Definition of Catchment Management of the drainage basin -

Catchment Management The area drained by a river defined by a surrounding watershed or a divide. Effective allocation distribution and conservation of water quantity amongst the riparian users. Conservation of the water quality, prevention or reduction in the pollution of water bodies - Flood management - Protection of the natural ecological balance within the drainage basin The need for catchment management arises to deal with the conflicts and the problems that result from the variety of human activities that interfere with the natural functioning of the hydrological cycle. Management of catchment areas is necessary because human activities have led to significant changes and alterations to the channel and drainage basin characteristics. Human activities modify the river flows to varying degrees. Major alterations: - Urbanisation - Vegetation Changes - Extraction from Aquifers - Changes to water quality Definition Urbanisation is the conversion of land from rural to urban. Housing, offices and roads replace farmland and grasslands. Elaboration Artificial urban surfaces have very different hydrology from natural surfaces covered by vegetation and soil. Urban areas have many impermeable surfaces such as brick and concrete, which provide minimal storage capacity. Urban growth results in vegetation change and change in vegetation density. This modifies evapotranspiration and changes run off volume and timing. Urban areas have elaborate drainage networks, which remove water effectively. This results in short lag times and high, but short-lived peak flows. Encroachment Urbanisation encroaches the floodplains, greatly increasing the exposure of urban populations to flooding. In Japan, threequarters of the population is located on floodplains. Urban encroachment on floodplains also increases flood hazards. Wetlands on floodplains are natural storage areas for floodwaters. Urbanisation results in drainage and loss of these valuable storage areas. Quality of Untreated sewage and agricultural runoff enter the water Water causing algae bloom and subsequently, death of other species. resources This impacts biodiversity and the quality of water. Sediments Sediments from soil erosion and runoff from construction sites affect water clarity, clogging waterways and thus, affecting biodiversity and quality of water. Elaboration Vegetation increases infiltration, reduces overland flow and increases base flow contribution. It induces longer lag time and lower flow peaks. With vegetation, interception is present to

Major Alterations

Urbanisation

Vegetation (Deforestation)

Sachitha. NJC. 12SH22

Example

reduce impact of raindrops. It increases permeability and higher infiltration capacity. The Laval and Brusquet catchments in Draix, France. Both catchments have similar precipitation of 800mm/annum, similar geology and relief. The Laval Basin is extensively deforested with 22% forest cover and the neighbouring Brusquet catchment still has 87% forest cover. Peak flows in Laval catchment are 4-5 times higher than in Brusquet catchment. This increases flood risks greatly in Laval. Flood risks in the Laval catchment are also increased by high sediment loads. Laval has 177 tons/ha while Brusquet only ahs 4 tons/ha. The sediment loads are a consequence of deforestation. They increase rates of channel deposition and reduce channel capacity. Usually there is a time-lag of years or decades between the start of groundwater extraction and the impact os pumping. As groundwater is pumped, the water table around the pump bore will be drawn down to form a cone of depression. Over time, the cone expands and deepens and ultimately results in the dropping of the regional water table. When the rates of groundwater withdrawal exceeds rates of recharge, springs and shallow wells dry up. Ground subsidence may also occur. The water pressure in the pores of the aquifer helps to support the weight of the particles and prevents it from collapsing over one another. Without water to exert pressure, ground subsidence might occur. Salt water intrusion might occur. Lowering of ground water causes saline water to be drawn inland which might affect agriculture. Eg: Murray-Darling Basin, Australia Area estimated to be affected by salinization is spreading by about 5% a year and could double in 20 years. Cost of water and land sanity is estimated at $270 million in total. West Bank, in Jordan and Israel contains important aquifers which became a major water source for Jerusalem. The West Bank hills were also home to Palestinian communities. In 1995, Israel was pumping 600 mi cu meters per annum which was 30% the countrys total demand while only 30mi cu meters went to the West Bank settlers. Israel exploits more than 80%of Palestines water while 30% of Palestinian homes have no water. This unequal access to water intensified dispute between Palestinian and Jewish communities. Over-pumping has made the water so saline that it may damage soil and crop yields and hence is unsuitable for irrigation. Water pollution is a serious problem many states are facing. It is a result of increased urbanisation and industrialisation. It affects the qualitative state of the hydrological cycle which in turn affects the ecological system. River Ganges, India. Ganges, 2500km long, drains 1 million sq km.

Extraction from Elaboration Aquifers (Groundwater Extraction) Effects of groundwater extraction

Example

Changes to water quality

Elaboration

Example Sachitha. NJC. 12SH22

More than 250 million people live in the basin, using it for irrigation, industrial uses and navigation. Water quality is low because of untreated urban and industrial waste. Reasons for conflict National As a rule, riparian states regard a shared river system as a tool to sustain their Sovereignty economic might and political weight. Thus, the countries tend to keep up with the and Survival actions of each other and clash over the question on how to develop and use these systems. Development Many states are more interested in achieving economic wealth though the river vs. than conserving the rivers environment. Environment Impact Assessment, if they Environmental have been carried out, have consistently failed to consider the downstream Conservation impacts of the project. Case study 1: Between States: USA and Mexico [Lack of quality] Introduction Hydro treaty, a form of political strategy, is a form of strategy to manage conflicts. Strategy #1: Colorado River, 2330km long, is located in Southwest USA and Northwest Mexico. Hydro Treaties About two-thirds of the water is used for irrigation and this has resulted in salinity. This caused losses of $1 billion per annum. Mexico was guaranteed a certain amount of water under the Colorado River Compact. However, no provision was made for water quality. Water delivered to Mexico has already been used in the WeltonMohawk irrigation. Thus, water transferred to Mexico is usually of high salinity. Subsequently, the Yuma desalinization plant was built to desalinize the water before it flows to Mexico. Effectiveness The effectiveness of a hydro treaty depends if all riparian states are consulted, if all of this their views and concerns are considered and if there is any dominating state in the strategy discussion. The Colorado River Compact failed to consider the quality of water, which resulted in Mexico receiving sufficient water but of poor quality. Strategy #2: This strategy released stored water to reduce the salinity by lowering the Environmental concentration of the river. Response Effectiveness This strategy is effective due to the backing of the political strategy. The 2 countries already have an effective treaty. This strategy is successful because of the good relations between the two countries. Case Study 2: Mekong River Introduction Mekong flows through 6 countries. More than 60 million people live the Lower Mekong alone, using the river for drinking water, food and irrigation. As the Mekong sub-region develops economically, the states have been constructing dams. The most troubling seasons for lower Mekong states Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam and Thailand- are the dry seasons. In the dry season, if one country upstream takes the water for its own purpose, the downstream countries suffer greatly. China, with the greatest economic power amongst the other Mekong states, is expected to be the dominant headwater state in the Mekong River Basin. China has announced plans to build 37 dams along its portion of the Mekong. During dry season, the glaciers melt allowing natural flow. With dams upstream, the lower Mekong states will experience more trouble. Sachitha. NJC. 12SH22

Strategy #3: Economic Cooperation and domination

Assessment of Economic cooperation

Chinas highland and upstream position gives it an upper hand in harnessing Mekongs water for irrigation and flood control. As Asias leading economic power, China is in a strong position to influence and intimidate smaller downstream nations. China thus, seeks to protect its strategic interests by several economic agreements. For example, China pledged to keep exporting increasing amounts of electricity to its neighbors, Myanmar and Vietnam. It has also offered preferential trade with Thailand and other Mekong states. In the Mekong Basin, the economic strategy is likely to succeed due to the strong sense of trust and cooperation between the riparian states. In the long run, however, the success will depend on: - The commitment and political will by all states to develop an interconnected energy network based on HEP. - The willingness to compromise sovereignty during discussions and cooperation - Overall political climate in each state and nation

Conclusion Introduction For any strategy to succeed, there must be trust and good relations between the countries. Countries must also seek to solve the problem without self-interest. Example For example, it was believed that there was widespread deforestation, which caused floods in India and Bangladesh. The Nepalese were blamed for the deforestation by the Indian and Bangladesh government. But after much research, it was found that there was no significant increase in the flood events in the past 120 years. The main cause was high rainfall. This is a case where governments turn to simplistic conclusions when the actual reason is more complicated.

Sachitha. NJC. 12SH22