before the short-circuit being I amperes.

_Rt

874
Current
(it)

it

^ amperes.

flowing in a circuit of
*

ohms
is

resistance

and C

The value

of

throughout

2.718.

Transient Currents

207

farads series capacitance

is

seconds after a constant e.m.f of E volts

.

impressed upon the

it

circuit.

876
Note.

p J
It is

^^ amperes.

is

the potential difference across the condenser at the instant

is

before the e.m.f.

impressed.
if

a positive quantity

if

acting in opposition

and a negative quantity

acting in conjunction with the impressed e.m.f.

Charge (qO on the condenser at stated in 875.

876
qt

any time t under the conditions

= CE (i -

~ Rcj 4. cVc"

^ coulombs.
any time
t

Potential difference

(vt)

across the condenser at

in 875.

under the conditions stated

877
Current
(it)

Vt

=E

(i

Rc) 4. V

Rc volts.

flowing in a circuit of
t

R
its

ohms

resistance
is

and C
short-

farads series capacitance

seconds after

source of e.m.f.

circuited, the potential difference across the

condenser at the

instant before the short-circuit being

volts.

878

it

V =^

- R^

amperes.
t

Charge

(qt)

on the condenser at any time

_
_t_

under the conditions

stated in 878.

879

qt

= CV
(vt)

RC coulombs.

Potential difference

across the condenser at

in 878.
t_

any time

under the conditions stated

880
Current
(it)

Vt

= V

RC volts.

flowing in a circuit of

R ohms

resistance,
t

henries

self-inductance and

constant e.m.f. of

C E

farads series capacitance

volts
is

seconds after a
circuit,

impressed upon the

the

potential difference across the condenser

and the current flowing

impressed being

in the circuit at the instant before the e.m.f. is

volts

and

amperes respectively.

Case

L
=

^^

ooi

'^

WC > 4 L. U-V-aLI^ ^""

.

(b

a)L

^E-V-bLI> ''"'
^,
]

(b

a)L

''^^'''''

208

Electricity

Case II.

R2C

4 L.

882

i.^jl+

f(^-/^^-^^
f
sin oit

)tjr-"

amperes.

Casein.
883
it

R2C<4L.
(

=
a

+ I cos

o)it ?

^^ amperes.

NOTE.

= RC - VR2C2 - 4 LC
,LC
The current

^= RC +
,

VR2C2

- 4 LC
flowing in the

2LC
when

and

R^C^ V 4 LC=

(I) is positive

same
(V)
is

direction as the impressed e.m.f.

and the

sign of the potential difference

obtained as in 875.
(it)

Current

flowing in a circuit of

R ohms

resistance,
t

henries
its

seh-inductance and
source of e.m.f.
is

farads series capacitance

seconds after

short-circuited, the potential difference across

the condenser and the current flowing in the circuit at the instant
before the short-circuit being
Note.

V volts
E

and

amperes respectively.

Write 881, 882 or 883 making

(it)

zero in each case.

I
a
the

Current

flowing in a circuit of

R ohms resistance, L henries

self-inductance

and C farads

series capacitance t seconds after

(a)t

harmonic
circuit,

e.m.f., et

= Em sin

+ a) volts, is impressed upon

the potential difference across the condenser and the

is

current flowing in the circuit at the instant before the e.m.f.

impressed being
Case
I.

V -

volts

and

amperes respectively.

R2O4L.
G-^t

884

it

H-^t -f

^sin ((ot

-f

9)

amperes.

Case II.
{5 885
it

R2C = 4 L.

(J

+ Kt)
R^C

Rt -~ ^L 2L

E
_|_

^sin ((ot +

6)

amperes.

Case III.

<

4 L.

886

it

= iMsincoit-f Ncoscoit

^
2

+ -^ sin ((ot -f a 6) amperes.

(a

Em sin a - V- aLI- ^f^lh sin

N-^<^

0)

+ cos (a - 6)]
'

whoi
Em sin - V - bLI - 5|^ la sin (a - 0) + (b - a) L
tt

cos

(a

0)1

H=

Harmonic Alternating Currents

209

Gm =- sin (a

0)

i,

a and b as in 883.

K=j. JEmsina-V-Y-^(fsin(a-0)+Lcos(a-e)M

M=a

N=

=2'nf

= cos-ii

z=V/- + (--;^J
=
sin-^

e =

where e equals the algebraic value of the harmonic e.m.f at the

.

instant that

it is

impressed on the circuit.

The

current

(I) is

positive

if

flow-

ing in the
(V)
is

same
If

direction as the impressed e.m.f.

and the potential

difference
(t)

positive

if

acting in opposition to the impressed e.m.f., both at time

equals zero.

the circuit contains no condenser the series capacitance is infinite

=;

and a

o,

^^^ ^

^^ + "^^^

HARMONIC ALTERNATING CURRENTS

Electromotive force
(et)

of a

harmonic
o)

e.m.f. of

maximum value

Em
887

volts

and angular velocity

t

radians per second at any har-

monic time

seconds.
et

= Em sin cot
is

volts.

Note.

harmonic cycle

a single sequence of harmonic values from

The harThe angular velocity () in radians per second equals 2 tt times the frequency (f). The harmonic time (t) is the time in seconds measured from the instant when the harmonic value is zero and is increasing to a positive maximum. When a harmonic e.m.f. is indicated by the expression, et = Em sin (t + o-). harmonic time is measured from the instant when e = Em sin a.
zero to positive
to zero to negative to zero.

maximum
(f)

maximum

monic frequency

is

the sequence rate in cycles per second.

Current

(it)

flowing at any harmonic e.m.f. time

seconds in

a circuit of
sin
(ot, is

ohms

resistance,

henries self-inductance
e.m.f., et

and C

farads series capacitance

upon which a harmonic

= Em

impressed.

888

it

E ""
.

sin Icot tan-M

^ 5-^^ /( amperes.

v/'^^+^^-^J
Note. It is assumed that the e.m.f. has been impressed upon the circuit long enough to produce a harmonic current. The early transient current is given by 884, 885 or 886.

210

Electricity

Maximum current
stated in 888.
Im

(Im) flowing in

a circuit under the conditions

Em
,

amperes.

V^^+^^-^J
Effective e.m.f. (E) of a harmonic e.m.f., et

= Em sin t

volts.

E =
Note.

^ V2
of

volts.

The effective current

(Ea) of a

(I)

a harmonic current equals

r=
(ot

amperes.

Average e.m.f.
891
Note.

harmonic

e.m.f., et

= Em sin

volts.

Ea
The average
factor
(f.f.)

^^
IT

volts.

current

(la) of

a harmonic current equals

amperes.
IT

Form

and amplitude factor

(a.f.)

respectively of

a harmonic 892

e.m.f., et

= Em sin cot
f.f.

volts.

=:|-=
c/a

I.II.

fEm = ^=
.

I.4I4.
factor (a.f.) respectively of

Note.

The form

factor
=la

(f.f.)

and amplitude and

-=-

a harmonic current are

i.ii

1.414.

Reactance (X) of a
of
(0

circuit of

henries self-inductance and

farads series capacitance

when conducting a harmonic

current

radians per second angular velocity.

893

X=

Lo)

7;-

ohms.

Co)

Note. Lw is called the inductive reactance and

of the circuit, each

^ the

capacitive reactance

measured

in

ohms.

Impedance
894

(Z) of a circuit of

ohms

resistance

and

X ohms

series reactance.

Z = VR2

X2 ohms.

Harmonic Alternating Currents

211

Phase angle
895
Note.

(0) of

a circuit of

R ohms

resistance

and

X ohms

series reactance.

= tan-i|.
a circuit in radians divided by the angular

The phase

angle

(0) of

velocity () of the conducted current in radians per second equals the time t in

seconds by which the harmonic current lags or leads the harmonic e.m.f.
positive value of

X ^

indicates a lagging current

and a negative value a leading

current.

Power factor (p.f.) of a part-circuit of R ohms resistance, Z ohms impedance and phase angle 6 containing no generated
e.m.f.

896

p.f.

== =

cos

e.

Total resistance (Rg) of a series circuit.

See 851.

Total reactance (Xs) of a series circuit the respective parts of

which have reactances of

897
Note.

Xi, X2, X3, etc.,

ohms.

Xs
The
addition

=
is

Xi

+ X2 + X3, etc., ohms.

and

algebraic, inductive reactance being positive

capacitive reactance negative.

Total impedance (Zg) of a series circuit of Rg

ohms

total resist-

ance and Xs ohms total reactance.

Note.

See 894.
does not equal the
of the

The

total
its

impedance

of

series circuit

sum

of

the impedances of
in each part is the

respective parts unless the ratio of reactance to resistance

same and the net reactances are

same

sign.

Power
rise in

(P) delivered to or from a part-circuit conducting

an

effective current of I

amperes across which the

is

effective potential

the direction of the current

volts, the

phase angle

between the current and the potential

898

rise

being

0.

P=

VI cos

watts.

Note. Positive power indicates net power delivered from, and negative power indicates net power delivered to the part-circuit. Multiply 898 or 899 by seconds to obtain energy in joules and by hours divided by 1000 to obtain
energy in kilowatt-hours.

Power (P) delivered to a part-circuit of R ohms resistance conducting an effective current of I amperes and containing no
generated e.m.f.

P = PR
Note.

watts.
is

The

net power delivered to a reactance

zero.

212

Electricity

Effective vector expression (E)

and
it

(I)

for

an

e.m.f., et

Em sin
900

(o)t

a) volts,

and a current,
j

Im

sin (<ot

p) amperes.

E=
I

(^ cos a +
i-j^ cos P

sin a) volts.

-j= sin p j amperes.

Note.

without prefix and

In symbolic notation the horizontal component of a vector is its sign is to the right and to the left of the Y axis;

the vertical component

is

designated by the prefix

and

its

sign

is

and

above
j

below the

axis.

In some mathematical operations the symbol

has

the value

i.

Vector electromotive force (Ead) in a circuit the constituent parts of which contain the vector e.m.f.'s Eab, Ebc and Ecd volts. 901
Note.

Ead = Eab
Each vector
e.m.f.

+ Ebc + Ecd volts.

referred to the

must be

same

axis of reference.

The

subscripts in each case indicate the direction of e.m.f.

rise.

Vector current (Iba) flowing from

which the vector currents

902
Iba

Iac Iad

B toward a junction A from and Iaf amperes flow away.

= Uc

+ Iad + Iaf amperes.

E =

Electromotive force equivalent (E) of a vector e.m.f.,

(a

+ jb)
Note.

volts.

903
The
is

E = Va2
current
-f d^

+ b^
(I)

volts. a vector current |

equivalent

of

(c

+ jd)
R

amperes

Vc^

amperes.

Symbolic expression (Z) for the impedance of a circuit of

ohms
904

resistance

and

X ohms
Z = (R

reactance.

+ jX)
j,

ohms.
prefix

Note.

The

resistance

component has no
a

and

is

always

+;

the

reactance component has the prefix

sign indicating net inductive re-

actance and a

sign net capacitive reactance.

Symbolic impedance (Zad) between the ends

part-circuit

and

of a

containing several series parts of symbolic impe-

dance Zabj Zbc and Zcd ohms respectively.

905
Vector current

Zad = Zab
(I)

+ Zbc + Zcd

ohms.
rise,

flowing in the direction of an e.m.f.

Harmonic Alternating Currents

213

E =
Z =
906

(a
(r

-}-

jb) volts acting in

jx)

a circuit of symbolic impedance

ohms.
J

~
(
I

amperes.

Note.

To

rationalize

the denominator with the sign of

906 multiply both numerator and denominator by its j term reversed. We then have
(r

^
*

(a

+ jb)
i

j^

jx)

ar

j^bx

+ jbr - jax
/ br
^

(r+jx^(r-jx)

r2-j2x2
i.

In this operation

_ ~

(ar

= V or = + bx) + (br - ax) ^ + x2

j j

Hence
ai
[

r2

1=^

+ bx \ + x^ y

ax \
*

U' +

x2 J

part-circuit of symbolic

Vector potential rise (Vab) between the ends A and B of a impedance Zab ohms conducting a cur-

rent of vector value Jab amperes

of vector value

and containing an

e.m.f. rise

Eab

volts.

907
Note.
If

Eab =

- Iab?ab volts. c + jd and Zab = r + jx, a -h jb, Iab = (c + jd) (r + jx) jb a-h Yab
Vab = +Eab

=
and
since
j*

= i
Yab =

+ jb cr
cr -K dx)

j2

dx
j

jcx

dr
dr).

(a

(b

ex

part-circuit

Vector potential rise (Vad) between the ends A and D of a containing several series parts across which the

respective vector potential rises are Vab,

Ybc and Vcd

volts.

volts.

908

Yad = Yab

+ Ybc + Ycd

Power

(P) delivered to or

vector current I
volts.

(c

+ jd)
P=

from a part-circuit conducting a amperes and across which the vector

is

potential rise in the direction of the current

Y =

(^^

+ jb)

909
Note.

(ac

-f-

bd) watts.

and d are preserved in 909. Positive power indicates power deHvered from, and negative power indicates power delivered jd). The power does not equal (a jb) (c to the part-circuit.
signs of a, b, c

The

resistance,

Conductance (G) and susceptance (B) of a branch of R ohms X ohms series reactance and Z ohms impedance.

910

G=
^ ^

R
^2_|_X2

^ ^

R
Z2 Z2

^^^^'

R2

-[-

X^

^^^^'

214

Electricity

Admittance (Y) of a branch of Z ohms impedance, conductance and B mhos susceptance.

911

mhos

^^^
=
Gi

^^' +

^' "^^^^

Total conductance (Go) of several parallel branches of Gi, G2 and Gs mhos conductance respectively.

912

Go

+ G2 + G3

mhos.

Total susceptance (Bo) of several parallel branches of Bi, B2 and B3 mhos susceptance respectively.

913
Note.

Bo

Bi

+ B2 + B3 mhos.
and

The

addition

is

algebraic, inductive susceptance being positive

capacitive susceptance negative.

Total admittance (Yo) of several parallel branches of total conductance Go mhos and total susceptance Bo mhos. See 911.
Note.

The

total

admittance of a parallel circuit does not equal the sum

is

of the admittances of the respective branches unless the ratio of susceptance to

conductance in each branch

the same and the net susceptances are of the

same

sign.

I
(6)

Phase-angle

of a circuit of

mhos conductance and B

mhos
911

susceptance.

e=tan-i^.

Power factor (p.f.) of a part-circuit of G mhos conductance and Y mhos admittance, containing no generated e.m.f.
916
p.f.

=|-

ductance,

Resistance (R) and reactance (X) of a circuit of G mhos conB mhos susceptance and Y mhos admittance.

916

R=
^
""

Q2-pQ2 = Y2 ^^^^'

B
G^

+ B^
4

"

Y2

^^^^'
admittance.

Impedance
917

(Z) of a circuit of

Y mhos
ohms.

^ ^

S3mibolic expression (Y) for the admittance of a circuit of

mhos conductance and B mhos

918

susceptance.
jB) mhos.

Y=

(G

'

Harmonic Alternating Currents

215

Symbolic admittance
respectively.

(Yo)

of

a parallel circuit containing

several branches of symbolic admittance Yi, Y2

and Y3 mhos

919
Vector current

Yo
(I)

Yi

+ Y2 + Y3

mhos.

flowing in the direction of an e.m.f. rise

acting in a circuit of

920

Y mhos symbolic admittance. I = EY amperes.

ohms
Vl

Voltage (Vg) at the generator end of a transmission line of Ri resistance and Xi ohms inductive reactance conducting a current of Ii amperes, the voltage at the load end of the line being
volts and the phase angle between the load end voltage and the line current being 6l.

Fig. 921.

921
when
Ii

Vg = V(Vl cos Ol
When
Vl
Ii

+ IiRi)' +
in
is

(Vl sin 0l

IiXi)^

volts.
is

Note.

lags or

is

phase with

Vl

the sign before IiXi

leads

the sign before IiXj

and

Phase angle
line

(6g)

between the generator end voltage and the

current under the conditions stated in 921.

922
Note.

ee
The power
(t])

= tan-^li^|4M!.
Vl cos
Ol

+ IiRi

factor at the generator

end

of the line equals cos 0q.

Efficiency

of a transmission line
VlIi cos Gl

under the conditions

8l

stated in 921.

923

=
of

Vl cos

VlIi cos Ol

+ Ii'Ri
Ii

Vg cos Og

voltage, Vl volts; line current,

Line e.m.f., Ei volts; line amperes; phase e.m.f., Ep volts; phase voltage, Vp volts; phase current, Ip amperes; phase angle Conditions for (6p) between phase voltage and phase current. " balanced " 3-phase circuit: all phase currents, phase e.m.f. 's and
circuits.

Nomenclature

3-phase

216

Electricity

phase voltages, respectively, equal and differing in phase by 1 20 degrees. Conditions for " unbalanced " 3-phase circuit: phase currents, phase e.m.f.'s and phase voltages respectively unequal or not differing in phase by 120 degrees. Balanced Y-connected branches (Fig. 924).

924

El

= V3

Ep.

Harmonic Alternating Currents

217
ter-

ohms
929

or of symbolic impedance (Zt)

ohms between two

minals.

Z = Zy =

ohms.
2

Single-phase symbolic impedance (Z) equivalent to a symmetrical

ohms
930

A-connected branch of A phase symbolic impedance (Za) or of symbolic impedance (Zt) ohms between two' ter-

minals.

Z
(Ii,)

=^ =^ ohms. 2
3

Line current
line

current

(I13)

of a single-phase circuit equivalent to the amperes of a symmetrical 3-phase circuit.

Ii,

931

= v^Ii3 amperes.
from a balanced 3-phase
Vili
line.

Power
932

(P) delivered to or

P = V3
factor
(p.f.)

cos Op watts.

Power
933

of a balanced 3-phase load.

p.f.

cos

Op.

Power
934

(P) delivered to or

from an unbalanced 3-phase

line.

P=

Vp Jp,

cos

Op.

+ Vpjp, cos Gp, + Vp3lp3 cos 0p3

an unbalanced 3-phase load.

watts.

Power

factor

(p.f.)

of

p
*^pJpi

+ Vpjpj + Vp3lp3
in

line as

Power (P) measured by two wattmeters connected shown in Fig. 936.

a 3-phase

msm^

Ji -;0
Fig. 936.

936
Note.
coil of

P = Pa

=b

Pb

watts.

To determine use of -|- or sign, break connection of potential wattmeter A at line C and connect to line B. A wattmeter deflection on scale indicates the use of the -\- sign and a deflection off scale indicates the
use of the

sign.

218

Electricity

Power (Pa) and (Pb) respectively measured by two wattmeters connected in a 3-phase balanced line as shown in Fig. 936.
937

Pa = Pb =

Vili

cos (30

Op)

watts.

Vilicos (30

+ Op) watts.

Phase angle (6) of a balanced 3-phase load when two wattmeters connected as shown in Fig. 936 measure Pa and Pb watts,
respectively.

938

= tan-^Vi ^^7^
Pa

+ Pb

(Vg) at the generator end of a balanced 3-phase each line of Ri ohms resistance and Xi ohms inductive reactance conducting a current of Ii amperes, the Y phase voltage at the load end of the line being Vl volts and the

Y phase voltage
line,

transmission

phase angle between the load end current being 0.

phase voltage and the

line

Substitute the above quantities in 921 and multiply the result

by

V3

to obtain the generator line voltage.

The phase

angle

between the generator end Y phase voltage and the line current, and the power factor at the generator end are obtained as indicated in 922 and the transmission line efficiency as in 923.

NON-HARMONIC ALTERNATING CURRENTS

Electromotive force
(ct)

of a

non-harmonic

e.m.f. at

any har-

monic time
939
Note.
the
first,

seconds.

et

Em. sin (t

+ 61) + Em, sin (3 + Em, sin (5 (ot -h 65) +, etc.,

etc.,

cot

+ 63)
9i, 62. Oj. etc.,

volts.
e.m.f.'s respectively of

Em,, Emj, Em,,

represent the

maximum
e.m.f.'s

third, fifth, etc., constituent

harmonic

and

their

respective phase angles with a

potential difference velocity ()
is

common

axis of reference.

non-harmonic

may

that of the fundamental or

be expressed in the same manner. The angular Alternators do not first harmonic.

generate even harmonics of e.m.f.

Current
circuit of

(it)

at

any harmonic

e.m.f.

time

seconds flowing in a
e.m.f. of the

R ohms resistance, L henries self-inductance and C farads

upon which a non-harmonic
form
is

series capacitance

stated in 939

impressed.
Im, sin (cot

940

it

+ 6/)
o)t

-|-

Im, sin (3 (ot -f 63')

4-

Ixni

sin (5

H-

65')

+,

etc.,

amperes.

'

Non-Harmonic Alternating Currents

Note.
^i

219

e/

\/^^"^
Im.

9i

tan

^'
,

e/

ej

- tan
- tan

Ofi

Effective e.m.f.

(E)

of a

non-harmonic

e.m.f.

of the

form

stated in 939.

941
Note.
current
is

E=

y/(En.,)-+(E..)-

(En..)-

^^,^^_

The effective value of a non-harmonic potential difference or obtained in the same manner.

Power (P) deUvered to a part-circuit conducting a nonharmonic current of the form stated in 940 and upon which is impressed a non-harmonic e.m.f. of the form stated in 939.
942

P =

3^^i?^^cos (01 2

e/)

(83 - e/) + ^isilLacos 2

+ ^^'cos (65 Power factor

rate of
(p.f .) of

e/)

+,

etc.,

watts.

a part-circuit conducting a non-harmonic

current of effective value I amperes and absorbing energy at a

watts, the effective value of the non-harmonic potential

difference

between

its

ends being
p-f-

volts.

943

= ^to the non-harmonic

Harmonic
forms stated

e.m.f.
in
et
it

and current equivalent

939 and 940.

944
Note.
e.m.f.
is

= V2 E sin cot volts; = V2 I sin ((ot =b cos~^ p.f .)

amperes.

p.f. is

the power factor of the circuit upon which the non-harmonic

impressed.

Resistance (R) of a part-circuit containing no source of generated e.m.f., conducting an effective current of I amperes and. absorbing energy at a rate of P watts.

946

p
f2

ohms.

220

Electricity

Impedance (Z) of a part-circuit containing no source of generated e.m.f., conducting an efifective current of I amperes and
across which the potential difference
is

volts.

946

Z = j ohms.

Reactance (X) of a part-circuit of

R ohms

resistance

and Z

ohms impedance.
947
Note.
equal
(

X = VZ2 The

R2 ohms.

reactance of a part-circuit to a non-harmonic current does not

ohms.
J

DIRECT CURRENT MACHINERY

Dynamos
Note. a motor.
Unless indicated otherwise each formula applies to a generator

Nomenclature and units

in armature,

of

measurement.

E.m.f. generated

volts;

terminal potential difference or voltage,

V volts; armature current, I amperes; line current, Ii amperes; shunt field current, If amperes; series field current, Ig amperes; armature resistance between brushes, R ohms; shunt field resistance including rheostat, Rf

ohms;

series field resistance in-

cluding shunt, Rs ohms;

number

of poles, p; shunt field turns per

Ns; number of armature paths between terminals, m; number of armature conductors, Z; magnetic flux per pole, $ maxwells; armature speed, S revolutions per minute; armature torque, T pound-feet. Electromotive force (E) generated in the armature of a dynamo.
pole, Nf; series field turns per pole,

948

E =

P^3^
, 10^

6m X

volts.

Shunt field current (Ifd) equivalent to the demagnetizing magnetomotive force of the armature of a dynamo per pole when the armature current is I amperes and the brushes are shifted through an angle of 6 space degrees from the neutral plane to improve commutation.
949

!,,=__ amperes.

Direct Current Machinery

221

Shunt

field

current

(Ifs)

equivalent to the magnetomotive

force of the series turns of a

dynamo

per pole.

950

Ifs

i^Is amperes.

Net
951

field

current

(Ifn)

of a
If
is

dynamo
Ifd =t Ifs
for a

at

any

load.

Ifn

Note.

The

sign before Ifs

amperes.

cumulative and

for a differential

compound dynamo.
current

Terminal voltage (V) of a shunt dynamo when the armature is I amperes and the generated e.m.f. is E volts.
The
sign before

V = E IR volts. IR + for a motor and for a generator. In a series or long-shunt compound dynamo, V = E db I (R + Rs) volts and in a short-shunt compound dynamo, V = E IR IsRs volts.
952
Note.
is

Armature speed
is

(S) of a

dynamo when
io
.

the generated e.m.f.

^

volts.

953

o = S

Em X

-^

revs, per

mmute.
the armature current

Armature torque (T)

is

of a

dynamo when

amperes.

964

T = -"t^^?P m X 10^

pound-feet.

Rotational losses (Pr) of a

dynamo which,

operated as a shunt
of

motor at no load with a voltage between brushes takes an armature current of I amperes.
955

volts,

Pr

= VI - PR

watts.

Note. To determine the rotational losses corresponding to a definite load the dynamo, operated as a shunt motor at no load, must be run at the same speed and with the same generated e.m.f. as when running at the definite load.

Copper losses (Pk) of a dynamo at any load.

956

Shunt

field,

Pf

Series field,

Pg

Armature,

Pa

= VRf =. Vlf watts. = Is^Rs watts. = PR watts.

Power imput
967

(Pi) to

a generator at any load.

Pi

= EI + Pr watts. = Po + Pk + Pr watts. = 0.1420 ST watts. = 1.903 ST X 10"'* horse-power.

222

Electricity

Power output
958

(Po) of

a generator at any load.

Po = VIi watts.
(Pi) to

Power input
969

a motor at any load.

Pi

VIi watts.

Power output
960

(Po) of

a motor at any load.

Po

= EI - Pr watts. = Pi - Pk - Pr watts. = 0.1420 ST watts. = 1.903 ST X 10"^ horse-power.

of a

Efficiency

(t])

dynamo

at

any

load.

961

n=i;ALTERNATING CURRENT MACHINERY

Note. Sinusoidal e.m.f.'s and currents are assumed throughout and their magnitudes are expressed by effective values. Unless indicated otherwise
each formula applies to a generator or a motor.

Synchronous Machines
Frequency (f) of the e.m.f generated in a synchronous machine having p poles, the speed of the armature or field being S revolutions per minute.
.

962

= ^
120

cycles per ^ second.

-^

Electromotive force (Ep) generated per phase in the armature

of a synchronous machine.
/
/

sm

ma
2
.

963

Ep = 4.44 fN$ cos

2
\

10"^ volts.

msm 2number
of phases,

Note.

is

the

number

of

armature turns per phase or one-half the num-

ber of series conductors on the armature divided by the

the flux per pole in maxwells, p is the pitch deficiency or the difference in is the: electrical degrees between the pole pitch (180) and the coil pitch, number of slots per pole per phase and a is the angle between adjacent slot
is

centers in electrical degrees.

plied

Electrical degrees equal space degrees multi-

by-.

Alternating Current Machinery

223

Field current

(Ifa)

equivalent to the armature magnetomotive

force of a 3-phase synchronous

_

machine at any
amperes.

load.

964

Ifa

0.75

KNJp
pj

sin

ma'
as explained in 963.

Note.

equals cos

Na is

the

number

of

m sin
armature turns per
ber of
field

pole, Ip is the

armature phase current and Nf

is

the

num-

turns per pole.

In a single-

phase

machine

provided
coils
field

with
the
is

dampers
poles)

(short-circuited

in

field

the equivalent
ers the

current

given ap-

proximately by 964.
variable.

Without such damparmature magnetomotive force is a

Characteristic curves (Fig. 965) of Data are a synchronous machine. plotted as follows: O.C.C. (open circuit characteristic), terminal gener-

ated e.m.f. and

load;

field

current at no

S.C.C. (short circuit characteristic), line current and field current with armature terminals short-circuited.

Leakage reactance chronous machine.

(X) of the armature of a 3-phase syn-

'

224

Electricity

Effective resistance * (R) of the armature of a 3-phase syn-

chronous machine.

967

R =

^'

^'"^

ohms.

Note. Pi is the power input to the short-circuited machine when the armature current is I amperes* and Pfw is the friction and windage loss in the machine during the short-circuit run.
Effective resistance * (R2) of the armature of a synchronous machine at t2 degrees centigrade, given the ohmic resistance* (Roi) and the effective resistance * (Ri) of the armature at ti

degrees centigrade.

968

R2 = Roi

(^ff-^J

+ Ri - Roi

ohms.

Terminal electromotive force (E) generated in the armature machine when the terminal voltage is V volts; terminal power factor, cos 9; armature current,* amperes; armature effective resistance,* R ohms; armature leakage reactance,* X ohms.
of a 3-phase synchronous

969

E = V( V cos 6
Current phase Sign before V cos Sign before V sin

+ IR)^ -f
lag
-f
-f-

(d=

V sin +
lag

IX)^ volts.

Note.
0.
0.

Generator
lead

Motor
lead

+
machine

Field current
tential of

(If)

required to produce a difference of po-

volts at the terminals of a synchronous

load.

at

any stated
I.

970

^p^
E
is

(^V sin 6^+ V cos| + IR)VJ +

[

IX) 1/

^-^

amperes.
Note.
sponding to

E and
(t|)

determined by 969, If' is found on O.C.C. (Fig. 965) correAll other quantities are deIfa is determined by 964.

scribed in 969.

Efficiency

of a synchronous

machine when the output

is

Po watts.

p
^
Po

+ Pa + Pc + Pfw + Pf
loss,

Note,

Pa, the armature copper

equals the armature cnrrent * squarec

times the effective armature resistance.*

*

Pc

is

the core loss (hysteresis anc

Equivalent single-phase; see 929 to 931,

Alternating Current Machinery

225

eddy current losses). To determine Pc at any stated load calculate E by 969 and find If corresponding on O.C.C. (Fig. 965). Pc is then found on the core loss curve (Fig. 971) corresponding to If. Pfw is the friction and windage loss and Pf is the
field

copper

loss.

Synchronous Converters
Effective

alternating voltage (Vac)

between
converter

slip-rings of a

synchronous
voltage

when the
is

direct

between brushes
972
Vac

Vdc volts.

0.707 Vdc sin

volts.

Field Current

Fig. 971.

Note, n, the number of slip-rings, equals two for a single-phase machine and for a polyphase machine equals the number of phases.

Alternating line

current

(lac)

of

when the
973
Note.

direct armature current

is Idc

a synchronous converter amperes.

2.83 Idc
Tin (pi.)

amperes.

The

efficiency

(ii)

Is

approximately 0.95.

Armature copper loss

8

(Pa) of a
is Idc

the direct armature current

synchronous converter when amperes.

I_^2
Tl

974

Idc^Rdc watts.

^Tin(p.f.)sin^j
Note.
Ijrushes.

Rdc

is

the resistance of the armature between the direct current

Field current
force of a

(Ifa) equivalent to the armature magnetomotive synchronous converter when the power output is Pq

watts.
_

975
Note.

i.sKNaPotane

^'^

prinVacNf
in 964.

^^P^^^^number
of poles

K, Na and Nf as

is

the

and

the power

factor angle.

Net
976
Note.

field

current
Ifn

(Ifn)

of a

synchronous converter at any

=i=

stated load.

If

+ Ifs
field

Ifa

amperes.
is

If is

the actual shunt

current, Ifa

determined by 964 and

is

Ifs,

the equivalent shunt field current, equals

where Idc

the direct line

226
current of a short-shunt

Electricity

number

of series field turns

compound machine, Ns and Nf are and shunt field turns per pole.
a.c.

respectively the

Conversion Current phase

Sign before
Ifa

to d.c.
lead

d.c. to a.c.

lag

lag

lead

+
when operating

Elficiency
a.c. to d.c.

(y\)

of a synchronous converter

and delivering Po watts.

Po
Ti

977

Po

+ Pa + Pc + Pfw + Pf 4- Ps

Note. Pa is determined by 956, Pc as in 971 where If is found on the O.C.C. corresponding to the terminal voltage, Pfw by test, Pf and Ps by 956.

Transformers
Electromotive force (E) induced in
<|)

turns linked

by a

flux,

<l>ni

sin 2 irft maxwells.

978

E =

4.44

Nf^m

io- volts.

magnetic circuit of a transformer. Hysteresis per second by 10^ to change to watts. Divide ergs See 776. Eddy current loss (Pe) in thin laminations placed in an alternating magnetic flux.
loss (Ph) in the

979

Pe =

\\

watts per cubic centimeter.

Note, t is the thickness of the laminations in centimeters, f is the frequency of the alternating magnetic flux in cycles per second, Bm is the maximum flux density in gausses and p is the resistivity of the laminations in ohms
per centimeter cube.

Core loss
980

(Pc) of

a transformer at any load.

Pc

= Ph

+ Pe

watts.

Ratio of transformation (Ti) from primary to secondary of a transformer wound with two coils of Ni (primary) and N2 (sec-

ondary) turns respectively.

981
Note.

T.

J.

Ti equals the ratio f=r) of the e.m.f.'s induced respectively in the

coils

primary and secondary

and equals approximately the

ratio (=Tr| of

terminal voltages of the primary and secondary coils or the ratio

=2
J

of the

Alternating Current Machinery

227
(T2)

secondary and primary currents.

The

ratio of transformation

from

secondary to primary equals =-

Magnetizing current (Im) in a coil of N turns wound on a magnetic circuit of uniform maximum permeability (|x), 1 centimeters in mean length, A square centimeters in mean section = *m sin 2 irft maxwells. and conducting a flux,
<|)

982

Im

=
(Ic)

7=

amperes (approx.)
an induced e.m.f. of which the core loss

4irNfiAV2
Core loss current
in a coil containing

E
is

volts

and wound on a magnetic

circuit in

Pc watts.
Ic

983

pT amperes.

No load current (In) taken by a transformer which requires a magnetizing current of Im amperes and a core loss current of Ic amperes.
984
In

vl^M^ amperes.

Equivalent resistance (Ri) and equivalent reactance (Xi) between the primary terminals of a transformer which has a priri ohms, a primary leakage reactance of Xi resistance of T2 ohms, a secondary leakage secondary ohms, a ohms of X2 and primary to secondary ratio of transreactance

mary

resistance of

formation of Ti.

985

Ri = Xi =

Ti

Xi

+ Ti^rz ohms. + Ti2x2 ohms.

+
+

Note. The equivalent resistance and reactance respectively between the T22X1 Ti^Ti ohms a nd X2 = X2 secondary terminals is given by R2 = r2 The equivalent imjjedance in each case equals VR2 -|- X^ ohms and ohms.
Zi

Ti^Zz ohms.

Equivalent resistance (Ri) between the primary terminals of a transformer which, with short-circuited secondary, absorbs Pi watts with a primary current of Ii amperes.

986

Ri =

ohms. W Ir

p.

Equivalent impedance (Zi) between the primary terminals of a transformer which, with secondary short-circuited and with

'

228

Electricity

Vi volts between the primary terminals, takes a primary current of Ii amperes.

987

^'

"

r ^^^^'
the primary terminals.

Equivalent reactance (Xi) between the primary terminals of a transformer of equivalent resistance (Ri) ohms and equivalent

impedance
988

(Zi)

ohms between
(Vi) of

Xi = VZi2

Ri2 ohms.

Primary voltage

a transformer of ratio of transforma-

tion (Ti), equivalent resistance

tween secondary terminals

terminal voltage (V2) volts,

and reactance respectively beand (X2) ohms, secondary secondary current (I2) amperes and
(R2)
62).

power factor
989
Vi

of the load

on the secondary (cos

62

=
The

Ti

V(V2 cos

+ I2R2)2 +
is

(V2 sin 62

12X2)2 volts.
phase and

Note.

sign before I2X2

for zero or lagging current

for leading current phase.

Voltage regulation

(v.r.)

of a transformer at

any load;

Vi, V2]

and Ti as
990

in 989.
v.r.

- T1V2 = Vi
'
'

'

I1V2
(t])

Efficiency

of a transformer at
TI

any

load.

991

I2V2 cos 82

I2V2 cos 62

+ I2'R2 + Pc

Induction Machines
Three-phase machines are assumed throughout and unless indicated otherwise each formula applies to a generator or a motor. All rotor

Note.

resistances

and reactances are

referred to the stator.

Equivalent effective resistance

* (Ri) of

an induction machine

between the stator terminals.

992
Note.
current.*

Ri =
Pi
is

p.

f5

ohms.
Ii is

the power input on blocked run and

the stator blocked-run

Equivalent impedance
the stator terminals.

* (Zi) of

an induction machine between

993

Zi=^'ohms.
ii

* Equivalent single-phase.

Alternating Current Machinery

229
Ii

Note.

Vi

is

the stator terminal voltage during blocked-run and

is

the

stator blocked-run current.*

Equivalent reactance
the stator terminals.

* (Xi) of

an induction machine between

Ri2 ohms.
993 and 992.

994
Note.
Zi

Xi

= VZi2 -

and Ri are determined as

*

in

Rotor resistance
stator.

fe) of

an induction machine referred to the

995
Note.
12' is

T2

Tiers'

ohms.
*

the actual rotor resistance

and Ti

is

the ratio of transforma-

tion from stator to rotor or the ratio of the e.m.f.'s induced in the stator

and

rotor respectively during blocked-run.

Rotor leakage reactance

ferred to the stator.

(X2)

of

an induction machine

re-

996
Note.

X2

Ti^xa'

ohms.
T2

Read note to 995,

substituting X2' for

and reactance

for resistance.

Equivalent effective resistance* (Ri) of an induction machine

of rie

ohms

efifective stator resistance*

and

r2e

ohms

effective

rotor resistance* referred to the stator.

997

Ri =

tie

+ r2e ohms.

ohms
998

Equivalent reactance* (Xj) of an induction machine of Xi stator leakage reactance* and X2 ohms rotor leakage re-

actance* referred to the stator.

Xi

Xi

+ X2 ohms.
an induction machine having p
f

Synchronous speed
poles, the

(Si)

of

frequency of the impressed voltage being

cycles per

second.

999

Si

revolutions per minute.

Note. The number of poles (p) of an induction machine equals twice the number of separated coil groups per phase.
Slip (s) of

an induction machine of synchronous speed

(Si)

revolutions per minute

when
s

the rotor speed

is

S2 revolutions

per minute.

1000

I?. 01

* Equivalent single-phase.

230

Electricity

at

Induced stator terminal no load.

e.m.f. (En) of

an induction machine

1001

En = Vi

In Vrie^

+ Xi^ volts.
an induction machine

Note. Vi is the stator terminal and Xi as in 997 and 998.

voltage, In the no load line current,* fie

Rotor current*
at slip
(s). I2

(I2)

referred to stator of

1002

E
,

amperes.

V
Note.

(('"+ -7)

(x,)^

To

find the starting rotor current of

an induction motor make s

Re) for 120. Re is the effective external reequal one and substitute (r2e sistance* referred to the stator added to the rotor during starting.

Stator current*

(Ii)

of

an induction machine at
_|_

slip (s).

1003
Note.
(p.f.
I2 is

Ii

= VI22

-f 1^2

2 i2l sin
is

a amperes.
=
sin-^

determined by 1002, In

the no load current* and a

starting stator current
is

at

no load)
s

+ tan~*

The

given by

making
a,

equal one and substituting

(r2e

+ Re)

for 120 in the expression for

the starting rotor current being determined as indicated in 1002.

Power output
1004
Note.

(Po) of

an induction machine at

slip (s).

Po =

T20

(^-^^) watts.

When

starting or at very low speeds rjo should be increased as in-

dicated in 1002.

When

the slip

is

negative Po

is

negative and gives the power

input to an induction generator.

Power input (PO

1005
Note.
is

to an induction
Ii^le

machine at
In'rie

slip (s).

Pi

^^ +
s

+ Pn -

WattS.

Pn

is

the power in watts taken at no load.

When

starting or at

very low speeds

negative Pi
is

r20

should be increased as indicated in 1002.

When

the slip

negative and gives the power output of an induction generator.

slip (s).

Torque (T) of an induction machine at

1006
Note.
Negative

T =
slip gives

0.0587

^^
and
s

pound-feet.
under starting conditions in 1002.

Read comment on
p as
*

120

negative torque or the torque applied to the rotor of an

in 999.

induction generator,

Equivalent single-phase.

Alternating Current Machinery

231

Slip (s) of

an induction motor at any stated load.

r2o(

2 Tie

-2 120
r^

1007

-^j^^
{^frzo

L.

-2rie-2r2oj -Zi2
under starting conditions in I002.

Note.

Read comment on

Slip (s) of

an induction generator at any stated

load.

r2opr
1008

(W)"--.(S)
Efficiency
(r\)

of

an induction machine.

1009

,,=1.

232

Mathematical Ssonbols and Abbreviations

MATHEMATICAL TABLES
PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS AND CONVERSION FACTORS
PAGE

Common
Nimibers

Logarithms

234

Natural Logarithms
(i

236 Square Roots, Cube Roots, 238

258

to

1000), Squares, Cubes,

Reciprocals, Circumferences,

and Circular Areas

Degrees

to

Radians

Natural Sines, Cosines and Tangents

260 266

Common
Values of

Logarithms of Sines, Cosines and Tangents

Hyperbolic Sines, Cosines and Tangents

272
276

and

-=^

Decimal Equivalents

of Fractions

279

Greek Alphabet
Length
of Arc,

279

Length

of

Chord, Height of Segment and Area of Seg(0)

ment Subtending an Angle

Weights
of Materials

in

a Circle of Radius (R)

280
282

Orifice Coefficients

284
285

Weir

Coefficients

Friction Factors

286

Channel Coefficients
Properties of Saturated

287

Steam Steam

288
290
291

Properties of Superheated
Specific

Heat
Expansion

Coefficients of Linear

292

Heat of Combustion
Melting and Boiling Points

292
293

Thermal Conductivity
Copper Wire Table
Magnetization Curves of Iron and Steel
Resistivity

294
295

296

and Temperature

Coefficient of Resistance of Conductors at

20 Cent
Resistivity

297

and Dielectric Constant

of Insulators at

Room

Temperattu-e

297

Conversion Factors

298

233

234

Common

Logarithms

Common
N

Logarithms

235

236

Natural Logarithms

0-609

Nattiral

Logarithms

237 500-1009

238

Numbers

(i

to 50), Squares,

Reciprocals, Circumferences

Cubes, Square Roots, Cube Roots, and Circular Areas

Numbers

(51 to 100), Squares,

Reciprocals, Circumferences

Cubes, Square Roots, Cube Roots, and Circular Areas

239

240 Numbers (loi to 150), Squares, Cubes, Square Roots, Cube Roots, Reciprocals, Circumferences and Circular Areas

Numbers

(151 to 200), Squares, Cubes, Square Roots, Cube Roots, 241 Reciprocals, Circumferences and Circular Areas

242 Numbers (201 to 250), Squares, Cubes, Square Roots, Cube Roots, Reciprocals, Circumferences and Circular Areas

Numbers

(251 to 300), Squares, Cubes, Square Roots, Cube Roots, 243 Reciprocals, Circumferences and Circular Areas

244 Numbers (301 to 350), Squares, Cubes, Square Roots, Cube Roots, Reciprocals, Circumferences and Circular Areas

Niunbers (351 to 400), Squares, Cubes, Square Roots, Cube Roots, 245 Reciprocals, Circumferences and Circular Areas

246 Numbers (401 to 450), Squares, Cubes, Square Roots, Cube Roots, Reciprocals, Circumferences and Circular Areas

Numbers

(451 to 500), Squares, Cubes, Square Roots, Cube Roots, Reciprocals, Circumferences and Circular Areas

247

248 Numbers (501 to 550), Squares, Cubes, Square Roots, Cube Roots, Reciprocals, Circumferences and Circular Areas

Numbers

(551 to 600), Squares, Cubes, Square Roots, Cube Roots, 249 Reciprocals, Circumferences and Circular Areas

250 Numbers (601 to 650), Squares, Cubes, Square Roots, Cube Roots, Reciprocals, Circiunferences and Circular Areas

Numbers

(651 to 700), Squares, Cubes, Square Roots, Cube Roots, 251 Reciprocals, Circumferences and Circular Areas

*252

Numbers

(701 to 750), Squares, Cubes, Square Roots, Cube Roots, Reciprocals, Circumferences and Circular Areas

Numbers

(751 to 800), Squares, Cubes, Square Roots, Cube Roots, 253 Reciprocals, Circumferences and Circular Areas

254 Numbers (80 1 to 850), Squares, Cubes, Square Roots, Cube Roots, Reciprocals, Circumferences and Circular Areas

Numbers

(831 to 900), Squares, Cubes, Square Roots, Cube Roots, 255 Reciprocals, Circumferences and Circular Areas

256 Numbers (901 to 950), Squares, Cubes, Square Roots, Cube Roots, Reciprocals, Circumferences and Circular Areas

Numbers

(951 to 1000), Squares, Cubes, Square Roots, Cube Roots, Reciprocals, Circumferences and Circular Areas

257

258

260

Natural Sines, Cosines and Tangents

Natural Sines, Cosines and Tangents

261
15-29.9

Degs.

262

Natural Sines, Cosines and Tangents

Natural Sines, Cosines and Tangents

263

Degs.

264

Natural Sines, Cosines and Tangents

265
75-89.9

Degs.

266

Common

Logarithms of Sines, Cosines and Tangents

Common

Logarithms of Sines, Cosines and Tangents

267
15-29.9"'

Degs.

268

Common

Logarithms of Sines, Cosines and Tangents

30-44.9''

Degs.

Common

Logarithms of Sines, Cosines and Tangents

269
45-69.9

Degs.

270

Common

Logarithms of Sines, Cosines and Tangents

Common

Logarithms of Sines, Cosines and Tangents

271
75-89.9

Degs.

272

Hyperbolic Sines, Cosines and Tangents

0.00-1.49

Angle Function

0.03

0.04

0.05

0.06

0.07

0.08

0.09

sinh
0.0

cosh tanh
sinh

1.

0000 O.OIOO 0.02000 03000, 0400 0.0500 0.0600JO.0701J0.0801, 0.0901 0000 1. 0001 1.0002 1.0005 1.0008 1. 0013 1,0018 1.0025 i.oo32|i. 0041 00000 0100 o 02000.03000.0400 0.05000.05990,0699 0,0798:0.0898

0.1

cosh tanh
I

.I002 O.I 102 o. 1 203 0.1 304 0.1 405 0.1506 0.1607 O.I 708 0.1810 0.1911 .0050 1. 0061 1,0072 1.008511.0098 I.0II3 0128 1. 0145 1. 0162 1.0181 0997 0.1096 O.I 194 0.1293 0.1391 0,1489 O.I5870.I684 0.1781 0.1878 .2013 0.2II5 0.2218 0.23200.2423 0.2526 0.2629 0.2733 0.28370.2941 .0201 I.022I 1.0243 .0266 0289 I.03I4 1.0340 1.0367 1.0395 1.0423 .1974 0.2070 0.2165 0.2260 0-2355 0.2449 0.2543 0.2636 0.27290.2821

sinh
0.2

cosh tanh

0.3

sinh 3045 0.3150 0.3255 0.33600.3466 0.3572 0.3678 0.3785 0.389: 0.4000 cosh .0453 1.0484 0516 0549 0584 1. 0619 0655 1.0692 1.0731 0770 tanh 0.2913 0.3004 0.3095 0.3185 0.3275 0.3364 0.3452 0.35400 3627 0.3714
sinh
b..41080,

0.4

cosh tanh
sinh

1.0811 1.0852 1.0895 1.0939 .0984

4216 0.4325 0.4434 0.4543 0.4653 0.4764 0.4875 0.4986 0.5098 1030 1077 1.1125 1.1174 1225 .38000 3885 0.3969 0.4053 0.4136 0.4219 0.4301 0.4382 0.4462 0.4542

0.5

cosh tanh
sinh

0.5211 O 53240.5438 0-5552 0.5666 0.5782 0.5897 0.6014 0.613 0.6248 1. 1276 1. 1329 I-I383 1.1438 I-I494 I-I55I .1609 1669 1-1730 1792 4621 o..47000 4777 0.4854 0.4930 0.5005 0.5080 0-515410.5227 0.5299

0.6

cosh tanh
sinh

6367 0.6485 0.6605 0.6725 0.6846 0.6967 0.7090I0.72I3 0.7336 0.746 1855 I.I9I9 1984 1. 2051 .2119 1. 2188 1.2258 2330 1.2402 2476 0.5980 585 53700 5441 0-5511 0.5581 0.5649 0.5717 0.5784J0.5850I0.59
c

0.7

0.7586 0.7712 0.7838 0.7966 0.8094 0.8223 0.8353 .84840 .8615 0.8748 cosh 1-2552 1.2628 1.2706 1-2785 1.286s 1.2947 1.3030 1.3114 I -3 1 99 1.3286 tanh 10.60440 6107 0.6169 0.6231 0.6292 0.6352 0.641 0.6469 0.6527 0.6584

0.8

sinh 0.8881 0.9015 0.91 500 9286 0.9423 0.9561 o. 9 700J0. 984010 9981 1.0122 cosh 1-3374^ 1-3464 ^3555 1-3647 1-3740 1-3835 1-3932 1.4029 1. 4128 1.4229 tanh 0.664100 .6696 0.6751 0.6805 0.6858 0.691 0.6963 0.7014 o. 7064 o, 7114

0.9

sinh 1.0265 1 .0409 1-0554 1.0700 1.0847 1-0995 1.1144 1.1294I 1. 1446 I 1598 cosh 1.4331 1-4434 1-4539 1.4645 1-4753 1.4862 1-4973 1-5085 1-5199 1-5314 tanh 0.7163 0.7211 0.7259 0.73060.7352 0.7398 0.7443 0.7487 0-7531 0.7574
1-1752 1. 1907 1.2063 1.2220 1.2379 1-2539 1.2700 1.2862 1-3025 1. 3190 cosh 1-5431 1.5549 1.5669 1-5790 1-5913 1.6038 1. 6164 1.6292 1. 6421 16552 tanh 0.7616 0.7658 0.7699 0.7739 0.7779 0.781 80 7857 0.7895 0.7932 0.7969

sinh
1.0

sinh
1.1

cosh

tanh
sinh
1.2

1-3356 1-3524 1-3693 1-3863 1.4035 1.4208 1.4382 1.4558 1-4735 1. 4914 1.6685 1.6820 1.6956 1.7093 1.7233 1-7374 1-7517 1.7662 1.7808 1.7956 0.8144 0.8178'0.8210 0.8243 0.8275 0.8306 0.8005 0.8041 0.8076 0.8
1-5095

cosh 1. 8107 tanh 0-8337

sinh
1.6984

5276 1.5460 1-5645 I -583 1. 6019 1.6209 1.6400 1-6593 1.6788 8258 1. 8412 1.8568 1.8725 1.8884 1-9045 1.9208 1-9373 1.9540 8367 0.8397 0.8426 0.8455 0.8483 0.8511 0.8538 0.8565 0.8591
7182 1.7381 1.7583 1.7786 1. 7991 1. 8198 1.8406 1.8617 1.8829 q88o 2.0053 2.0228 2.0404 2.0583 2.0764 2.0947 2.1132 2,1320 8643 0.8668 0.8693 0.8717 0.8741 0.8764 0.8787 0.88 100 8832

1.3

cosh 1.9709 tanh 0.8617

sinh
1.9043

1.4

cosh 2.1509 tanh 0.8854

9259 1-9477 1.9697 1-9919 2.0143 2.0369 2.0597 2.0827 2,1059 1700 2.1894 2.2090 2.2288 2.2488 2.2691 2.2896 2.3103 2.3312 88750.8896 0.8917 0.8937 0.8957 0.8977 0.8996 0.9015 0.9033

Hyperbolic Sines, Cosines and Tangents

273
1.50-2.99

Angle Function

0.03

0.04

0.05

0.06

0.07

0.08

0.09

sinh
1.5

1293 2.1529 2.1768 2.2008 2.2251 2.2496 2.2743 2.2993 2.3245 2.3499

cosh tanh
sinh

3524 2.3738 2.3955 2.4174 2.4395 2.4619 2.4845 2.5074 2.5305 2.5538 9052 0.9069 0.9087 0.9104 0.9121 0.9138 0.9154 0.9170 0.9186 0.9202
2.3756 2.4015 2.4276 2.4540 2.4806 2.507s 2.5346 2.5620 2.5896
6175

1.6

cosh 5775 2.6013 2.6255 2.6499 2.6746 2.6995 2.7247 2.7502 7760 2.8020 tanh 0.9217 0.9232 0.9246 0.9261 0.9275 0.9289 0.9302 0.9316 0.9329 0.9342
sinh
2.6456 2.6740 2.7027 2.7317 2.7609 2.7904 2.8202 2.8503 2.8806 2.9112

1.7

cosh 2.8283 2.8549 2.8818 2.9090 2.9364 2.9642 2.9922 3.0206 3.0493 3.0782 tanh 0-9354 0.9367 0.9379 0.9391 0.9402 0.9414 0.9425 0.9436 0.9447 0.9458
sinh

1.8

cosh tanh

2.9422 2.9734 3.0049 3.0367 3.0689 3-1013 1340 3.1671 3.2005 3.2341 1075 3.1371 3.1669 1972 2277 3-2585 2897 3.3212 3.3530 3.3852 9468 0.9478 0.9488 0.9498 0.9508 0.9518 0.9527 0.9536 0.9545 0.9554

1.9

sinh 2682 3.3025 3.3372 3-3722 3.4075 3-4432 3.4792 5156 3.5523 3.5894 cosh 3-4177 3-4506 3.4838 3.5173 3.5512 3-5855 3.6201 6551 3.6904 3.7261 tanh 0.9562 0.9571 0.9579 0.9587 0.9595 0.9603 0.9611 0.9619 0.9626 0.9633
sinh
3.6269 3.6647 3.7028 3.74143.7803 3-8196

8593 3-8993 3-9398 3.9806

2.0

cosh 3.7622 3.7987 3.8355 8727 3.9103 3.9483 3.9867 4.0255 4.0647 4.1043 tanh ,9640 0.9647 0.9654 0.9661 0.9668 0.9674 0.9680 0.9686 0.9693 0.9699
.0219 4.0635 1056 4.. 14804 1909 4-2342 4.2779 4-3221 4.3666 4.4117 cosh 4.1443 4.1847 2256 4.2668 4.3085 4-3507 4.3932 4-4362 4-4797 4.5236 tanh 0.9705 0.9710 0.9716 0.9722 0.9727 0.9732 0.9738 0-9743 0.9748 0.9752

sinh

2cl

sinh
2.2

4.457: 4.5030 4.5494 4.5962 4.6434 4.6912 4.7394 4.7880 4.8372 4.8868

cosh 5679 4.6127 4.6580 4.7037 4.7499 4.7966 4.8437 4-8914 4.9395 4.9881 tanh 0.9757 0.9762 0.9767 0.9771 0.9776 0.9780 0.9785 0-9789 0.9793 0.9797
sinh 4 93704.9876 5-0387 5.0903 5.1425 5-1951 5.2483 S-3020S 3562 5.4109 cosh 5.0372 5.0868 5-1370 5.1876 5.2388 5.2905 5.3427 5.3954 S-4487 5.5026 tanh o.q8oi 0.9805 0.9809 0.9812 0.9816 0.98 0.9823 0.9827 0.9830 0.9834

2.3

sinh
2.4

5.4662 5-5221 5.5785 5.6354 5.6929 5-7510 5-8097 5-8689 5-9288 5.9892

cosh 5.7235 5-7801 5-8373 5-8951 5-9535 6.0125 6.0721 5569 5.6119 5 tanh 0.9837 0.98400 9843 0.9846 0.9849 0.9852 0-9855 0.9858 0.9861 0.9864
sinh 6.05026.III86 III 1741 6.2369 6.3004 6.3645 6.4293 6.4946 6.5607 6.6274 cosh 6.1323 6.I93I 6.2 5456 3166 6.3793 6.4426 6.5066 6.5712 6.6365 6.7024 tanh 0.9866 0.9869 0.9871 0.9874 0.9876 0.9879 0.9881 o..98840 9886 sinh
6.6947 6.7628 6.8315 6.9009 6.9709 7.0417 7-1132 7.1854 7-2583 7-3319

2.5

2.6

cosh 6.7690 6.8363 6.9043 6.9729 7.0423 7.1123 7.1831 7.2546 7-3268 7-3998 tanh 0.9890 0.9892 0.9895 0.9897 0.9899 0.990J 0.9903 0.9905 0.9906 0.9908
sinh
7.4063 7.481 47 5572 7.6338 7.7112 7-7894 7.8683 7.9480 8.0285 8.1098

2.7

cosh 4735 7-5479 7.6231 7.6991 7.7758 78533 7-9316 8.0106 8.0905 8.171: tanh 0.9910 0.9912 o 99140.9915 0.9917 0.9919 0.9920 0.9922 0.9923 0.9925
sinh

2.8

8.19198.27498.3586 8.4432 8.5287 8.6150 8.7021 8.7902 8.8791 8.9689 cosh 8.2527 8.3351 4182 8.5022 8.587 8.6728 8. 8.8469 8.9352 9.0244 tanh 0.9926 o..99280 9929 0.993 0.9932 0.9933 0.9935 0.9936 0.9937 0.9938
sinh 9.05969.15129.2437 9-3371 9.4315 9-52 689 6231 9.7203 9.8185 9.9177 cosh 9. 1 1469. 2056^9.2976 9-3905 9-4844 9.5792 9-6749 9.7716 9.8693 9.9680 tanh o.9940:0.994i|o.9942 0-9943 0.9944 0.9945 0.9946 0.9948 C.9949 0.9950

2.9

274

Hyperbolic Sines, Cosines and Tangents

3.00-4.49

Angle Function

0.02

0.03

0.04

0.05

0.06

0.07

0.08

0.09

sinh
3.0

cosh tanh
sinh

10.018 10.119 10.221 10.324 10.429 10.53410.640 10.748 10.856I10.966 10.068 10.168 10.270 10.373 10.476 10.581 10.687 10.794 10.902,11.011 0.9951 0.9952 0.9953 0.9953 0.9954 0.99550.9956 0.9957 0.99580.9959
II. 301 11.415 11-530 11.647 11.764 11.883 12.003 12.124 11.076 II. II. 121 11.233 11.345 11.459 11-574 11.689 11.806 11-925 12.044 12.165 0.996100 996QO 996 0.9962 0.9963 0.9963 0.99640 9965 0.9966 0.9966

cosh tanh
sinh cosh tanh
sinh
3.3

12.246 12.369 12.494 12.620 12.747 12.876 13.006 13-137 13.269 13403 12.287 12.410 12.534 12.660 12.786 12.915 13.044 13-175 13.307 13.440 0.9967 0.9968 0.9968 0.9969 0.9969 0.997010.9971 0.9971 0.9972 0.9972 13.538 13674 13.812 13-951 14.092 14.23414 377 14.522 14.668 14.816 13-575 13.711 13.848 13-987 14.127 14.269 14.412 14.556 14.702 14.850 0.9973 0.9973 0.9974 0.99740, 9975 0.9975 0.9976 0.9976 0.9977 0.9977

cosh tanh
sinh

3.4

cosh tanh
sinh

15.268 15.422 1.5-577 15-734 15-893 16.053 16.215 16.378 14.965 14-999 15-149 15-301 15-455 15.610 15.766 15.924 16.084 16.245 16.408 0.9978 0.9978 0.99790, 9979 0-9979 0.9980 0.9980 0.998 0.9981 0.9981
16.543 16.709 16.877 17.047 17.219 17.392 17-567 17.744 17.923 18.103 16.573 16.739 16.907 17.077 17.248 17.421 17-596 17.772 17-951 18.131 o. 0.9982 0.9983 0.9983 0.9983 0.9984 0.9984 0.9984 0.9985 0.9985

3.5

cosh tanh
sinh

3.6

cosh tanh
sinh

18.285 18.470 18.655 18.843 19-033 19.224 19.418 19.613 19.811 20.010 18.313 18.497 18.68 18.870 19-059 19.250I19.444 19.444 19-639 19.836 20.03s 0.9985 0.9985 0.9986 0.9986 0.9986 0.9987 0-9987 0.9987 0.9987 0.9988
20.211 20.415 20.620 20.828 21.037I 21.249 21.463 21.679 21.897 22.117 20.236 20.439 20.644 20.852 21.06 21.272 21.486 21.702 21.919 22.139 0.9988 0.9988 0.9988 0.9989 0.9989J0.9989 0.9989 0.9989 o.999o|o 9990

3.7

cosh tanh
sinh

3.8

cosh tanh
sinh

22.339 22.564 22.791 23.020 23-25 23.486 23.722 23.961 24.202 24.445 22.362 22.586 22.813 23-042 23.273 23-507 23-743 23.982 24.222 24.466 0.9990 0.99900, 99900, 9991 0.9991 0-9991 0.9991 0.9991 0.9992 0.9992
24.691 24.939 25.190125.444 25.700 25- 95826 219 26.483 26.749 27.018 24.711 24-959 25.210 25-463 25-71 25-977 26.238 26.502 26.768 27.037 0.9992 0.9992 0.9992 0.9992 0.9992 09993 0-9993 0.9993 0.9993 0.9993

3.9

cosh tanh
sinh

4.0

cosh tanh
sinh

27.290 27.564 27.842 28.122 28.404 28.690 28.979 29.270 29.564 29.862 27.308 27-583 27.860 28.139 28.42 28. 707 28.996 29.287 29.581 29.878 0.9993 0.9993 0.9994 0.9994 0.99941 0.9994 0.9994 0.9994 0.9994 0.9994
30.162 30.465 30.772 31.081 31 -393 3 1.709 32.028 32.3503 2.675 33.004 30.1 7830 482 30 7883 1.097 31 4093 1.725 32.044 32.365 32.69 33019 0.9995 0.9995 o 99950.9995 0.99951 0.9995 0.9995 0.9995 0.9995 0.9995

4.1

cosh tanh
sinh

4.2

cosh tanh
sinh

33-336 33-671 34.00934 351 34- 697I35.04635-398 35.754 36.113 36.476 5.06035.412 35 76836 .127 36.490 33-351 33.686 34.024 34.366 34-711 35 0.9996 0.9996 0.9996 0.9996 0.9996 0.9996 0.9996 0.9996 0.9996 0.9996

4.3

cosh tanh
sinh

36 84337 .214 37.58837.96538.347I38 733 39.122 39.515 39-913 40.314 36.857 37.227 37.601 37.97938.3& 38 74639 135 39.528 39925 40.326 0.9996 0.9996 0.99970.99970.99971 0.9997 0.9997 0.9997 0.9997 0.9997
40.719 41.12 94 1-542 41 96042 382 42.808 43 23843 673 44.112 44-555 40.73 41.141 41.554 41.972 42.393 42.81 943 .250 43.684 44-123 44-566 0.9997 0.9997 0.9997 0.9997 0.9997 0.9997 0.9997 0.9997 0.9997 0.9998

4.4

cosh tanh

Hyperbolic Sines, Cosines and Tangents

275
4.60-5.99

Angle Function

0.03

0.04

0.05

0.06

0.08

0.09

4.5

sinh cosh

tanh
sinh
4.6

45.00345.45s 45.91246.37446.840 47-311 47 78748 267 48.752 49.242 45-01445 46645 92346.38546.851 47-321 47-797 48.277 48.762 49.252 0.99980.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998
49-737 50-237 50.742 51.252 51-767 52.288 52.813 53-344 53 88054 .422 49-747 50.247 50.752 51.262 51-777 52.297 52.823 53-354 53-890 54-431 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998
54-969 55-522 56.080 56.643 57.213 57 78858 -369 58.955 59-548 60.147 54-978 55-531 56.08956 652 57.221 57 79658 377 58.964 59-556 60.155 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9998 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999

cosh tanh
sinh

4.7

cosh tanh
sinh

4.8

cosh tanh
sinh

60.75161.362 61.979 62.601 63.231 63.866 64. 50865 57 65.8 66.473 60.759,61.370 61.987 62 60963 239 63 87464.516 65.164 65.819 66.481 0.99990.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0-9999 0.9999 0.9999
67.141 67.81668.49869 .186 69.882 70.584 71.293 72.01 72.734 73-465 67.1 4967 823 68.505 69.193 69.889 70.591 71 3007 2.017 72.741 73-472 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999

4.9

cosh tanh
sinh

5.0

cosh tanh
sinh

74.203 74.949 75-702 76.463 77.232 78.008 78.792 79.58^,80.384 81.192 74.210 74.956 75-709 76.470 77-238 78.014 78.798 79-59080.390 81.198 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 09999 0.9999 0.99990.9999 0.9999

5.1

cosh tanh
sinh

82 0088 2.832 83.66584.50685 355 86.213 87.07987.955 88.83989.732 / 82.014 82.838 83.671 84.512 85.361 86.219 87 08587 960 88.844 89-73' 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.99990.9999
90.633 91-544 92.464 93-394 94.332 95.281 96.238 97-205 98.182 99.169 90.639 91-550 92.470 93-399 94.338 95 28696 243 97.211 98.188 99.174 I.OOOO 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 0.9999 1.0000 1.0000
100.17 101.17 102.19 103.22 104.25 105.30 106.36 107.43 108.51 109.60 100.17 IOI.I8I02.I9 103.22 104.26 105-31 106.67 107.43 108.51 109.60 I.OOOO I.OOOOil.OOOO I.OOOO I.OOOO I.OOOO I.OOOO I.OOOO I.OOOO I.OOOO

5.2

cosh tanh
sinh

5.3

cosh tanh
sinh

5.4

cosh tanh
sinh

110.70 111.81 112.94 114.07 115.22 116.38 117.5 118.73 119.92 121.13 II0.7 111.82 112.94 114.08115.22 116.38 117-55 118.73 119.93 121.13 I.OOOO I.OOOO I.OOOO I.OOOO I.OOOO I.OOOO I.OOOO I.OOOO I.OOOO I.OOOO

5.5

cosh tanh
sinh

122.34 123.57 124.82 126.07 127.34 128.62 129.91 131.22 132.53 1.33-87 122.351123.58124.82 126.07 127.34 128.62 129.9 131.22 132.54 133-87 I.OOOOil.OOOO I.OOOO I.OOOO I.OOOO I.OOOO I.OOOO I.OOOO I.OOOO
135.21 136.57 137.94 139-33 140.73 142.14 143.57 145-02 146.47 147-95 135-22 136.57 137-95 139-33 140.73 142.15143.58 145-02 146.48 147-95 I.OOOO I.OOOO I.OOOO I.OOOO I.OOOO I.OOOO I.OOOO I.OOOO I.OOOO I.OOOO

5.6

cosh tanh
sinh

5.7

cosh tanh
sinh

149-43150.93152.45 153-98155-53 157.09 158.67 160.27 161.88 163-51 149.44 150.941152.45 153-99155.53 157.10 158.68 160.27 161 163.51 I oooq 1 0000' 1 0000 I.OOOO I.OOOO I.OOOO I.OOOO I.OOOO I.OOOO
.

5.8

cosh tanh
sinh

165-15 166.81 168.48 170.18 171-89 173.62 175.36 177.12 178.90 180.70 165.15 1 66.8iji68.49 170.18 171.89 173.62 175-36 177-13 178.91 180.70 i.oood I.OOOO I.OOOO I.OOOO I.OOOO I.OOOO I.OOOO 1.0000 I.OOOO I.OOOO 182.52 184.35 186.20 188.08 189.97 191.88 193.80 195-75 197.72 199-71 182.52 184.35 186.21 188.08 189.97 191.88 193-81 195-75 197.72 199.71 1 0000 1 ooooi 1 0000 I.OOOO I.OOOO I.OOOO 1.0000 1.0000 I.OOOO
. . .

5.9

cosh tanh

276

Values of

c*

and f
0.001.99

Values of

=^

and

-*

277
2.00-3.99

Function

0.03

0.04

0.05

0.06

0.08

0.09

7-3891 7-4633 7-5383 7.6141 7.6906 7-7679 7.8460 7.9248 8.0045 8.0849 0-I353 0.1340 0.1327 0.1313 0.1300 0.1287 0.1275 0.1262 0.1249 0.1237

1662 8.2482 8.3311 8.4149 8.4994 8.5849 8.6711 8.7583 8.8463 8.9352 0.1225 0.1212 0.1200 0.1 188 0.1 1 77 0.1165 0-1153 0.1142 0.1 130 0.1119
9.0250 9-IIS7 9.2073 9-2999 9-3933 9-4877 9-5831 9.6794 9.7767 9-8749
0.1 108 0.1097 0.1086 0.1075 0.1065 0.1054 0.1044 0.1033 0.1023 0.1013

2-3

9.9742 10.074 10.176 10.278 10.381 10.486 10.591 10.697 10.805 10.913 0.1003 0.0993 0.0983 0.0973 0.0963 0.0954 0.0944 0.0935 0.0926 0.0916
11.023 II. 134 11.246 11-359 11-473 11.588 11.705 11.822 II. 941 12.061 0.0907 0.0898 0.0889 0.0880 0.0872 0.0863 0.0854 0.0846 0.0837 0.0829

2.4

2-5

12.182 12.305 12.429 12.554 12.680 12.807 12.936 13.066 13.197 13-330 0.0821 0.0813 0.0805 0.0797 0.0789 0.0781 0.0773 0.0765 0.0758 0.0750

2.6

13.464 13-599 13-736 13-874 14.013 14-154 14.296 14.440 14.585 14.732 0.0743 0.0735 0.0728 0.0721 0.0714 0.0707 0.0699 0.0693 0.0686 0.0679 14.880 15.029 15.180 ^5-333 15-487 15-643 15.800 15-959 16.119 16.281 0.0672 0.0665 0.0659 0.0652 0.0646 0.0639 0.0633 0.0627 0.0620 0.0614
16.445 16.610 16.777 16.945 17.116 17.288 17.462 17.637 17.814 17.993 0.0608 0.0602 0.0596 0.0590 0.0584 0.0578 0.0573 0.0567 0.0561 0.0556

2.7

>.8

J.

18.174 18.357 18.541 18.728 18.916 19.106 19.298 19-492 19.688 19.886 0.0550 0.0545 0.0539 0.0534 0.0529 0.0523 0.0518 0.0513 0.0508 0.0503 20.086 20.287 20.491 20.697 20.905 21. 115 21.328 21.542 21.758 21.977 0.0498 0.0493 0.0488 0.0483 0.0478 0.0474 0.0469 0.0464 0.0460 0.0455 22.198 22.421 22.646 22.874 23.104 23.336 23-571 23.807 24.047 24.288 0.0450 0.0446 0.0442 0.0437 0.0433 0.0429 0.0424 0.0420 0.0416 0.0412

3-0

3-1

3-2

M-533 24.779 25.028 25.280 25-534 25.790 26.050 26.311 26.576 26.843 0.0408 0.0404 0.0400 0.0396 0.0392 0.0388 0.0384 0.0380 0.0376 0.0373
27.113 27-385 27.660 27-938 28.219 28.503 28.789 29.079 29-371 29.666 0.0369 0.0365 0.0362 0.0358 0.0354 0.0351 0.0347 0.0344 0.0340 0.0337 29.964 30.265 30.569 30.877 31.187 31-500 31.817 32.137 32.460 32.786 3-0334 0.0330 0.0327 0.0324 0.0321 0.0317 0.0314 0.03 II 0.0308 0.0305

3-3

3-4

3-5!

33-1^5 33-448 33-784 34.124 34-467 34-813 35.163 35-517 35-874 36.234 0.0302 0.0299 0.0296 0.0293 0.0290 0.0287 0.0284 0.0282 0.0279 0.0276

3.6

36.598 36.966 37.338 37.713 38.092 38.475 38.861 39.252 39-646 40.045 0.0273 0.0271 0.0268 0.0265 0.0263 0.0260 0.0257 0.0255 0.0252 0.0250
+0.447 40.854 41.264 41.679 42.098 42.521 42.948 43.380 43.816 44.256 0.0247 O.C245 0.0242 0.0240 0.0238 0.0235 0.0233 0.0231 0.0228 G.0226

3.7

3.8

44.701 45-i5o[45-6o4 46.063 46.525 46.993 47.465 47.942 48.424 48.91J 0.0213 0.0211 0.0209 0.0207 0.0204 0.0224 0.0221J0.0219 0.0217

3-9

49-402 49-899 50.400 50.907 51.419 51.935 52.457 52-985 53.517 54.055 0.0202 0.0198 0.0196 0.0195 0.0193 0.0191 0.0189 0.0187 0.0185

278

Values of

c^

and

-*

4.00-5.99
Function

0.03

0.0s

0.06

0.08

0.09

4.0

54-598 55-147 55.701 56.261 56.826 57-397 57-974 58.557 59-145 59-740 0.0183 0.0181 0.0180 0.0178 0.0176 0.0174 0.0172 0.0171 0.01G9 0.0167

4-1

60.340 60.947 61.559 62.178 62.803 63-434 64.072 64.715 65-366 66.023 0.0166 0.0164 0.0162 O.OI6I 0.0159 0.0158 0.0156 C.OT55 0.0153 0.0151
66.686 67.357 68.033 68.717 69.408 70.105 70.810 71.522 72.240 72.966 0.0150 0.0148 0.0147 0.0146 0.0144 0.0143 0.0141 0.0140 0.0138 0.0137
73.700 74.440 75-189 75.944 76.708 77-478 78.257 79.044 79-838 80.640 0.0136 0.0134 0.0133 0.0132 0.0130 0.0129 0.0128 0.0127 0.01251O.0124
81.451 82.269 83.096 83-931 84.775 85-627 86.488 87.357 88.235 89.121 0.0123 0.0122 0.0120 0.CII9 O.OII8 0.0117 0.0116 0.0114 0.0113 0.0112

4.2

4-3

4.4

4.5

90.017 90.922 91.836 92-759 93.691 94-632 95-583 96.544 97.514 98.494 O.OIII O.OIIO 0.0109 0.0108 0.0107 0.0106 0.0105 0.0104 0.0103 0.0102

4.6

99.484 100.48 101.49 102.51 103-54 104.58 105.64 106.70 107.77 108.85 O.OIOI O.OIOO 0.0099 0.0098 0.0097 0.0096 0.0095 0.0094 0.0093 0.0092
109.95 III. 05 112. 17 113-30 114-43 115-58 116.75 117.92 119.10 120.30 0.0091 0.0090 0.0089 0.0088 0.0087 0.0087 0.0086 0.0085 0.0084 0.0083
121. 51 122.73 123.97 125.21 126.47 127.74 129.02 130.32 131-63 132.95 0.0082 0.0081 0.0081 0.0080 0.0079 0.0078 0.0078 0.0077 0.0076 0.0075

4-7

4.8

4.9

134.29 135.64 137.00 138-38 139-77 141.17 142.59 144.03 145.47 146.94 0.0074 0.0074 0.0073 0.0072 0.0072 0.0071 0.0070 0.0069 0.0069 0.0068
148.41 149.90 I5I.4I 152-93 154-47 156.02 157-59 159.17 160.77 162.39 0.0067 0.0067 0.0066 0.0065 0.0065 0.0064 0.0063 0.0063 0.0062 0.0062

5.0

5-1

164.02 165.67 167.34 169.02 170.72 172-43 174.16 175-91 177.68 179-47 0.0061 0.0060 0.0060 0.0059 0.0059 0.0058 0.0057 0.0057 0.0056 0.0056

5-2

181.27 183.09 184.93 186.79 188.67 190-57 192.48 194.42 196.37 198.34 0.0055 0.0055 0.0054 0.0054 0-0053 0.0052 0.0052 0.0051 0.0051 0.0050

5-3

200.34 202.35 204.38 206.44 208.51 210.61 212.72 214.86 217.02 219.20 0.0050 0.0049 0.0049 0.0048 0.0048 0.0047 0.0047 0.0047 0.0046 0.0046
221.41 223.63 225. 228.15 230.44 232.76 235-10 237.46 239-85 242.26 0.0045 0.0045 0.0044 0.0044 0.0043 0.0043 0.0043 0.0042 0.0042 0.0041

5-4

5-5

244.69 247.15 249.64 252.14 254-68 257-24 259-82 262.43 265.07 267.74 0.0041 0.0040 0.0040 0.0040 0.0039 0.0039 0.0038 0.0038 0.0038 0.0037
270.43 273.14 275-89 278.66 281.46 284.29 287-15 290.03 292-95 295.89 0.0037 0.0037 0.0036 0.0036 0.0036 0.0035 0.0035 0.0034 0.0034 0.0034

5.6

S-7

6-^

298.87 301.87 304.90 307.97 311.06 314.19 317-35 320.54 323-76 327.01 0.0033 0.0033 0.0033 0.0032 0.0032 0.0032 0.0032 0.003 0.0031 0.0031

S.8

330.30 333.62 336-97 340.36 343-78 347.23 350-72 354.25 357-81 361.41 0.0030 0.0030 0.0030 0.0029 0.0029 0.0029 0.0029 0.0028 0.0028 0.0028
365-04 368.71 372.41 376.15 379-93 383-75 387.61 391-51 395-44 399-41 0.0027 0.0027 0.0027 0.0027 0.0026 0.0026 0.0026 0.0026 0.0025 0.0025

5-9

280

Length of arc (L), length of chord (C), height of segment (H) and area of segment (A) subtending an angle (8) in a circle of radius (R)

Length of arc (L), length of chord (C), height of segment (H) and area of segment (A) subtending an angle (0) in a circle of radius (R)
e

281

'

..

..

. .

282
Material

Weights of Materials
Lbs
,

per

cu,.ft.

Material

Air*
acetylene gas *. alabaster alcohol aluminum, pure. cast wire
' '

0.0809 0.0733
168

copper, pure " cast

49-57
168 160 168 67

" " cork

wrought.
wire

Erbium.,

amber

emery
Feldspar.
flint

ammonia
antimony
argon
*

arsenic asbestos

asphaltum

0.0482 414 0.113 357 125-175 69-94

234 180 609 159 510-542 110-130 196 545-555

fluorine *

Germanium
german
glass,
silver.
.

common,
flint

Barium,
basalt.
.

"

glucinum
glycerine gold granite gravel gum arable

bismuth, boron. ..
brass brick

bromine,
bronze.

gun metal gutta percha

Cadmium
caesium calcium carbon
" " "

bisulphide dioxide*

monoxide*
set

celluloid

cement, loose
"

cerium chalk
charcoal chlorine *

540 117 98.6 125-144 80.6 0.124 0.0782 90 72-105 168-187 437
112 17-35
,

gypsum
Hydrogen
Ice iodine iridium
iron,
*

" " " "

pure gray cast. white cast. wrought...

steel

ivory

chromium
clay,

hard
soft

0.196 368 129-133

118

Lead
leather, dry

"

coal, anthracite " " loose. " bituminous " " loose. " lignite cobalt

81-106 47-58 78-88 44-54

52

" greased. lime limestone lithium

loam

Magnesium
carbonate
.

coke
" loose

columbium concrete (1:2:4)

"

(1:1^:3)....

"

(1:3:6)

530-563 62-105 23-32 452 146 139 156

manganese, marble

masonry mercury * mica molybdenum.

At

Cent, and atmospheric pressure.

. ,

..

Weights of Materials
Material
Lbs. per
cu.
ft.

283
Lbs. per
cu.
ft.

Material

mortar, hard.

103

steel

474-494
158 120-130

muck

mud
Naptha
nickel

40-74 80-130
53

strontium sulphur Talc

nitrogen * nitrous oxide *

Oil, cotton-seed.

540-550 0.0782 0.0838

60.2 57.4 58.8 56.2-57.7 54-8 52.6-54.2 54.2 57.3 1400 0.0895
711

tantalum
tar

168 1040

tellurium thallium

62.4 389
739 686
113

lard linseed lubricating,

thorium
tile
' *

hollow

petroleum

tin

transformer, turpentine.

whale

osmium
oxygen
paper.
parafiin

. .

titanium trap rock tungsten

turf

26-45 455 218 187-190 1174 20-30

1165

Uranium

Palladium,

peat

44-72 54-57 20-30

146 67 144 1336

Vanadium
Water, max. dens
" sea wax, bees wood, ash " "

343

62.4
64.0-64.^ 60.5 45-47 22-25 43-56 32-48 24-28 37-38 43-56

phosphorus
pitch plaster of Paris.

platinum
porcelain

bamboo
beech
birch butternut.

potassium

pumice stone.
Quartz
Resin

143-156 53-7 23-56

165

rhodium
rubber, pure " compound. " ebonite

rubidium ruthenium
Salt

67 773 58.0-60.5 106-124 74.9-78.0 955 767

" " " " " " " " " " " "
" " " " " "

cedar
cherry. chestnut.., cypress
. .

ebony elm
fir

hemlock... hickory
lig. vitse.
.
.

38-40 32-37 69-83 35-36 34-35 25-29 53-58

78-83 32-53 49-50 37-56 24-45 24-27 30-32 25-32 38-45 24-37

sand sandstone selenium

shale
silicon silver slate

129-131 90-120 124-200 300

162 131

mahogany. maple oak

pine poplar

redwood..
spruce walnut.... willow
*

snow, fresh fallen. " wet compact. soapstone

sodium
spermaceti
At

660 162-205 5-12 15-50 162-175 60.5 59

o" Cent,

Xenon

0.284
448 258

Zinc zirconium

and atmospheric

pressure.

284

Orifice Coefficients

Coefficients of discharge (c) for circular orifices, with full contractions

.1

Weir

Coefficients*

285

Coefficients of discharge (c) for contracted weirs *

For use in the Hamilton Smith formula.

Effective

head
in feet

Friction Factors

Values of friction factor

Diam-

(/) for

clean cast-iron pipes *

Channel Coefficients
Values
of coefficients (c) in Kutter's

287

formula

288

iJ90

Specific

Heat

291

Average values (o to loo"* Cent.) of c in the formula, Q= kcm {U ti), measured in gram-calories per gram per degree Cent, or British thermal units per pound per degree Fahr. See page 183.
c being

Air*
air t

alcohol (30" C.)

aluminum ammonia (liq. oC.) ammonia * ammonia

f..

antimony.!
asbestos

0.237 0.169 0.615 0.212 1. 012 0.520 0.391 0.052 0.195

Ice

(-2otooC.)
. .

iron, cast

505 113
,030
.206
.033 .208

Lead

Marble. mercury. mica

Nickel nitrogen nitrogen
*. f.

Bismuth
brass

bronze

0.030 0.092 0.104

3^5 310 215 168 243
173 271

0.109 0.244 0.173

,224

Oxygen
oxygen

*.
f.
.

Carbon, gas
carbon, graphite carbon dioxide * carbon dioxide f

15s
031
,

osmium.
Paraffin

carbon monoxide carbon monoxide f cement, Portland chalk chloroform (liq. 30 C).
*

petroleum platinum.

589 504 032

Rubber, hard,
Selenium
silicon silver

0.339

220

" (gas 100 to 200" C.)*, coal cobalt

,

23s 147 201 103

steam (100 to 200 C.)*.

steel

copper cork cotton

0.092 0.485 0.362

0.068 0.17s 0.056 0.480 0.118

033 054

Tantalum.
tin

Glass gold

0.180 0.032
3-41 2.81

tungsten

034

Water
wool
Zinc
t

(20

C),

Hydrogen
hydrogen

*
f.

000 393
0.093

Constant pressure,

Constant volume.

292

Coefficients of Linear
(o to loo" Cent.) of

Expansion
If

Average values

a in the formula,

lo

(i

t + at), til

being measured in Cent, degrees.

Substance

See page 183.

io4

aX

Substance

io4

11

Aluminum
antimony

0.234 0.116
0.137 0.186 o.oss 0.176

Lead

0.280
.
,

Magnesium.
' '

Bismuth
brass brick

marble, black white

mica
Nickel
,

0.276 0.044 0.08s 0.076 0.129

bronze

Cadmium
carbon, anth
*
'

gas... graphite

cobalt copper

0.316 0.208 O.OS5 0.080 0.124 0.167 0.184 0.089 0.083 0.147 0.086 2.08
S18 106
,

Osmium
Paraffin

0.068
1
. , .

.066

platinum.

porcelain ....

0.091 0.041

German
' '

silver glass, plate

Quartz

0.003

tube

Rubber
Selenium.
silicon silver
. .

0.670
0.379 0.077 0.194 0.251 0.136 0.227 0.297

gold.

granite

gutta percha
Ice

(-2 to -27C.)
wire

solder
steel, cast.
.

iron, cast " soft

121

"
iron,

Tin
Zinc

wrought

144 114

Heat of Combustion
(British
Substance'

Thermal Units)
Per pound

Per gallon

Per

cu. ft.t

Acetylene
alcohol, ethyl, denatured " " pure (0.816)

21,500 11,600
12 400

,480

"

methyl (0.798)

Bagasse, dry

So% H2O
benzene (0.879) benzine (0.679) Carbon, to CO
to

CO2

carbon disulphide carbon monoxide, to COj charcoal, peat

"
" " " "

wood
bituminous
cannel
lignite

coal, anthracite

semi-bituminous

coke
*

9540 8,300 3,000 18,500 17,900 4,400 14,500 5,820 ^ 4,370 11,600 13,500 1,500-14,000 1,000-15,300 2,000-16,000 5,500-11,000 1,000-15,300 2,000-14,400
t

78,900 84,300 63,700

136,000 102,000

3,810

62,700

323

Numbers

indicate specific gravity

At

60 F.

and atmos.

pressure.

. . . .

Heat
Substance

of

Combustion (Continued)
Per pound

293
Per gallon
Per cu.
ft,

Gas, blast furnace

" " " " " " " "
coal

coke oven
illuminating natural

oU
producer

water, blue " carburetted gasoline (0.710)

(0.770)

90-110 630-680 430-600 550-600 700-2470 450-950 110-185 290-320 400-680

21,200 20,000 62,000 20,000 20,160 3,500-10,000 20,000 18,300 5,100-6,700 4,020 5,420-6,830

126,000 129,000

Hydrogen
Kerosene (0.783)
(0.800)

326
131,000 136,000
131,000 153,000

Peat petroleum (0.785)

(i.ooo)

Straw
sulphur

Wood,

air-dried

Melting and Boiling Points

Substance
Melts C. Boils C.

Substance

Melts C. Boils C.

Alcohol (ethyl) " (methyl)

.

114
-97.1
658.7

aluminum ammonia antimony Barium

bismuth
borax
brass

78.4 66 2000

mercury
Nickel nitrogen nitric oxide

38.7
1452 210

357.2
2325

-77.7
630
850
271 561

-33-5
1440 1420

-195-7 i6o.( - 153

2700 218

Osmium ....
oxygen
Paraffin.
. .

-182.9
288

goozb

bronze

9oo
320.9
.

Cadmium
carbon
" "
dioxide.
.

770

phosphorus, platinum. potassium.

.

52.4 44
1755 62.3

2450

>36oo >3Goo
monoxide.

80
203

80 190
2200 2200

Rose's alloy, rubber

93-7 100
218.5 1420 960.5 97-5 772 1400 160
112.

chlorine

-101.5 -33-7
1520 1478 1083
.
,

Selenium
silicon silver

688
1955 825

chromium
cobalt copper

sodium
*
'

German silver. glass, flint

gold gutta percha

chloride

IlOOiir

1300 1063 100

steel, Bessemer. sugar sulphur

444.6

Hydrogen
Iridium iron, pure " gray pig " white pig.
.

259

252.6
2535 2450

Tantalum.
tellurium
tin

2300 1530 1200 1050

,

titanium tungsten
turpentine.
.

2850 452 231-9 1795 3000

2270

3700
161

Lead

3274
651 1260 dec. 825

1525

Vanadium.
Wood's
Zinc

..

1720
75-5

Magnesium
manganese
marble

IIOO 1900

alloy.

419.4

930

.. .

. . . .

294

Thermal Conductivity
in the formula,

Average values of
page 182.
Substance

Q=

being measured

in gram-calories per centimeter-cube per Centigrade degree per second,

Max. temp.,
degs. C.

Substance

Max. temp.,
degs. C.

Air.

o
100 o to 100 100 to 500

,000057 ,000072

Lead.
leather
linen.
.

aluminum
asbestos
.

35 ,00060
24

o to 100 0.080 0.00029 0.00021

calc.

Magnesia, carb.
"

Brass
brick, alumina.
'
'

o to 100
.

oto 700 building 15 to 30 " carborundum 100 to 1000 " fire o to 1300 " graphite 100 to 1000 magnesia 100 to 1000 " silica 100 to 1000
' '

0020 0015
023 0031 025 0071

marble mercury mica

Nickel.

20 to 188 20 to 155 IS to 30 oto 50

0.00017 0.00016 0.0084 0.017 0.00086

0.142
0.00031 0.00062 0.00045 0.00042 0.0013
17

18

Paper
paraffin

0020

Cambric, varn. 100 to carbon, gas graphite 100 to carborundum 20 to cement, Portland oto chalk oto charcoal, powd'd oto clinkers, small oto
*
' .
.

00060
942 914 100 700 100 100 700
13

pasteboard.
plaster,

plaster of Paris

20 to 155

29

coal coke, powdered.

oto 100
50
20 to 200

concrete copper cork cotton, loose cotton batting,

. .

00050 00017 00028 00022 OOII 00030 00044 00081 84 00015 000040

mortar platinum 18 to 100

plumbago
petroleum

20 to 155

poploxCNaaSiOs) 200 to 500 porcelain

23
.

pumice stone.
Quartz glass
"
.

20 to ISS

0010 00013 0024 00039 00043

0.0036
0.00043 0.00038

Rubber, hard.
Para.
20 to 155

Sand....

loose

sawdust
0.000072
silk silver. slate.
.

cotton

batting,

packed
Eiderdown, I'se " packed
Feathers.
felt

0.000108 0.000045
20 to I ss 21 to 17s

snow
steel

0.00086 0.00014 SO to 100 0.00013 oto 100 1 .04 0.0048 94 0.00060 0.086
100 to 1000 0.0023 oto 100 0.15

flannel.

so

0.00016 0.00022 0.000035

Terra cotta.
tin

Water
wood, oak
** pine wool, sheep's... " mineral. " steel woolen wad-

German Silver
glass

gold gutta percha..

Hair, horn.
Ice. iron.

o to 100 0.080 10 to 15 0.0015 100 0.70 0.00048

20 to iss

0.00015 0.000087

0.0014 0.0016 0.00060 0.00038 20 to 100 0.00014 oto 17s O.OOOII 0.00020 100
0.00012

o 30

ding, loose.

o
100 200

0.0039 0.19 o.iS 0.14

woolen
Zinc.

wadding, packed.

O.OOOOS5

0.26

Copper Wire Table*

Size

295
Current capacity in

Area

Resistance

Weight

amperes

American Wire Gage

i8 i6 14
12

Circular mils

Ohms

per 1000

feet at 25 C.

Pounds per 1000 feet

Rubber
Insulation

1,620 2,580 4,110

6.51 4.09 2.58

1 1

4.92 7.82 12.4

19.8

6
IS

10 8

6,530 10,400 16,500

26,300

.62 .02

20
25

0.641

31-4 50.0
79

35

6
5

4
3 2
I

41,700
52,600 66,400 83,700

0.403 0.319 0.253 0.205 0.162 0.129

50
55 70

100 126
163 205 258

80 90 100
125 150 175
225 275 325

o 00 000

106,000 133,000 168,000 212,000 300,000 400,000

0.102 O.0811 0.0642

326 411 S18

653 926 1240

0000

0.0509 0.0360 0.0270 0.0216 0.0180 0.0154

013s 0120 0108

500,000 600,000 700,000

1540 1850 2160 2470 2780 3090

400 450 500

550 600 650

800,000 900,000 1,000,000

1,100,000 1,200,000 1,300,000 1,400,000 1,500,000 1,600,000

0.00901 0.00899 0.00830

0.00.770

3400 3710 4010 4320 4630 4940

5250 5560 5870

690 730 770

0.00719 0.00674

810 850 890 930 970 lOIO

1050
for

1,700,000 1,800,000 1,900,000

2,000,000

0.00634 0.00599 0.00568

0.00539

6180

For wires larger than No. 4 the values given are

stranded wires.

296

Magnetization Curves of Iron and Steel

2
"^

'^

qouj aiBnbs jad saaiionH

Note Note

A.
B.

Multiply abscissa scale by lo. Multiply abscissa scale by 200.

Resistivity

(p2o)

and Temperature

Coefficient of Resistance Certain Conductors at 20 Cent.

(020)

of

297

(Resistivity in

microhms per cm. cube)

298

CONVERSION FACTORS

The customary units of weight and mass are avoirdupois units unles designated otherwise. The symbol (8) represents the density of a materia^ expressed as a decimal fraction.
Multiply

by

to obtain

Abamperes
abamperes per square cm. abampere-turns
abampere-turns per cm.

ID

abcoulombs

abcoulombs per square cm.

abfarads

abhenries

abmhos per cm. cube

< i
4 ( ( (

abohms

abohms per cm. cube

abvolts
acres
.

acre-feet

amperes
amperes per square cm. amperes per square inch
.

ampere-turns

ampere- turns per cm. ampere-turns per inch

ares

....

atmospheres

Bars

Conversion Factors
Multiply

299

300
Multiply

Conversion Factors

Conversion Factors
Multiply

301
to obtain

by

degrees (angle) (cont.). degrees per second

.
,

3600 0.01745
0.1667 0.002778

seconds. radians per second. revolutions per minute. revolutions per second.

dekagrams
dekaliters

dekameters

dollars (U. S.)

drams
dynes
1.

10 10 10 5.182 4.20 0.2055 4.11 1.772 0.0625

grams.
liters.

meters. francs (French).

marks (German). pounds sterling (Brit.).

shillings (British).

grams.
ounces.

020X10-3
I

7.233X10-5 2.248X10-6
dynes per square cm.

grams. poundals. pounds.

bars.

Ergs

9.486X10-11
z

British thermal units.

7.376X10-8
1. 020X10-3

dyne-centimeters. foot-pounds. gram-centimeters.

joules.

10-7

2.390X10-11 I.O20X1O-8
ergs per second

5.692 Xio- 4.426X10-6 7.376X10-8 1.341X 10-10

1.

434X10-9
10-10
10--9

kilogram-c alories kilogram-meters. B.t. units per minute. foot-pounds per minute. foot-pounds per second. horse-power. kg.-calories per minute.
kilowatts.

Farads

106

abfarads. microfarads.
statfarads.
feet.

fathoms
feet
. .

9X10II 6
30.48
12

centimeters.
inches.

feet of

water

feet per

minute

feet per second

0.3048 1/3 0.02950 0.8826 304.8 62.43 0.4335 0.5080 0.01667 0.01829 0.3048 0.01136 30.48 1.097 0.5921
18.29

0.6818 0.01136
feet per loo feet feet per second per
I

second

30.48 1.097

meters. yards. atmospheres. inches of mercury. kgs. per square meter. pounds per square foot. pounds per square inch. centimeters per second. feet per second. kilometers per hour. meters per minute. miles per hour. centimeters per second. kilometers per hour. knots per hour. meters per minute. miles per hour. miles per minute. per cent grade. cms. per sec. per sec. kms. per hour per sec.

<

302
Multiply

Conversion Factors
by
to obtain

feet per sec. per sec. (cont.)

0.3048 0.6818

foot-pounds

1.286X10-3
1.

meters per sec. per sec. miles per hour per sec. British thermal units.
ergs.

356X107
1-356

5.050X10-7

horse-power-hours.
joules.

3.241X10-4
0.1383

kilogram-calories.

foot-pounds per minute

3.766X10-7 1.286X10-3
0.01667

fooit-pounds per second

3.030X10-5 3.241X10-4 2.260X10-5 7.717X10-2 1.818X10-3 1.945X10-2 1.356X10-3

0.193 0.811 0.03965

kilogram-meters. kilowatt-hours. B.t. units per minute. foot-pounds per second. horse-power. kg.-calories per min.
kilowatts. B.t. units per minute

horse-power.
kg.-calories per min. kilowatts. dollars (U. S.).

francs (French)
(
(

It

<<

marks (German). pounds sterling (Brit.).

rods.

furlongs

40 3785
0.1337 231

Gallons

3.785X10-3
4.951 X 3.785
10-3

cubic cubic cubic cubic cubic

liters.

centimeters.
feet.

inches.

meters. yards.
(liq.).

8 4
gallons per minute

pints

2.228X10-3
0.06308 6.452 0.07958 0.7958 2.021 0.1183 0.25
I

gausses
gilberts
gilbert?, per

quarts (liq.). cubic feet per second. liters per second. lines per square inch.

abampere-tums.
ampere-turns. ampere-turns per inch.
liters.

centimeter

^lls
grains (troy)

pints (liq.). grains (av.).

gTams

0.06480 0.04167 980.7

15.43 io-
I03

grams. pennyweights (troy).

dynes. grains (troy). kilograms. milligrams. ounces.

0.03527 0.03215 0.07093 2.205X10-3

gram-calories
.
,

ounces (troy).
poundals. pounds. British thermal units.
British thermal units.
ergs.

3.968X10^
9.302X10-8
980.7

gram-centimeters

7-233X10-5 9.807X10-5 2.344X10-8

10-5

foot-pounds.
joules.

kilogram-calories.

kilogram-meters,

grams per cm.

5.600X10-3

pounds per inch.

Conversion Factors
Multiply

304

306

Conversion Factors

Conversion Factors
Multiply

307

miner's inches

minutes (angle)

months

myriagrams myriameters myriawatts

Ohms

ohms per meter-gram

<(
(I (I
<
I

<< <<

<<
<i

ohms per mil

foot

41

308

'

310
Multiply

Conversion Factors
by
to obtain

statohms
n a
statvolts
.

9X10^0

abohms.

9Xio5
9X1017 9X10II 3X10IO 300
0.1592 0.07958 0.6366
I 3

megohms.
microhms. ohms. ab volts.
volts.

steradians

hemispheres.
spheres. spherical right angles.
liters.

steres

Temp,

(degs. Cent.)

+ 273

" +17.8 temp. (degs. Fahr.) +460 " " " 32 tons (long)

1.8

.....

5l9 1016 2240

I 3

abs. temp. (degs. Cent.) temp. (degs. Fahr.). abs. temp. (degs. Fahr.) temp. (degs. Cent.).

tons (metric)
It
< (

2205
907.2
sq. ft.

tons (short)

tons (short) per

4<
it
((

2000 9765
13.89

<<

tons (short) per

i<
It

sq. in.
tt

ti

it

1.406X10^ 2000
1 08

kilograms. pounds. kilograms. pounds. kilograms. pounds. kgs. per square meter. pounds per square inch. kgs. per square meter. pounds per square inch.
abvolts. statvolts.

Volts
volts per inch

1/300

3.937X107 I.312XIO-3
0.05692
I07

abvolts per cm. statvolts per cm.

B.t. units per min. ergs per second. foot-pounds per min. foot-pounds per second. horse-power. kg.-calories per minute. kilowatts. British thermal units. foot-pounds. horse-power-hours. kilogram-calories.

Watts
tt

It tt i<
ti
tt

44.26 0.7376

1,341X10-3 0.01434
10-3

watt-hours
.'

3.415

tt tt

2655 I.341XIO-3
0.8605 367.1 10-^
108

tt tt
tt

tt
tt

webers weeks
tt

168 10,080 604,800

91.44 3

kilogram-meters. kilowatt-hours. maxwells. hours. minutes. seconds.

centimeters.
feet.

Yards
tt

36
years (common)
years (leap)

inches.

....

0.9144

365 8760 366 8784

meters. days. hours. days, hours.

Note.

INDEX Numbers

refer

to pages.

Abbreviations, mathematical, 232

Acceleration, linear, 68

Bending moment, 119

" strength, table, 114
's theorem, 141 Binomial equation, 6

"

angular, 70

Bernouilli

Adiabatic change, 154 Admittance, electrical, 214 Air compressors, 173 " energy to heat, 180
"
" " "

"

expansion,
series,

35

expansion of, 152 flow through pipes, 161 humidity of, 180
refrigeration, 175
i

Biquadratic equation, 5 Blowers, 181

Boilers, 169

Boiling points, 293

Algebra,

Allowable

stress,

114

Calorimeters, 167 Canals, 148

Alternating currents, harmonic, 209 Alternating currents, non-harmonic,

Capacitance, electrical, 198 Cardioid, 27

218
Alternating currents, three-phase, 215 Alternating-current machinery, 222

Carnot cycle, 165

Catenary, 17, 26, 67 Center of gravity, 74
"
"
" percussion, 97 " pressure, 138
coefficients,

Analytic geometry, plane, 20 " solid, 29

Angle of repose, loi

"
" sliding friction, 103

Channel

287
steel, 85,

Channels, structural

132

"

" static friction, loi

Angles, structural steel, 84, 129, 131 Annuities, 7

Chezy (channel) formula, 148 Chimney draft, 181

Chords, length
of,

Area of
"

238 " circular segments, 280

circles,

Circle, 16, 21, 81,

280 280 200

Circuits, direct current,

" plane figures, 15, 52 " " surface of solids, 18, 54 Armature reaction, d.-c, 220
a.-c, 223

"

"
"

a.-c, single-phase, 209 a.-c, three-phase, 215

Circular areas, 238 " motion, 69

Circumferences of

circles,

238

Bazin (channel) formula, 149 Beams, 119

"

Cissoid, 24

under various loadings, 121

Coefficient of expansion, 292 " " friction, loi, 102, 103

Bearings, pivot, 105

Belt friction, 106

Columns, 135

Complex
311

quantities, 61

312

Index
Engine, compressed air, 175 " internal combustion, 171 " steam, 165

Compressed air engines, 175 Compression refrigeration, 177 Compressive strength, table, 114
Condensers,
"
electric,

199 steam, 167

Entropy, 154
Epicycloid, 27

Conductance,

electrical, 201, 213 Conductivity, thermal, 179, 182, 294 Conductors, resistance of, 297

Cone,

18,

93

Equilibrium of forces, iii Euler (column) formula, 135 Expansion, linear, 183 Exponential curve, 26
"
series,

Conic, 22

35
14

Conversion factors, 298 Converter, synchronous, 225 Cosecant curve, 25 Cotangent curve, 25 Couple, 108, III Cube, 18, 89 Cubes of numbers, 238 Cube roots of numbers, 238 Cubic equation, 4 Cubical parabola, 24 Curvature, radius of, 33
Cycloid, 17, 27 Cylinder, 18, 90

Factor of safety,
Factors, 2

Fans, 181
Field intensity, electrostatic, 195 " " magnetic, 184, 188

Flow

in

open channels, 148

of fluids, 160

" gases, i6i " saturated vapor, 162 " superheated vapor, 164

through pipes, 146 Flux density, electrostatic, 197

"
"

magnetic, 186
of,

Decimal equivalents, 279

Degrees to radians, 258
Derivatives, table, 31 Dielectric constants, 297
Differential calculus, 31

Force, 94 Forces, parallelogram

"

108

triangle of, 108

"

parallelopiped

of,

109

Friction, loi

"
"

equations, 56
gage, 140

Friction factors (pipes), 286

Direct currents, 200

Direct-current machinery, 220

Fteley and Stearns (weir) formula, 145 Fuels, 170 Functions of angles, 8

Dynamic action Dynamos, 220

of jets, 150

Gas
226

engines, 171

Eddy

current

loss,

Gases, perfect, 152 Generator, direct-current, 220

Elastic curve of a beam, 120 " limit, 114

Electricity, 184 Electromagnetism, 187 Electromotive force, 200, 220, 222

Generator, alternating-current,

222,

228
Girders, 119

Gordon (column) formula, 135

Grate area, 170 Greek alphabet, 279

Electrostatics, 195 Ellipse, 17, 23, 83

Ellipsoid, 19, 92

Energy, kinetic, 95, 97, 98

**

Hamilton Smith (weir formula), 145 Harmonic alternating currents, 209

"

potential, 95

motion, 73

Index
Heat, 152 of combustion, 292 Heating of buildings, 179 Helix, 30 Humidity, 180 Hydraulic gradient, 148
Linear expansion, 183 Logarithmic curve, 26
series,

313

Heat

35
3; table,

Logarithms, base
**

10, 3; table,
e,

base
of

234 236
func-

"

trigonometric
tions,

Hydraulics, 138

266

Hydrodynamics, 141
Hydrostatics, 138 Hyperbola, 23 Hyperbolic functions, 65; table, 272 Hypocycloid, 27

Hysteresis
I

loss,

187

Maclaurin's theorem, 34 Magnetism, 184 Magnetization curves, 296 Magnetomotive force, 190 Mass, 74
"

center

of,
i

74

beams, structural steel, 84, 127 Impact, 107 Impedance, electrical, 210, 214, 220
Impulse, linear, 95 angular, 96
Inclined plane, 103

Mathematics,

Maximum and minimum,

Mechanics, 68 Melting points, 293 Mensuration, plane, 15
solid, 18

33

Indeterminates, evaluation

of, i,

37

Induction machines, 228

Inertia,

Modulus of elasticity, Moment, 74, 96, no

"

114, 115

moment
"

of,

plane, 75
polar, 77
solid,

"

" "

"

87 "

of inertia, plane, 75 " " polar, ']^ " " solid,

87

Inductance, "

self-,

192

mutual-, 194
axis,

momentum, 96 Momentum, linear, 95

angular, 96 Motion, laws of, 94 Motors, direct-current, 220 " synchronous, 222 " induction, 228 Mutual-inductance, 194

"

Injectors, 168

Instantaneous

99 Insulation resistance, 297

Integral calculus, 39 " table, 40
Integrals, definite, 51

Intensity of stress, 113, 114

Interest, 7

Internal combustion engines, 171

Inverse trigonometric functions, II

Involute, 28

Isothermal change, 153

Natural sines, etc., 260 N-leaved rose, 28 Neutral axis, beam, 120 " plane, beam, 119 Non-harmonic alternating currents, 218

Kelvin's law, ao6 Kinematics, 68

Kinetics, 94

Ohm

's

law, 203

Orifices, 142

KirchhofT 's laws, 204 Kutter (channel) formula, 149

Orifice coefficients,

284

Oscillatory wave, 26

Lemniscate, 28

Length of circular

arcs,

280

Parallel circuit, d.-c, 202 " " a.-c, 213

314
Parabola, 17, 22, 83 Paraboloid, 19, 93
Parallelogram, 15
Partial derivatives, 38

Index
Reaction, armature, 220, 223 Reciprocals of numbers, 238
Rectangle, 15, 79 Rectangular coordinates, 20
Rectilinear motion, 68
Refrigeration, air, 175 "

Pendulum, 99
Perfect gases, 152

Permeability, magnetic, 186

Percussion, center
Pipes, flow in, 146
of,

97

Phase angle, 211, 214

Pivot friction, 105

compression, 177 Reluctance, magnetic, 187 Resistance, electrical, 201, 214, 219 Resistivity, electrical, 201 table, 297
;

Riveted
of,

joints,

116

Plane sections, properties Points of inflection, 34 Poisson 's ratio, 114 Polar coordinates, 20
Polygon, 16

78

Rolling friction, 106

Roof

truss, 113 Rotation, 96

Polynomial expansion, 2
Potential difference, d.-c, 202 " " a.-c, 213

Safety valves, 168 Saturated steam, 155

vapor, 155 Screw, square-threaded, 104 " sharp-threaded, 104 Secant curve, 25
Section modulus, beam, 125

Power, 95

Power factor, 211, 214, 219 Powers and roots, i

Pratt truss, 112
Principal axes, plane, 77 " solid, 88

Segments, area
"

of,

height

of,

280 280

Self-inductance, 192

Prism, 18, 89 Prismatoid, 19

Semicubical parabola, 24
Series,

35

Product of

inertia, plane,
solid,

76
87

Shafts, 136

Progressions, 7
Projectile,

Shearing strength, table, 114 Sine wave, 25

Sinking fund, 7 Slope of a curve, 33 Sliding friction, 103
Solid angle, 19
Specific heat, 183
"

path of

a,

71

Prony brake, loi

Properties of materials, 113 " " plane sections, 78 " " various solids, 89

Pumps, 182
Pyramid,
18,

table, 291

93

Sphere, 19, 91
Spirals,

28

Quadratic equation, 4

Radians to degrees, 258 Radius of curvature, 33

"

Square, 15, 78 " roots of numbers, 238 Squares of numbers, 238

Static friction, loi
Statical

"

" gyration, plane, 76 " " solid,

moment,

plane, 74

87

Statics, 107

Rankine cycle, 165 Ratio and proportion, 2

Reactance,
electrical, 210, 214,

Steam
"

engine, 165
table,

288

220

Straight line, 21

Index
Strain, 115

315

Stray power, 221 Strength of materials, 113

" " riveted joints, 117
Stress, 113

Transmission line, a.-c, three-phase, 218 Trapezium, 16 Trapezoid, 15, 80

Triangle, oblique, 14, 80
plane, 13
right, 13

Stress-strain diagram, 115

Stresses in framed structures, 112

Strophoid, 24
Structural shapes, 127
Structures, reactions in, 112

Trigonometric functions, 8
table,

260

Susceptance, electrical, 213

" "

equation, 12
series,

36

Superheated steam, 159

vapor, 159 Symbols, mathematical, 232 Synchronous converter, 225 " machines, 222

Trigonometry, 8
Trusses, 112

Ultimate strength,
"
stress,

table, 114

114

Tangent curve, 25
Taylor's theorem, 34

Values

Temperature Temperature

coefficient of expansion,

of ^ and ~^, 276 Vapor, saturated, 155 " superheated, 159

183; table, 292

coefficient of resistance,

Vectors, 62
Velocity, linear, 68

201; table, 297

angular, 69
Ventilation, 179

Tensile strength, table, 114 Thermal conductivity, 179, 182, 294 " properties, 182

Venturi meter, 146 Vertical shear, 119

Three-moment equation, 124

Three-phase circuits, 215 Torque, 96, 188, 221 Torus, 20, 92 Transformers, 226 Transient currents, 206
Translation, 94 "

Wedge,

104

Weights of materials, 282 Weir coefficients, 285

Weirs, 144

Wire

table,

295

Witch, 24
rotation, 98

and
"

Transmission

line, d.-c,

205

Work, 95, 97, 98 Working stress, 1 14

Yield point,
1

a.-c, single-phase,

215

14

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