TKT
amb
Ch
con
(1)
where
~
h, 3
em
, h
con
, s
bol
, T and T
amb
represent combined heat
transfer coefcient, emissivity, convective heat transfer
coefcient, Stefan-Boltzmann constant, instantaneous body
temperature and ambient temperature, respectively. The
calculated combined heat transfer coefcient was applied on
all areas exposed to the ambient air, as shown in a sectioned
view in Fig. 4. The ambient temperature (27 8C) is taken as
the initial condition for the entire mass involved. During
structural analysis, the only constraint applied is represen-
tation of clamping in the machine chuck, as shown in Fig. 2.
For this purpose, all the nodes of the far end of the pipe, in
Cartesian coordinate axes, are constrained in the axial and
radial directions.
8. Heat source modeling
Proper modeling of heat ow from the welding torch to
the weldment is quite crucial as it controls the application of
thermal load which consequently produces distortion and
residual stresses in the weldment. For the determination of
the weld pool size and shape, a section of the weld is cut,
polished, chemically etched and scanned. This cross-
sectional metallographic data revealed the so called hot
top nail head conguration of the weld pool. This
conguration is difcult to achieve by using a conventional
double ellipsoidal heat source model by Goldak et al. [24].
However, for such cases Goldak et al. [25] suggest the use of
superimposed four ellipsoid quadrants (compound double
ellipsoid model) for better results. In the present study, the
authors used a modied double ellipsoidal scheme.
The governing equations for power density distribution in
the front and rear ellipsoids of a 3D model are as follows:
q
f
Z
6
3
p
M
y;z
Qf
f
p
p
p
a
f
bc
e
K3
rq
2
a
2
f
C
z
2
b
2
C
RoKr
2
c
2
_ _ _ _
(2)
q
r
Z
6
3
p
M
y;z
Qf
r
p
p
p
a
r
bc
e
K3
rq
2
a
2
r
C
z
2
b
2
C
RoKr
2
c
2
_ _ _ _
(3)
where,
Q ZVI; f
f
Cf
r
Z2; h Z
n
iZ1
q
i
V
i
Q
The description and numerical values for different
variables in the power density distribution equations are
Fig. 3. (a). 3D FE model (b). Mesh renement, V-groove, tack weld and root gap.
Flange Pipe Weld Bead
Fig. 4. A sectioned view of pipe ange joint with combined convection and
radiation (indicated with arrows) from the surfaces exposed to air.
M. Abid, M. Siddique / International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 82 (2005) 860871 864
given in Table 2. M
(y,z)
in the above equations is a scalar
multiplier which is used to modify the shape of the weld
pool and is a function of spatial location in the axial and
radial directions. Its initial values are selected arbitrarily and
readjusted iteratively to match the weld pool shape. Final
values of M
(y,z)
are shown in Fig. 5. Numerical values used
for other variables in the power density distribution
equations are given above.
For calculation of spatial heat distribution using
equations (2) and (3), the origin of the coordinate system
is located at the centre of the moving arc and movement of
the heat source is achieved through a user sub-routine.
Another subroutine is used to calculate instantaneous
centroidal distances of elements from the moving arc
centre. To describe the heat source size, ve elements in the
front and four elements in the rear of the heat source are
taken in the direction of weld torch motion. Across the weld
line, heat is given to ve elements on each side. The heat
input from the moving arc to the elements is modeled as
volumetric heat generation, as this has an additional
advantage that surface convection can be applied to the
same elements without dening 2D-elements, required
otherwise. It is also assumed that the intensity of the heat
source is independent of time. In order to validate the
thermal model, the etched sample is used to reveal liquidus
isotherms at 17888K, representing the fusion zone (FZ), and
outer HAZ isotherms at 10838K. Comparison of measured
and simulation isotherms, at a section 1808 from the weld
start position, shows good agreement, Fig. 6.
9. Results and discussion
9.1. Effect of tack position
9.1.1. Effect on welding distortions
Tack welds are used to restrain excessive transverse
shrinkage and to maintain the root gap. The size and
location of tacks with respect to the weld start point can alter
the resistance offered by the tacks. This can have a dominant
effect on transverse shrinkage and resultant ange face
displacement. In the present work, only the effect of tack
location is analyzed by keeping the tack size unchanged.
Immediately after the initiation of the arc, thermal
expansion of metal beneath the moving arc is the source of
structural distortions. As the arc proceeds, contraction of the
solidifying weld bead behind the arc becomes another
Axial Distance from Weld Centerline (mm)
R
a
d
i
a
l
D
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
f
r
o
m
O
u
t
e
r
S
u
r
f
a
c
e
(
m
m
)
Fig. 5. Values of scalar multiplier M(y,z) as functions of spatial location in axial and radial directions.
Table 2
Description and numerical values for different variables used in power
density distribution equations for heat source modeling
Symbol Description Value
a
f
Front Ellipsoidal semi-axes length (mm) 12.9
a
r
Rare Ellipsoidal semi-axes length (mm) 10.3
b Half width of arc (mm) 5.0
C Depth of arc (mm) 6.0
f
f
Fraction of heat deposited in front 1.55
f
r
Fraction of heat deposited in rare 0.45
I Welding current (Amp) 225
M
(y,z)
Scalar Multiplier
N Total number of element under torch
inuence
q
i
Power density for i
th
element (W/mm
3
)
q
f
Power density in front ellipsoid (W/mm
3
)
q
r
Power density in rear ellipsoid (W/mm
3
)
Q Total Arc heat (W) 4950
R Radius of pipe (mm)
Ro Pipe outer radius (mm) 57.5
v Welding speed (mm/s) 6.25
V Voltage (Volt) 22
V
i
Volume of i
th
element (mm
3
)
Z Distances from the torch centre in axial
direction (mm)
3
)
Elastic 135
Elastic 180
Fig. 11. Transient strain on the inner surface at angular positions of 135 and 1808 from the weld start position for Tack 0-180 (a) Thermal and plastic strain (b)
Elastic strain.
200
150
100
50
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
0 25 50 75 100 125 150
Time(sec)
A
x
i
a
l
S
t
r
e
s
s
(
M
P
a
)
135 Deg (8198)
180 Deg (8171)
200
150
100
50
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
300 700 1100 1500 1900
Temperature (Deg K)
A
x
i
a
l
S
t
r
e
s
s
(
M
P
a
)
135 Deg (8198)
180 Deg (8171)
Fig. 10. Axial stress variation on the inner surface at angular positions of 135 and 1808 from weld start position for Tack 0-180 (a) Transient response (b) As a
function of temperature.
M. Abid, M. Siddique / International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 82 (2005) 860871 868
producing tensile stress and follows the material character-
istic tensile yield strength curve after the elastic limit.
Axial stress variation in the axial direction on the inner
surface at an angle of 908 from the weld start position is
found identical in all cases except for case Tack 90-270
(Fig. 12). As the stresses are relatively lower for the case in
which the tack exists at 908 (on the section under
observation) therefore, it is concluded that the tack serves
as a stress reducer in its close proximity. Variation of hoop
residual stresses in the hoop direction at the weld centreline
on both inner and outer surfaces is shown in Fig. 13. A weld
start/end effect is pronounced in hoop residual stresses and
is dominant in the start side as compared to the end.
Similarly the tacks serve as stress raisers though the effect is
not as signicant. Hoop stresses are tensile on both inner
and outer surfaces and can fairly well be approximated as
axisymmetric, if the weld start effect and the effect of tack
welds are ignored.
9.2. Effect of root gap
Four cases for different root gaps are analyzed to study
the effect of root gap on welding distortions and residual
stress distributions. All the other parameters including tack
weld positions, heat inputs, thermal and structural boundary
conditions etc. are kept the same in all the four cases. Axial
displacements on the ange face at a radius of 117.3 mm for
all the cases are compared in Fig. 14. It is concluded that
root gap less than 1.2 mm does not have any signicant
effect on axial deformation and ange face tilt. On the other
hand, axial deformation and ange face tilt increase
signicantly with increase in root gap from 1.2 mm to
2.0 mm. The stiffness of a column can be described with
the relation:
K Z
AE
L
(5)
300
200
100
0
100
200
300
400
50 40 30 20 10 0 10 20 30 40 50
Distance from Weld Centerline (mm)
A
x
i
a
l
S
t
r
e
s
s
(
M
P
a
)
Tack 0-180
Tack 45-225
Tack 90-270
Tack 135-315
Fig. 12. Axial residual stress variation in axial direction at a section 908 from weld start position.
50
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
0 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360
Hoop Coordinates (Deg)
H
o
o
p
S
t
r
e
s
s
(
M
P
a
)
Tack 0-180 Tack 45-225
Tack 90-270 Tack 135-315
For Inner Surface
For Outer Surface
Fig. 13. Hoop residual stress variation in hoop direction at weld centerline on inner and outer surfaces.
M. Abid, M. Siddique / International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping 82 (2005) 860871 869
where, K is the stiffness, E is Youngs modulus and A and L
are the cross sectional area and length of the column
respectively. Treating the tack as a column, the stiffness of
the tack weld is found to be inversely proportional to the
axial length of the tack. Axial length of the tack increases
with root gap and thus tack stiffness decreases. A tack with
lower stiffness gives higher deformations under the same set
of transient forces. On the other hand change in root gap
does not have any impact on the residual stress distribution,
provided the other parameters such as heat input etc. are
kept unchanged.
10. Conclusion
From the results it is concluded that a change in tack weld
location alters the axial displacement and tilt of the ange
face. Furthermore it is concluded that the rst tack weld
should at least be at some distance from the weld start point
and for 100 mm nominal diameter pipe most appropriate
positions for tack welds are 90 and 2708 from the weld start
point. Tack weld location has no signicant effect on overall
residual stress distribution, but a localized effect is
experienced in terms of a stress raiser for axial and hoop
stresses on both inner and outer surfaces except axial residual
stresses on the inner surface, where it serves as a stress
reducer. Regarding root gap opening it is concluded that root
gap should be a minimum, just to meet the need of weld
penetration. A large root gap increases the lateral shrinkage
and results in large axial displacement and ange face tilt.
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0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
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0.8
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x
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a
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D
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t
(
m
m
)
Root 0.8 Root 1.2
Root 1.6 Root 2.0
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