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General aspects of the advancement of theory and practices of information systems

Peter P. Kuvyrkov and Sergei K. Naidenov
Department of Automation and Control, Penza State Technological Academy, Penza, Russia
Abstract
Purpose The important role of functional and structural generalization of informative and communicative processes is considered. Design/methodology/approach It is denoted that generalitics suggests a means to obtain a new information which is more rich in content, more useful, jamproof and optimal. An increasingly important role of generalitics in the development of the informative equipment is underlined. Findings Upon the analysis made new attributes of information are suggested and estimated: informativeness, informness and informability. A clear description of the signicance of generalization for the communication units is presented. Originality/value Development of the theoretic foundations allows for the creation of new generations of the informative technique, automated control and telemechanic systems and communications as a whole. Keywords Cybernetics, Information systems Paper type Research paper

Advancement of theory and practices 65

1. Introduction Everything around us, all collections of information, either already cognized or still being cognized, prove to be the parts of a single whole, possessing both commonness and diversity. Based on these attributes, the two ways of knowledge acquisition and advancement were determined specialization and integration. The rst way is that of accumulation of the highly developed diversity giving rise to a considerable body of disunited data, scrappy information. In order to make the best use of such information, and to obtain the end result, huge massifs of information have to be processed. The second way the way to solve the urgent problems of fundamental sciences is that of unication, that is, increasing integration of information both within and between the sciences. The above becomes evident primarily from the universal tendency to unity, or by virtue of the unity of the world. Besides, the use of the name of a science Generalitics which derived from the Latin generalis generalization, i.e. raising of the particular to the general, subjecting of particular phenomena to some general principle, proves to be quite reasonable and justied (Kuvyrkov, 2005). In our case, the general meaning of the given process is the elimination of information redundancy and further integration. The general history of science development can serve as proof of the above, according to which an inevitable problem of integration, compression, i.e. generalization of data or knowledge emerged at certain stages of its specialization-based accumulation. According to Plank (1966), since the antiquity, ever

Kybernetes Vol. 36 No. 1, 2007 pp. 65-75 q Emerald Group Publishing Limited 0368-492X DOI 10.1108/03684920710741152

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since the investigation of nature began, its ultimate and exalted aim or ideal was to generalize the plural mixed diversity of the physical phenomena into a united system, or, possibly, to a single formula. So far, no general method is available in modern practice which could be applied for unication of details into a single whole which possesses new properties and quality not found in its constituent parts. We see, as before, how huge amounts of practical material are built up and used locally for solution of particular problems; and, again, it is required that generalization, analysis, synthesis, and reasoning are made to provide the basis for further decision making, passing from particular to general, from individual to universal. In this way, or by means of generalization, the highest functions of human mind are realized generation of new information, working out laws and making discoveries. 1.1 Levels of generalization A number of generalization or its levels may be taken as a function of the message complexity, pithiness and of agreement between the result derived and the preset values of the generalization indices. From and by the results of generalization of the starting message, a regeneralization can be performed to generate indices of higher values. Let the starting message be one of the zero levels of generalization i 1; n 0 , of the rst level X 1 {x1 i 1; n 1 and so on, and in X 0 {x0 i }; i }; i 1; n z (Figure 1). the general case of the z-th level X z {xz i }; As shown in Figure 1, the message of the zero level may be translated into the message of the highest levels. In so doing, the number of elements for each message of the corresponding level is not equal to the number of elements of the other levels, i.e. n 0 #n 1 # #n z . 1.2 Indices of generalization Generalization is a major component of information processes. The message becomes more compact, compressed or integrated, devoid of redundancy on retention of its essence.

{xz i}

Xz

Zth level of generalization

1, nz

{x1 i} {x0 i}

X1 X0

The1stlevel The zero level

1,n1 1,n0

Figure 1. Levels of generalization

{x01, x02, ..., x0i, ..., x0n}

The starting message

The general indices of the message are its informativeness, informness and informability that associated with multiaspectness of informatization and with a continuing demand for subsequent formalization of the scientic knowledge and the advancement of information theory and its applications in the distinct domains of science, technique and education. As the names of the indices imply, they show, their common root is the information quantity and hence, there are quantitative denitions of informativeness, informness and informability. Let us introduce the concept of the relative measure of information quantity of the generalized message that we used as its main index. In such an event, informativeness of the generalized message is the information quantity of the starting (a priori) message which is accounted for as one element of the generalized (a posteriori) message. In other words, the relative measure of the generalized message information quantity is determined by the ratio of the information quantity of the starting message to the number of elements contained it in the generalized message: R0 I0 1 I0 I0 I0 i z ; R ; . . . ; R ; . . . ; R ; n0 n1 nz ni

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where R i informativeness of the generalized message of the i-th level of generalization; I 0 information quantity of the starting message; n i number of the generalized message elements. When passing from the zero level to the highest one the number of elements received with the given message will decrease, while their informativeness will increase: n 0 . n 1 . . n i . . n z, R 0 , R 1 , , R i , , R z. For a second general index, the so-called informness is used which means that the receiver is completely informed by the transmitted message which was received in full. In other words, if the receiver derived from its source the whole message, then it is considered as the informed one with the aim of the selection of its further actions in generalization, the decisions accepted for control by either objects. The message which is a starting one at the moment of its transmission, and the message received, with its information obtained in full, are named a priori and a posteriori and denoted as Iap and Iapo, respectively. As a result, the generalized message contains a smaller number of elements of the a priori one and, as would be expected under these conditions, it will be characterized by greater informativeness and informness. By informability of the message its pithiness is meant. For example, one and the same content of the starting 0 message X 0 {x0 i } i 1; n may be presented by the content of the other one 1 1 1 X {xi } i 1; n but with the lesser number of elements n 1 , n 0 . In this case, it is felt that the informability of the second message proves to be higher as compared to that of the rst one. This increase derives from the fact that the a priori information has some redundancy affecting the rate of data transmission through the channel of communication and its compactness under registration on the information carriers of the corresponding memories. After generalization, the a posteriori information received differs from the a priori one in its lesser redundancy, greater compactness which positively affects the rate of its transmission and increase efciency of the memory use. Thus, a posteriori information is equal to the generalized representation of a priori information of the starting message, i.e. I apo qI ap .

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As a measure of informability, the ratio is used of the starting message information quantity Iap to the information quantity of the other message Iapo derived from the rst message by decreasing its excessiveness or v.v. by introducing the additional excessiveness to gain in noise stability. Let us denote informability by w, then informability of the z-th level generalization is as follows: wz I ap n0 z; I apo n

68

in the sense that for equally probable states of the message elements pi: wz I 0 n 0 log m n 0 I z n z log m n z

For not equally probable states, respectively: n0 nz

m X i 1 m X i1

I0 w z I
z

pi log pi pi log pi

n0 ; nz

where pi probability of the i-th state, m number of states. As is clear from the last ratio the starting message information quantity is equal to: I ap wI apo or I 0 w z I z ; n 0 w z n z . If it is required to translate the starting message by introducing the additional redundancy (rather than by decreasing the redundancy), as in the case of coding for noise stability gaining, then informability of the resulting message will be decreased in the sense that the content of the starting message will be presented by the greater number of elements. The levels of the starting message generalizing and compressing are denoted by z. The opposite action . to introduce the additional excessiveness (i.e. degeneralization) is denoted by z In this case, informability of the excessive message is:
 wz

I0  z or I 0 w z I  Iz

As the starting message under generalization and degeneralization are the same then:
 z w zI z w z I  and hence  wz I z :  wz I z

1.3 Measures of generalization Thus, generalization is a process of elimination of the starting message redundancy and its representation in the more economical compressed integrated form without losses in its matter and essence with the lesser number of elements carrying it. The generalization measures may be subdivided into absolute and relative ones.

As the absolute measure the difference of elements number between the starting and the generalized messages is considered, i.e. Dq n 0 2 n z ; while the ratio of the absolute value to the number of elements of the starting message is taken as the relative measure:

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dq

D q n 0 2 n z nz 12 0: 0 0 n n n

As seen from the formulae the generalization eliminates both the redundancy articially introduced for the noise stability and the natural one caused by features of the language structure used for information representation. In both cases, the measures of generalization are taken to be a criterion of the eliminated redundancy, reduction of a length or integration on retention message substance and essence. As this takes place, the economical effectness is a pragmatic feature, i.e. the feature which is the most important to decide or to control effectively. 2. Generalitics of communication processes Under close examination of causes and effects of generalization of the communication processes and equipment for their realization, the ow of information is regarded as a form of control action. For the most part, it is possible to mark out three aspects of communication: technical, semantic and pragmatic. They are constituent parts of the general aspect taking into account constructional, structural, functional and informative generalization. For example, the technical aspect of communication refers not only to the processes and equipment for information transmission from one point, unit or person to another through corresponding channels but also to possibility of their subsequent optimization due to generalization. Semantic aspect of communication makes allowance for transmission and receiving information as well as its understanding by the receiver. Owing to generalization information understanding also is retained but effectness of its transmission and receiving increases many times over. Pragmatic aspect takes into account the effect of the received information on the behavior of its receiver. At the same time by virtue of generalization the value and, hence, the effectiveness of information usage also rises by many folds. In Figure 2, examples of constructional and structural generalization are shown. Using the base of unity vectors of two-dimensional space e1 and e2 (Figure 2(a)), the control circuits of the input of the communication unit are directed along the given 2 2 vectors X 1 {x1 i } i 1; a and X {xj } j 1; b (Figure 2(b)) and the number of the control circuits is equal to m a b. Under generalization of the given sets ;2 of the control circuits, we have the new set with the number of circuits X 1;2 {x1 i } i 1; c (Figure 2(c)), equal to c a b. Each circuit of the produced set differs from the proceeding ones by the fact that the circuit is a single whole made out of two united parts directed along unity vectors of the two-dimensional space base. Under subsequent integration of the presented sets of the control circuits, one derives the grating structures of the two-dimensional control of the communication unit non-generalized (Figure 2(d)) and generalized (Figure 2(e)). Positioning the controlled elements with two control inputs connected, respectively, to two common to both control circuits results in structures

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(b) X
2

e1 (a) O Non-generalized components X

1

e2

(c)

Generalized components

70

( d)

{ }

2 Xj

{ }
i = 1, a

X1 i

(e)

X1,2

j= 1,b

{X1,2 i }
m=a+b (f) (g) m=c

i = 1, c

Figure 2. Elements of constructional and structural generalization: (a) base of two-dimensional space unity vectors; (b), (c) elements of constructional generalization; (d), (e) control circuit input of non-generalized; (f), (g) structure of the commutative device with non-generalized and generalized make

Controlled element N0 = ab = 33 = 9 xj
1 2

2 2 Nq = C2 a+b = CC = C6 = 15

xi1 No connection
1 2

xj

1,2

xi1,2

xi xj = xi xj = 0 Connection xi xj = xi xj = 1
1 2 1 2

xi1, 2 xj1, 2 = xi1, 2 xj1, 2 = 0

xi

1, 2

xj1, 2 = xi1, 2 xj1, 2 = 1

of the communication arrangement with non-generalized (Figure 2(f)) and generalized (Figure 2(g)) makes. Comparing the given arrangements one can see that at one and the same number of the control circuits (m 6) the matrix structures of communications involve the different number of control circuits or outputs. In the rst case N(0) 9, in the second N(g) 15 that points to the positive effect of the constructive and structural generalization on communicativeness of the corresponding units.

Denote unit communicativeness by k equal to the ratio of a controlled elements number or outputs N to a control circuits number or inputs by m, i.e. k N/m. At m 6 with the non-generalized make of the given unit one has kn 9/6 1.5 and with the generalized make kg 15/6 2.5. With increase in the control inputs number m the unit communicativeness with the generalized make becomes more than two times as compared to the non-generalized one. In this case, Nn 0.25m 2, N g C2 m 0:5 mm 2 1, kg 0.5(m 2 1), kg =kn 2m 2 1=m 2. If one uses the three-dimensional communicative units as an alternative to the two-dimensional ones, the effect is much more evident. Note that tetrahedron structures are characterized by quadruple increase in their communicativeness in comparison with the cubic ones. Specically, if for the three-dimensional unit with the non-generalized make N n 1=3m3 1=27m 3 then for the generalized one: N g C3 m Consequently: kn 1 2 m ; 27 1 kg m 2 1m 2 2; 6 kn 4:5: mm 2 1m 2 2 1 mm 2 1m 2 2: 123 6

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In such a manner, the generalized make of units to realize communicative processes is of paramount importance in the further advancing of the information systems and their supplements.

3. Generalitics of information processes Information processes of data gathering, storing and transmitting of information, their conversion from one form to another as well as from one code to another determine a continuing demand for development and use of the large variety of specialized units adjusted individually for ensuring of one or another functions. The solution of problems in their optimization, universality and multifunction went possibly on a basis of the informative process generalization. This offers considerable scope for the new answer to all problems of information as follows: interchanging, storing, transmitting as well as receiving the new information, allotting it by the larger pithiness, more useful, protected and jamproof. Let us consider some examples of functional generalization, the base of which is constructional and structural generalization (Figure 3). In this case, one and the same unit may be rebuilt in response to action of the switch functions, i.e. it is the multifunctional one. The switch functions of control by commutation of the given unit differ from one another and are in accordance with their functional purpose. The form of the switch functions is varied according to the level of constructional and structural generalization. Consider transducers of the rst level of their generalization. Denote the input 1 1 1 circuits of transducers by x1 1 ; x2 ; . . . ; xi ; . . . ; xn and their outputs by 1 1 1 1 y1 ; y2 ; . . . ; yi ; . . . ; yn . On intersections of the control with controlled buses they position the logic elements with memory connected by their inputs and outputs to the 1 buses. The elements transmit information from x1 i to yi in accordance with a control

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(a) ' x2 ' x1

' x4 ' x3

' y1 ' y2 ' y3 ' y4

(b) ' x3 ' x2 ' x1

' x4

' y1 ' y2 ' y3 ' y4

72
(c) ' x2 ' x1 ' x4 ' x3 ' y1 ' y2 y'3 ' y4 ' x1 (d ) ' x2 ' x4 ' x3 ' y1 ' y2 ' y3 ' y4

(e) ' x2 ' x1

' x4 ' x3

' y1 ' y2 ' y3 ' y4

(f ) ' x3 ' x2 ' x1

' x4

' y1 ' y2 ' y3 ' y4

(g) ' x2 ' x1

' x4 ' x3

' y1 ' y2 ' y3 ' y4

(h) ' x3 ' x2 ' x1

' x4

' y1 ' y2 ' y3 ' y4

' xi

' yj ' x5 ' x4

' x7 ' x6

' y1 ' y2 ' y3 ' y4

x'i

y'j

No connection xi' yj' = xi' yj' = 0 ' x3 ' x2 ' x1

Connection xi' yj' = xi' yj' = 1 ' y5 ' y6 y'7

Figure 3. Elements of functional generalization

(i)

action of the switch function f k x 1 ; y 1 . In the absence of connection 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 x1 i ^ yj xi yj 0, with connection xi ^ yj xi yj 1. We consider some switch functions: . Follower of input information (Figure 3(a)). Corresponding switch function is as follows:

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 f 1 x 1 ; y 1 x1 1 y1 x2 y2 xi yj xn yn

n X i1
j1

1 x1 i yj

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According to the given function the follower circuit faithfully copies at its output the input information. For example, x 1 1011, y 1 1011. . Mirror-image presentation of the input information (Figure 3(b)). The switch function has the appearance:
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 f 2 x 1 ; y 1 x 1 1 yn x2 yn21 xi yj xn y1 n X i1 1 x1 i yj

jn2i1

In compliance with the given function the circuit ensures the mirror-image presentation at the input of the information taking place at the output. For example, x 1 1011, y 1 1101. . Control in module 2 (Figure 3(c)). The switch function takes the form:
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 f 3 x 1 ; y 1 x1 1 yj x2 yj xi yj xn yj n X i1
j n

1 x1 i yj

With the even number of unities at the circuit input a sum of unities at the output y1 i is 1 1 1 equal to 0, with the odd number yi 1. For instance, x 1011, y 1 or y 1 0001. . Spreader of the input information (Figure 3(d)). The switch function has the shape:
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 f 4 x 1 ; y 1 x1 i y1 xi y2 xi yj xi yn n X iconst
j 1

1 x1 i yj

Respectively, a unity at the input of a certain circuit is transformed in unities at all 1 1 output circuits. By way of illustration, i 1, x1 1 1, x 1000, y 1111. . Channeler of the input information (Figure 3(e)). The switch function is:
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 f 5 x 1 ; y 1 x1 1 yj x2 yj xi yj xn yj n X
jconst

1 x1 i yj

i1

As prescribed by the function, any number of unities at the input we have only at the j-th output 0 when the number of unities is even and 1 when odd. The cite an example, at x 1 1011, y 1 0010, j 3. . Shift of the input information (Figure 3(f)). The switch function is represented as follows:

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1 1 1 1 1 1 1 f 6 x 1 ; y 1 x1 1 y2 x2 y3 xi yj xn21 yn

n21 X
ji1

1 x1 i yj

i1

74

In the given case, we get the shift of input information per one position, i.e. x 1 1010, y 1 0101. Using the similar unit, it is possible to construct a controlled shifting register for any number of positions. . Transducer of the binary code into Gray code (Figure 3(g)). The switch function may be described as:   1 1 1 1 1 1 1 f 7 x 1 ; y 1 x 1 y x y x y x y 1 1 2 2 i j n n
n n21   X X 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 x1 y x y x y x y x y x1 1 2 2 3 i j n21 n i j i yj i 1
j1 ji1

i1

Having at the input the binary code combination x 1 0010 one derives at the output combination of Gray code y 1 0011. . Transducer of Gray code into the binary one (Figure 3(h)) with the switch function of the form:   1 1 1 1 1 1 1 f 8 x 1 ; y 1 x 1 1 y1 x1 y2 xi yj x1 yn
n X n21   X 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 x1 x1 2 y2 x2 y3 xi yj x2 yn xn yn i yj i1 j1
.

Transducer of the binary code into Hamming code (Figure 3(i)). The switch function is as follows:
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 f 9 x 1 ; y 1 x 1 3 y1 x5 y1 x7 y1 x3 y2 x6 y2 x7 y2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 x1 3 y3 x5 y4 x6 y4 x5 y5 x6 y6 x7 y7

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Elements of the binary code are x1 3 ; x5 ; x6 ; x7 , i.e. the input x {x3 ; x5 ; x6 ; x7 }. Check 1 1 ; y ; y and at the rest outputs one symbols of Hamming code are formed at outputs y1 1 2 4 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 x , y x , y x obtains the coping values of input symbols, i.e. y1 5 6 3 3 5 6 , y7 x7 . As an 1 1 example, x 1011, y 0110011. In perfect analogy to the above-considered, we may show the effect of generalization upon numerous electronic units and systems (Kuvyrkov, 1985).

4. Conclusion We may predict in future that great attention will be given to this important theory, and the generalitics as a whole will be given consideration in respect of the following: denition of the generalized information; generalized measures of information; generalized codes of information; generalized representation, transmission, saving, noise stability and data protection based on whose constructional, structural and

functional generalization; informative generalization in which the general principles of the generalistics of the communication processes are represented. The development of the theoretical foundations of the given science allows the creation of the new generations of the informative technique, automated control and telemechanic systems and communication systems as a whole.
References Kuvyrkov, P.P. (1985), Teoreticheskiye osnovy kombinatornykch system (Theoretical fundamentals of combining systems), Informative Systems, No. 11, collected articles Automatic control and computing techniques (in Russian). Kuvyrkov, P.P. (2005), Generalitika informatsionnykch processov (Generalistics of informative processes), paper presented at Annals of the International Conference on Mathematical Methods and Information Technologies in Economics, Sociology and Education, Penza, Russia (in Russian). Plank, M. (1966), Unity of the Physical Picture of the World, Nauka Publishers, Moscow (in Russian). Corresponding author Peter P. Kuvyrkov can be contacted at: afod@sura.ru

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