IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY AND GENERAL APPLICATIONS, VOL. IGA-4, NO.

5, SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER

1968

467

Reevaluation of

Lethal Electric
FELLOW, IEEE, AND

Currents

CHARLES F. DALZIEL,

W. R. LEE

Abstract-Low-frequency electric currents of a few milliamperes flowing through the body cause muscular contractions. In the arm such an effect may make a subject unable to let go of a live conductor. The highest currents which 99.5 per cent of men and 99.5 percent of women are able to let go have been shown to be 9 and 6 mA, respectively. Currents somewhat larger than this, in the range of 20 to 40 mA, passing across the chest may arrest respiration leading to asphyxia, unconsciousness, and even death. The most common cause of death in electric shock probably is ventricular fibrillation, a condition in which the circulation is arrested and death ensues very rapidly. An analysis of available experimental data indicates that body weight and shock duration are important factors in determining the maximum current not likely to cause ventricular fibrillation. Taking a weight of 50 kg as the average for a human victim it is suggested that the relationship between current and shock duration is given by I = 116/V/T, where I is the current in milliamperes and T is the time in seconds. It must be stressed that this has only been shown to be valid within the range of 8 ms to 5 seconds. Currents flowing through the nerve centers controlling respiration may cause respiratory inhibition, which sometimes persists for a long time after the current has been interrupted. Other effects produced by high currents, such as burning, etc., are not discussed in this paper.

Since that time there have been two further developments. First, Kiselev of the U.S.S.R. Academy of Medical Sciences published in 1963 a detailed experimental study of threshold currents in dogs [4], and second, in 1966, Lee published detailed studies of low-voltage fatal electric accidents in the United Kingdom [5 ] and questioned the analysis used by Dalziel [6]. This paper presents a brief review of electric stimulation of nerves and muscles as observed in studies of let-go currents [7 ], [8 ]. The fibrillation data from the various sources will then be compared. First, the relationship between current and shock duration will be examined. Next, the relationship between body weight and fibrillating current when the duration of the shock is held constant will be studied. Finally, since several of the studies reported fibrillation in terms of the minimum fibrillating current, the relationship between minimum fibrillating current and the maximum nonfibrillating current will be examined in the attempt to establish more accurately the likely fibrillating threshold current for man. DISCUSSION Electric Stimulation of Muscles Except for its nuisance value, or for its startle effect in causing an involuntary movement triggering an accident, the smallest electric shock of importance is that current which causes a loss of voluntary control of the hand when grasping an electrified object. Upon increasing the magnitude of the alternating current, the first sensations of tingling give way to contraction of the muscles. The muscular contractions and accompanying sensations of heat increase as the current is increased, and finally a value of current is reached at which the subject cannot release his grasp of the conductor. The maximum current a person can tolerate when holding an electrode and still let go of the conductor using muscles directly stimulated by that current is called the let-go current. Let-go currents are important, as an individual can withstand, with no ill aftereff ects, repeated exposure to his let-go current for at least the time required for him to release the conductor. Currents only slightly in excess of one's let-go current are said to "freeze" the victim to the circuit. Such currents are very painful, frightening, and hard to endure even for a short time. Points representing let-go currents for 124 men ,and 28 women are shown in Fig. 1 [7], [8]. In these tests the subjects held and then let go of a small copper wire, and the circuit was completed by holding the other hand on a flat brass plate, or by clamping a conducting band wrapped with saline soaked cloth on the upper arm. The effect of size of the electrodes was also investigated. It was

INTRODUCTION

THERE IS increasing evidence that the most common mechanism of death from electric shock is ventricular fibrillation, and it is therefore of considerable practical importance to establish the maximum values of commercial frequency alternating currents that are unlikely to cause fibrillation. As the circumstances of an electrical accident only rarely allow a reliable estimate of the current or of the period for which it flows, it is necessary to have recourse to animal experiments to determine threshold currents. This method introduces difficulties of extrapolation of the findings to human beings. Until recently the only two series of animal experiments of any magnitude in this field have been the studies of Ferris and his colleagues in 1936 at Columbia University and the Bell Telephone Laboratories, N. Y. [1], and of Kouwenhoven and his associates at The Johns Hopkins University, Md., in 1959 [2]. The results of these studies were analyzed by Dalziel in 1960 [3 ], with the object of establishing an acceptable relationship between the three factors believed to be concerned, namely, body weight, current magnitude, and shock duration.
Paper SL 68-1 approved by the Group Safety Liaison Committee for presentation at the 1968 IEEE Industry and General Applications Group Annual Meeting, Chicago, Ill., September 29-October 3. Manuscript received August 6, 1968. C. F. Dalziel is with the Department of Electrical Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, Calif. W. R. Lee is with the Department of Occupational Health, University of Manchester, Manchester, England.

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468

IE4E

TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY AND GENERAL APPLICATIONS,

SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 1968
_
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30

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1000

8 12 14 10 LET-GO CURRENT

20 22 24 16 18 MILLIAMPERES (RMS)

400

2000

FIBRILLATING CURRENT

3000 MILLIAMPERES

4000 (RMS)

Fig. 1. Let-go current distribution curve for men and women, 60-Hz commercial alternating current.

Fig. 3. Minimum fibrillating current distribution curve for dogs, 8.3-ms shocks, I1/2% = 650 mA, 150o% = 2070 mA, Iav = 2070 mA.
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Fig. 4. Minimum fibrillating current distribution curve for dogs, 16.7-ms shocks, 11/2% = 800 mA, I50% = 1450 mA, Ia, = 1500
mA.

vI

II0

FREQUENCY HERTZ
on

50

100

500 1000

5000

Fig. 2. Effect of frequency

let-go current for men.

found that the location of the indifferent electrode, the moisture conditions at points of contact, and the size of the electrodes had no appreciable effect on an individual's letgo current. The individual points representing the maximum value for each subject are plotted in ascending order to show percentile rank as a function of current. The data for the 134 male subjects and the 28 females follow a straight line on probability graph paper and are therefore normally distributed. As would be expected, the larger the number of points for a given test, the closer the points fell to the straight line which represents the distribution curve.

The average let-go current was approximately 16 mA for men and 10.5 mA for women. Although average values are interesting, it is important to determine the minimum likely let-go current for the general population. After much consideration, it was decided to specify as a reasonably safe limit for electric shock the 1/2 percentile value. This procedure is justified by the observation that in all cases involving a considerable number of points, the actual values near the 1/2 percentiles are always greater than the theoretical values. This is inevitable because of the inherent characteristics of the mathematics of probability, as it is evident that there exists a finite probability that even zero current would theoretically freeze a certain number of men to an energized wire. As a result of these experiments it is generally accepted that the safe let-go currents are 9 and 6 mA for men and women, respectively.

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DALZIEL AND LEE: LETHAL ELECTRIC CURRENTS

469
9'9.5 99-98

9 99-98-z

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/

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2000 CURRENT

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4000 (RMS)

FIBRILLATING CURRENT

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(RMS)

Fig. 5. Miinimum fibrillating currenit distribution curve for dogs, 83.3-ms shocks, II/2% = 240 mA, I5o% = 1800 mA, Iay = 2040 mA.

Fig. 7. Minimum fibrillating current distribution curve for dogs, 0.333-second shocks, I/2% = 200 mA, I5o% = 740 mA, lav = 775 mA.

98,5z

99
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z

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Fig. 6. Minimum fibrillating current distribution curve for dogs, 0.167-second shocks, I1/2% = 550 mA, 150% = 900 mA, Iav = 1240 mA.

Fig. 8. Minimum fibrillating current distribution curve for dogs, 1.0-second shocks, I1/2% 50 mA, Io0% 150 mA, Iav 169 mA.

Fig. 2 shows results of tests made to determine the effect of frequency on let-go currents. Sinusoidal currents from 5 to 10 000 Hz were used in these experiments. There is essentially ino differenice in the let-go current values for frequeincies between 50 and 60 Hz which are the commercial frequencies used throughout the world. The muscular reactions caused by commercial frequency alternating currents in the upper ranges of let-go currents, typically 18 to 22 mA or more, flowing across the chest stopped breathing during the period the current flowed, and in several instances caused temporary paralysis of the -middle finger. However, normal respiration resumed upon interruption of the current, and no adverse after effects were produced as a result of not breathing for short periods. In 1961, Lee described 30 cases of persons who were "frozen" to low voltage circuits for varying periods but

who subsequently became free and survived. In these cases the currents clearly were above the range of let-go currenits, but they were less than the fibrillating current. However, victims who suffered the longest shocks showed signs of impending asphyxia during the period they were held on to the circuit [9]. The following observations based on let-go experiments conducted over a 25-year period may be of value in interpreting fibrillating currents to be discussed in the next sections. 1) An individual's let-go current is essentially constant, aind is not depressed by repeated let-go trials provided an interval sufficient to permit recovery from fatigue is allowed before the next shock is administered (actually letgo currents taken at weekly intervals increased slightly with time, probably due to lessening of fear, understandably associated with the experience) [8].

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470

IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY AND GENERAL APPLICATIONS, SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 1968

Il

-1I

---530095--

98
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DISTRIBUTION CURVE

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3000 MILLIAMPERES

Fig. 9. Minimum fibrillating current distribution curve for dogs, 2.0-second shocks, 11/2% = 50 mA, I50% = 150 mA, Ia. = 187 mA.

Fig. 11. Minimum fibrillating current distribution curve for sheep, 30-ms shocks, I1/2% = 1400 mA, I50% = 2480 mA, Iav = 2630 mA, Wav = 59.9 kg.

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Fig. 10. Minimum fibrillating current distribution curve for dogs, 5.0-second shocks, 11/2% = 25 mA, 150% = 83 mA, Iav = 83 mA.

Fig. 12. Minimum fibrillating cLirrent distribution curve for sheep, 0.10-second shocks, 11/2% = 600 mA, 150%o = 2200 mA, Ia,,
=

3310 mA, Way = 73 kg.

2) An individual can tolerate, with no adverse effects, two factors, fibrillating current and shock duration, is repeated exposure to the reactions associated with currents independent of body weight. In fact, this assumption will of his let-go level. be shown to be justified by the findings at the end of this 3) The physiological reactions leading to the inability section. to let go are essentially the same over the limited freThe Kouwenhoven experiments covered shock durations quency range of 50 to 60 Hz. from 8.3 ms to seconds, and the dog was used as the experimental animal. The distribution curves are given in Figs. 3-10. The Ferris experiments spanned shock duraRelationship Between Fibrillating Current tions from 30 ms to 3 seconds and were made on several and Shock Dur-ation of the larger animals, comparable in body weight to man, As noted in the introduction, the three factors believed and included sheep, dogs, calves, and pigs. The distributo be concerned are body weight, current magnitude, and tion curves for sheep are given in Figs. 11-16. shock duration. It seems reasonable to assume that, within Fig. 17 is the distribution curve for the Ferris dogs, and the range of body weight of the large animals considered, Fig. 18 is a similar distribution curve for the Kiselev dogs. dogs, sheep, calves, and pigs, the relationship between the The Ferris series included 10 dogs ranging in body weight

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DALZIEL AND LEE: LETHAL ELECTRIC CURRENTS

471
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500 0 FIBRILLATING CURRENT

Fig. 13. Minimum fibrillating current distribution curve for sheep, 0.12-second shocks, II/2% = 400 mA, I5 o = 3400 mA, Iav = 4860 mA, Wa. = 61 kg.

Fig. 15. IMinimum fibrillating current distribution curve for sheep 0.47-second shocks, second series, I1J2% = 350 mA, '5o% = 1080 mA, Iav = 1080 mA, Way = 64 kg.

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Fig. 14. Minimum fibrillating current distribution curve for sheep, L 0.47-second shocks, first series, Iav = 930 mA, Way = 61 kg.

Fig. 16. Minimum fibrillating current distribution curve for sheep, 120 mA, 150% = 240 mA, Iay 3.00-second shocks, II/2% 253 mA, Way 57.4 kg.
=

from 18 to 26.7 kg, who received 3-second 60-Hz shocks while Kiselev's investigation used 35 dogs with body weights varying from 5 to 24 kg who received 50-Hz shocks of the same duration. Thus the Ferris results were obtained with heavier dogs and the Kiselev results were obtained with a larger number of dogs, over a greater range of weights, but on the average they were lighter. It is believed that these data are comparable and may be combined to obtain a larger number of points upon which to base statistical conclusions. The test procedure in these investigations was to apply a series of well-spaced shocks of gradually increasing intensity until fibrillation occurred. In each case the electrodes were attached to the right front limb and the opposite rear limb, and involved a current pathway diagonally across the chest (the common current

pathway in many fatal human accidents). In all of these tests the shocks were applied to include the phase of the heart cycle sensitive to fibrillation, and the effects of the small difference between the frequency of the shock currents is believed unimportant. Fig. 19 is the distribution curve obtained by combining the 45 results for 3-second shocks on dogs obtained by Ferris [1 ] and Kiselev [4]. With the exception of the Kouwenhoven data for very short shock durations (see Figs. 3 and 4) in which normal distributions were obtained, and for the Ferris data for 0.47-second shocks to sheep (Fig. 14) which if extrapolated would imply the untenable conclusion that 1 to 3 percent of the animals would fibrillate on application of a shock of zero current, the other responses are quite similar, and are believed typical of ventricular fibrillation. In each case the

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472
99.5 99 98

IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY AND GENERAL APPLICATIONS, SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 1968

2 Z
cr-

95
90 80
60

_____ ____ ___ -

-215-

F 70

, 50 L 40

30
,
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20

10
v

0.51
0

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FIBRILLATING CURRENT

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(RMS)

Fig. 17. Minimum fibrillating current distribution curve for dogs (Ferris), 3.00-second shocks, 11/2% = 50 mA, Iso% = 90 mA, Iav = 106 mA, Wav = 22.3 kg.

Id'9.5
99

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98
95

99 0 =_ 0 995 98z

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60
---

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F-

w
0-

80 70
60

50
40 30
-

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40

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30
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)32

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FIBRILLATING CURRENT

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=

(RM S)
=

50 FIBRILLATING CURRENT

100 150 MILLIAMPERES (RMS)

Fig. 18. Minimum fibrillating current distribution cturve for dogs (Kiselev), 3.00-second shocks, I1/2% 30 mA, I50% 70 mA, Ia. = 74 mA, Way = 12.0 kg.
response is a straight line on probability paper from low values to at least percentile 50, and is then skewed at the higher values. The somewhat unusual response is attributed to the complicated nature of ventricular fibrillation; the exact phenomenon remains unknown, but is possibly due to two or more modes of excitability of the heart muscle. Since the responses consistently follow a normal distribution below percentile 50, the analysis leans heavily upon evaluating the 1/2 percentile points. The average, or mean value or percentile 50, so useful in most statistical analyses, is of limited importance here because of the skewed nature of the response at the higher values, and the 1/2 percentile must be obtained extrapolating the data considerably beyond the limits of the experimental data.

Fig. 19. Minimum fibrillating current distribution curve for 35 Russian and 10 American dogs, 3.00-second shocks, I1/2% = 32 mA, 150% = 75 mA, Ia. = 81.3 mA, Way = 14.3 kg.

Fig. 20 shows the 1/2 percentile points and the lowest experimental points for the various tests on dogs taken from Figs. 3-10, and from Fig. 19 when plotted on loglog graph paper. The Kouwenhoven points total 191 with shock durations ranging from 1/2 cycle to 5 seconds. The Ferris-Kiselev combined data resulted in the point at 3 seconds and represents 45 points. The straight line representing the response was drawn by eye as governed by the 1/2 percentiles, and is below all observed experimental points. The line has a slope of -1/2, and may be represented by an equation of the form I = K/V-T mA. A similar analysis using the data from Figs. 11-16 for sheep covering a shock duration from 0.03 to 3.00 seconds is given in Fig. 21. The minimum fibrillating points totalled 99, and here one point (from Fig. 14) falls below the line

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DALZIEL AND LEE: LETHAL ELECTRIC CURRENTS

473

iT,
U1)
.L

-Er .w

< Z
J

8
3:

Z cr

3
-i

<D x z o z

Fig. 20.

The average minimum fibrillating currents for 3-second shocks and the average body weights of animals comparable to man in body weight, consisting of 45 dogs, 25 sheep, Uo 11 calves, and 9 pigs, are presented in Fig. 23. The regression line for the dogs has been plotted on this figure and 100o extended to cover the range for the larger animals. Note that except for pigs, the line passes close to the average values for all of the other animals. From this it is concluded that the minimum current required to produce fibrillation is approximately proportional to ventricular loo body weight, not only within the single species, dog, but among the larger animals, probably including man. Possibly I( 1/2 NO) POINTS the reason the average value for the nine pigs is much lower X LOWEST EXPERIMENTAL POINTS than the regression line is due to the very small number of 10 pigs available, and to the special anatomical feature of the animal, namely the relatively greater weight in the legs as 1.0 0.1 0.01 to the other animals. Obviously the configuration compared SECONDS DURATION SHOCK of the four legs does not materially affect the current disRelation of minimum fibrillating current to shock duration tribution in the region of the heart. for dogs.
CD

cf)

LuJ
IL.

0
+

LuJ

Relationship Between Minimum Fibrillating and Maximum Nonfibrillating Current The 1/2 percentile points representing the minimum fibrillating currents for the larger animals are shown in the central part of Fig. 23. Due to the manner of conducting the tests, which consisted of applying serial shocks until < 1000 fibrillation occurred, the actual minimum current just required to produce fibrillation must have been somewhat less than that given by the 1/2 percentile line. In 1940 a member of the Ferris team supplied the senior author with a copy of their original laboratory data including body CC100 weights, minimum fibrillating currents, and the penultimate values, i.e., the value of current immediately preF '/2 %) POINTS ceding fibrillation which is herein called the maximum x LOWEST EXPERIMENTAL POINTS nonfibrillating current. Figs. 26 to 29 give the maximum nonfibrillating current distribution Io I curves for dogs, sheep, E~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ The 1/2 percentile points from these maximum calves, pigs. 0 1.0 0.1 Z 0.01 nonfibrillating current distribution curves are plotted in DURATION SECONDS SHOCK 2 Fig. 21. Relation of minimum fibrillating current to shock duration Fig. 23 to fix the lowest line on the figure. The actual for sheep. fibrillating current was certainly above this line. From the above it is obvious that the likely current just necessary to produce fibrillation for a given mammal is somewhere representing the locus of the 1/2 percentile points, but between these two 1/2 percentile lines, depending upon again the line representing the response has a slope of body weight. 1/2. Recently Lee made a detailed case analysis of electrocutions which occurred in England and Wales during Relationship Between Fibrillating Current and Body Weight the years 1962-1963 [5]. Of these, 166 occurred on voltages In Fig. 22 are plotted the results of 3-second shocks from less than 250 volts 50 Hz, and 30 percent were females the 35 Kiselev dogs and the 10 Ferris dogs. The straight and 26 percent were persons under 20 years of age. It would line representing the line of best fit, the regression line, was therefore seem prudent to assume body weight for the calculated by the method of least squares. Although there typical victim of electrocution at less than 70 kg, the is some scattering about this line, the trend of the response average body weight for an adult male, previously used clearly shows that the minimum current required to pro- by Dalziel [3 ]. There is certainly a case for selecting a most duce fibrillation is approximately proportional to the conservative value for the body weight for use in evaluating individual's body weight, and the degree of association, K for the electrocution equation for man, that is, a healthy +0.74. normally developed human adult, and it is proposed that indicated by the correlation coefficients, is r The minimum fibrillating current distribution curves for 50 kg be accepted as a conventional value for the typical calves and pigs are given in Figs. 24 and 25. victim of electric shock.
10000
x

zw

'Jaw

10

IL

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474

IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY AND GENERAL APPLICATIONS, SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 1968

200
CD 0
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qq 98 _
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95

1111111
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ooo
0

w
-J

w
C-)

80 70

_ =
_

tr

0-

50
20

_ = = =
_

= _

LO )

w
w
z

-i

-J

-J

Sr

U.

:2
z

S
50

*I

C-)
w a.
2

0.
* Kiselev dogs 0 Ferris dogs

_ - _ v _=__ = =-_
I
12
100 200 FIBRILLATING CURRENT

151 ml 1LO 11____

300 400 MILLIAMPERES (RMS)

10

20 BODY WEIGHT kg

30

Fig. 24. Minimum fibrillating current distribution curve for calves, 3.00-second shocks, I'/2% = 150 mA, 150% = 300 mA, Iav = 312 mA, Wav = 70 kg.

Fig. 22. Relation of minimLumn fibrillating current to weight for dogs, 3.00-second shocks.
y
Z
w

99.5

99 98

95
90

*Denotes values
iii

average
-

2 300
cn
a-

i
w
/

Iav= 3.68W+28.5
CL

n
C\

a/

0I

_ 80 F 70 60 r 50 X 40 30 , 20
00
z

__ L_ - _

IDILIEIII

I(%12m

1.1 1 11

200[
z
:2
cr 'i

(I)

5
crw

0D a
I

o3
-J0

CD)
z

1/2% MINIMUM FIBRILLATING CURRENT LINE

0.51
0

100 FIBRILLATING CURRENT

200 300 MILLIAMPERES (RMS)

., 100
-J

/15 OX

hAAVIAlI LA

CD

67

ma

Fig. 25. Minimum fibrillating cturrent distribution curve for pigs, 3.00-second shocks, I1/2% = 120 mA, I5o% = 235 mA, Ia. = 235 mA, Wav = 78.7 kg.

and
0 20
40 60 80

100

BODY WEIGHT

kg

Fig. 23. Relation of fibrillating current to body weight for various animals, 3.00-second shocks.

116 to 185 5 seconds T J8.3ms

rms

mA.

The constant K for the electrocution

is obtained by entering the abscissa of Fig. 23 at 50 kg, and proceeding vertically to the two 1/2 percentile lines:
I
=

equation

for

man

KI

/T
=

K= VTI

V/3 .X 107
X 67

185 maximum

116minimum

The question naturally arises as to the applicability of the electrocution equation beyond the time limits upon which it is based. The shortest time for which data are available represents a half wave of 60-Hz ac, and the majority of shorter shocks might be classified as impulse shocks; see Dalziel [10]. There is little information about the effects of shocks of longer duration than 3 to 5 seconds. From 5 seconds to 20 or 30 seconds the threshold may remain fairly steady, dropping only slightly [4]. For longer periods, there is some evidence that asphyxial changes may increasingly exert their influence and lower the threshold even further [11].

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DALZIEL AND LEE: LETHAL ELECTRIC CURRENTS

475

9)9.5
sceK

----

9. ~9.5
9 z
i
95-

98

---

ctG

95

-._ _ _

199-'
* -a

90

-J

_ 9070~~~~~~~~~ __ =_

w 80-60 w 50 0~ I- 40
w
C, z ci:
70-

a.

w 60cQ 50w

. 40 ----0 -0 8 -0 30
--

--

l -

--_
_

--

20U CR z

30 20 II
0

CD,
IL cQ

10~~~~~~
I

C-)

co:

0-

05 __ -zl

0.5

1112]IJIIZIII7

1 H

a.

2
0.5

I('k%/)=9Omoj
300

50 FIBRILLATING CURRENT

100 150 MILLIAMPERES (RMS)

100 2.00 FIBRILLATING CURRENT

=

MILLIAMPERES

400 (RMS)

Fig. 26. Maximum nonfibrillating current distribution curve for dogs, 3.00-second shocks, 11/2% = 35 mA, I50% = 80 mA, Iav!= 91.8 mA, Wav = 22.3 kg.

Fig. 28. Maximum nonfibrillating current distributioni curve for 90 mA, 15o% = 260 mA, calves, 3.00-second shocks, I1/2% Iav = 268 mA, Wav = 70 kg.
19.5..
99

99.5
99

2 z
x
W

98
95
90

2 z
Er
-i
z

98.---95-. 90-.

80 70 60 i 50 X 40 30 20
z

80~~~~~~~~~~
70-_
_ .

60-.
a.

40 -

20-.
LLI

I 301 T75-

II 1 1

T-

10

IL

C-)

C-

0.5

I 1T r -----11II 1 1(/IQ2%)-=7TSr
100 FIBRILLATING
200 CURRENT
=

a.

300 MILLIAMPERES
current

400 (RMS)

J
0

r T

100 FIBRILLATING CURRENT

A I0

6rn m ()=60) AI
200 300 MILLIAMPERES (RMS)

Fig.

sheep, 3.00-second shocks, I1/2% 229 mA, Wv = 57.4 kg.

27.

Maximum

nonfibrillating

75 mA, I50%

distribution
=

220 mA, Iav

curve

for
=

Fig. 29. Maximum nonfibrillating current distribution curve for pigs, 3.00-second shocks, I'/2% = 60 mA, 15o% = 210 mA, Iay = 198 mA, Wa. = 78.7 kg.

It is important that ventricular fibrillation follows a normal distribution at low values of current with the probability of fibrillation increasing up to about percentile 50, and then the probability decreases as indicated by the skewed nature of the distribution curves at the higher currents. At higher currents fibrillation does not occur, and very high short shocks stop a fibrillating heart. This is the basis for defibrillating techniques, which are now standard hospital operating room routine for stopping fibrillation, which frequently results from several causes in addition to

LETHAL EFFECTS OF ELECTRIC SHOCK 1) If long continued, currents in excess of one's let-go current may produce collapse, unconsciousness, asphyxia, 'and death. 2) Ventricular fibrillation is probably the most common cause of death in electric shock cases, and may be produced by moderately small currents which cause over stImulation of the heart rather than physical damage to that organ. When fibrillation occurs the rhythmic pumping actionl of the heart ceases and death rapidly follows. electric shock. 3) Shocks administered to hundreds of anlimals iindicate Currents considerably in excess of those just necessary that the minimum commercial frequency electric current to produce ventricular fibrillation may cause cardiac causing ventricular fibrillation is proportional to body arrest, respiratory inhibition, irreversible damage to the weight and inversely proportional to the square root of nervous system and serious burns. However, no numerical shock duration. For a current pathway between major data are available regarding current magnitudes necessary extremities in 50-kg mammals, the relationiship is approxifor these effects. mately (116 to 185)/\/T mA. Itis believedthat ventricular
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476

IEEE

TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY AND GENERAL APPLICATIONS, SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 1968

fibrillation in a normal adult worker is unlikely if the shock intensity is less than 116/VT mA, where T is in seconds. 4) Currents flowing through the nerve centers controlling breathing may produce respiratory inhibition, which may last for a considerable period even after interruption of the current. 5) Cardiac arrest may be caused by relatively high currents flowing in the region of the heart. 6) Relatively high currents may produce fatal damage to the central nervous system. 7) Relatively high currents may produce deep burns, and currents sufficient to raise body temperature substantially produce immediate death. 8) Delayed death may be due to serious burns or other complications.
REFERENCES

[1] L. P. Ferris, B. G. King, P. W. Spence, and H. B. Williams,

"Effect of electric shock on the heart," AIEE Trans., vol. 55, pp. 498-515, May 1936.

[2] W. B. Kouwenhoven, G. G. Knickerbocker, R. W. Chestnut, W. R. Milnor, and D. J. Sass, "Ac shocks of varying parameters affecting the heart," AIEE Trans. (Communication and Electronics), vol. 78, pp. 163-169, May 1959. [3] C. F. Dalziel, "Threshold 60-cycle fibrillating currents," AIEE Trans. (Power Apparatus and Systems), vol. 79, pp. 667-673, October 1960. [4] A. P. Kiselev, "Threshold values of safe current at mains frequency," in Probl. of Elec. Equipment, Elec. Supply, and Elec. Measurements (in Russian), Sb. MIIT, vol. 171, pp.47-58, 1963. [5] W. R. Lee, "Deaths from electric shock in 1962 and 1963," Brit. med. J., vol. ii, pp. 616-619, September 1965. [6] -, "Death from electric shock," Proc. IEE (London), vol. 113, pp. 144-148, January 1966. [7] C. F. Dalziel, E. Ogden, and C. E. Abbott, "Effect of frequency on let-go currents," AIEE Trans., vol. 62, pp. 745-750, December 1943. [8] C. F. Dalziel, J. B. Lagen, and J. L. Thurston, "Electric shock," AIEE Trans., vol. 60, pp. 1073-1079, December 1941. [9] W. R. Lee, "A clinical study of electrical accidents," Brit. J. industr. Med., vol. 18, pp. 260-269, 1961. [10] C. F. Dalziel, "A study of the hazards of impulse currents," AIEE Trans. (Power Apparatus and Systems), vol. 72, pp. 10321043, October 1953. [11] P. H. Gerst, W. H. Fleming, and J. R. Malone, "Increased susceptibility of the heart to ventricular fibrillation during metabolic acidosis," Circulation Res., vol. 19, pp. 63-70, July 1966.

Charles F. Dalziel (M'33-SM'39-F'57) was born in San Francisco, Calif., on June 6, 1904. He received the B.S. degree with honors in 1927, the M.S. degree in 1934, and the E.E. degree in 1935 from the University of California, Berkeley. He was relief substation operator, Midland Counties Public Service Corporation, Santa Maria, Calif., in 1923. From 1927 to 1929 he was testman and student engineer with the General Electric Company, Schenectady, N.Y. He was with the San Diego Gas and Electric Company, San Diego, Calif., from 1929 to 1932 in charge of system protection. From 1929 to 1932 he taught at San Diego State Teachers' College, San Diego, as an Instructor in the Extension Department. Since 1932 he has been with the Department of Electrical Engineering, University of California, and in 1968 became Professor Emeritus. He was Supervisor, Engineering Science Management War Training Program, University of California, 1941 to 1944, and Chief Technical Aide, National Defense Research Committee, Office Science Research and Development, New York, N.Y., from 1944 to 1945. He was Senior Member of a review board for U.S. Army engineers in Tokyo, Japan, in 1951. During 1951-1952 he was Fulbright Visiting Professor to the Istituto Elettrotecnico Nazionale Galileo Ferraris, Turin, Italy. He was appointed Commissioner of Examinations (electrical), California State Board of Registration for Civil and Professional Engineers, for 1954-1956. He has served as a Consultant to Kaiser Engineers, Oakland, Calif., in 1955; Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory, Los Alamos, N. Mex., from 1960 to 1965; Lawrence Radiation Laboratories, Berkeley and Livermore, Calif., since 1962; and the Rucker Company, Oakland, since 1965. He was the U.S. Delegate to the Meeting of Experts on Electrical Accidents and Related Matters, International Labor Office, Geneva, Switzerland, October 1961. Prof. Dalziel is a member of Eta Kappa Nu, Tau Beta Pi, Sigma Xi, and is a Registered Professional Engineer in the State of California.

W. R. Lee was born in London, England, in 1922. He received the M.D. degree from Guy's Hospital Medical School, University of London, London. He also holds the D.I.H. degree. He was Squadron Leader, Royal Air Force Medical Branch, and Medical Officer, British Railways. He is presently Reader in Occupational Health, University of Manchester, Manchester, England, Editor of the British Journal of Industrial Medicine, and Medical Adviser, North Western Electricity Board. His special field of research is death from electric shock. Dr. Lee is a fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine and a member of UNIPEDE Medical Group and the Society of Occupational Medicine.