Imperfections p

Types of imperfections Introduction into analysis global sway imperfections local bow imperfections bracing system imperfections

Example Portal frame

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Geometrical Imperfections p
Variance of dimensions of a structure or a member
b

Lack of verticality of a structure and straightness or flatness of a member

e0

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Geometrical Imperfections p
N

eo,d

Member Imperfection

Frame imperfection

Frame imperfection
always to be allowed for

Member imperfection:
only for slender members (rare) in sway frames frames, otherwise it is covered in the relevant buckling curves
3

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Material & Structural Imperfections p

Residual stresses: Distribution in a I-section
r r
fy

Apply load eccentricities in joints of the structure

e0

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Introduction into Analysis

In order to cover the effects of imperfections, engineers need to make appropriate allowances in the structural analysis. The following imperfections should be taken into account: Global imperfections for frames and bracing systems; Cover lack of verticality for frames or straightness of structure restrained by y bracings g Local imperfections p for individual members Cover lack of straightness or flatness of a member and residual stresses of the member

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Global Sway Imperfections

F Frame i imperfection f ti can be replaced by an q closed system y equivalent of horizontal forces applied at the floor levels (i l di (including the th foundation f d ti level). For building frames sway imperfections, p , , may be disregarded where: H Ed 0.15VEd
F1 F1

F2 F2

h
(F1+F2)/2 (F1+F2)/2

Equivalent forces

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Factor
The factor can be calculated from equation (5.5) of EN 1993:

= 0 h m
Where, 0 is the basic value: h is the reduction factor for height h applicable to columns: 2 2 h = but h 1 3 h h is the height of the structure in meters m is the reduction factor for the number of columns in a row: 1 m = 0.51 + m m is the number of columns in a row

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Local Bow Imperfections

The effects of local bow imperfection can be replaced by an equivalent closed system of horizontal forces, introduced for each column. NEd

NEd

4 N Ed e0 L

e0

8 N Ed e0 L2

NEd

NEd
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4 N Ed e0 L

Local Bow Imperfections

The values of Relative initial local bow imperfections of members for flexural buckling e0/L are given in Table 5.1 in EN 1993.

Wh Where, L is i the th member b length l th

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Local Bow Imperfections

Usually y local imperfections p are ignored g in g global analysis and covered by reduction factors and LT in member checks. for the frame is sensitive to 2nd order effects, local bow imperfections p should be incorporated p into structural analysis when:
A member has at least one moment resistant end joint; The slenderness

> 0 .5

Af y N Ed

Wh Where, NEd is i the h design d i value l of f the h compression i force f hinged at its ends. ends

is the slenderness for the member considered as

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10

Bracing System Imperfections

Bracing systems may provide lateral stability of a strut in compression or a beam in bending For members to be restrained, the strut/beam should be considered with a geometrical imperfection (initial bow) through an equivalent geometric imperfection in the form of an initial bow imperfection.

e0 = m L / 500
Where, L is the span of the bracing system

m = 0.51 +

1 m

In which m is the number of members to be restrained

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11

Bracing System Imperfections

The bow with amplitude e0 may be replaced by transverse uniform loading qd The loading qd corresponds to impact of sum of the amplitude e0 and the in-plane deflection of the bracing system q.
Member in compression (or compression g force flange of a beam) Bracing system

NEd

e0

NEd

q d = NEd 8

e0 + q L2

L
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Example - Portal Frame

The members of the p portal frame are p proposed p as made of rolled rods (beam: 533210 UB109, column: 305305 UC158). hr=2000

h 8000 h=8000

L=24000
Figure 1

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13

Load Combination
The combinations of loads are analyzed, y , refer to Figure g 2: self-weight & imposed load and wind load w = 10kN/m 40kN 40kN

imp p1

+3kN/m
Figure 2
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-2kN/m

14

Global Sway Imperfection

For formulas see EN 1993-1-1

H Ed =5 8 = 40kN < 0.15 VEd = 0.15(10 24 + 80) = 48kN

need to be considered Sway imperfection got global analysis:
1 2 = 0 h m = 0.87 = 0.003 200 8
Where, , h =
2 h = 2 8 2 3

m = 0.51 +

1 1 = 0.51 + = 0.87 m 2

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15

Internal Forces
Global imperfections:
imp 1 = V = 0.003 (10 24 + 80) = 0.96 kN

Internal forces (loading + imperfections):

NEd (kN)

VEd (kN)

MEd (kNm)

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Local Imperfection
Local imperfections for global analysis only if simultaneously (column concerned): One end of the member features a rigid connection: OK Slenderness for systemic length is greater than:

> 0,5
In this case,

A fy N Ed

20100 265 = 0,5 = 2.8 3 168.24 10

8000 y iy 139 = 0.65 < 2.8 (this condition is not met) = = = 1 93.9 93.9 0.94

hcr

The local imperfections can be ignored in global analysis.

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17

Structural Analysis

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18

Structural Analysis
Structural behaviour Types of structural analysis 1st order analysis 2nd order analysis Elastic global analysis Plastic Pl ti global l b l analysis l i Simple modelling of structural analysis Example - 2nd order effects in portal frame

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19

Structural Modeling g for Analysis y

Frame components Beams Beam-columns Beam columns Joints Beam Joint

Beam-column

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20

Joint Modeling for Analysis

Framing and joints

Continuous framing: Simple framing: Semi-continuous framing: rigid joint simple joint semi-rigid joint

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21

Structural Behaviour
Load Displacement Load parameter Full elastic response

Peak load

Frame

Elastic limit

Displacement parameter
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Structural Behaviour
Actual A t l response of f the th frame f is i non linear li Linear behaviour limited Non-linear behaviour due to: Geometrical influence of the actual deformed shape (second order effects) Joint behaviour Material yielding

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23

Second Order Effects

Sway Displacement i l Load
HEd NEd x h HEd NEd x

Frame

M(x) = HEdx M(h) = HEdh

M(x) = HEdx + p + P (x/h) M(x) = HEdh + P

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24

Second Order Effects

P- effect : due to floor sway y 1st order frame stiffness modified dominant effect P- effect : due to beam-column deflection 1st order member stiffness modified significant only for relatively slender members which is rare

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25

Global Structural Analysis

Aims of global frame analysis Determine the distribution of the internal forces Determine the corresponding deformations Means Adequate models incorporating assumptions about the behaviour of the structure and its component: members and joints Basic principles to be satisfied: Equilibrium throughout the structure Compatibility C tibilit of f deformation d f ti between b t the th frame f components t Constitutive laws for the frame components Frame model - element model must satisfy the basic principles
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Type of Structural Analysis

The internal forces & moments may be determined using either: First order analysis: Using the initial geometry of the structure, structure or Second-order analysis: Taking into account the influence of the deformation of the structure, e.g. both the sway effect (P- effect) and the P- effect (member deflection effect). The second-order effects should be considered if they increase the action effects significantly or modify significantly the structure behaviour.

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Elastic Global Analysis

Elastic global analysis should be based on the assumption that the stress-strain behaviour is linear, whatever the stress level is. is Internal forces and moments may be calculated calculated, even if the resistance of the section is based on its plastic resistance. Elastic global analysis may also be used for cross sections ti th the resistance i t of f which hi h are limited li it d b by local l l buckling.

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Elastic Global Analysis

General types of Elastic analysis:
LA: LBA: GNA: GNIA: Linear elastic analysis; Linear bifurcation analysis; y ; Geometrically non-linear analysis; Geometrically non-linear with imperfections analysis.

Simplified scheme of elastic analyses: F

Fcr

LBA GNIA

e
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Method of Structural Analysis

1st order elastic analysis

M

Indefinite linear elastic response of member sections and of joints Equilibrium established for the undeformed structural configuration
Elastic Mj M M

Mj

Elastic

Moment rotation characteristic of the section

Moment rotation characteristic of the joint

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Method of Structural Analysis

Load parameter
d order elastic analysis 2nd

cr

Indefinite linearlinear elastic response of member sections and j i t joints Equilibrium established for the deformed structure Allows for P P- effect and, if necessary, for P- effect
Displacement parameter 2nd order elastic anal analysis sis

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31

Plastic Global Analysis

Plastic g global analysis y may y be used where: the members are capable of sufficient rotation capacity to enable the required q redistributions of bending g moments to develop. the stability y of members at plastic p hinges g can be assured. Rigid plastic analysis may be applied if no effects of the deformed geometry have to be considered.

F
Simplified scheme of plastic analyses

rigid-plastic analysis
plastic hinge fib plasticity fibre l ti it

elastic-plastic analysis non-linear plastic analysis

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Method of Structural Analysis

Rigid-plastic global analysis Rigid-plastic member section behaviour Rigid-plastic joint behaviour when plastic hinges are allowed there
Rigid plastic
Mpl.Rd M Mpl.Rd p Mj,Rd

Rigid plastic

Mj

pl.Rd p d Plastic hinge M j,Rd Plastic hinge

Moment rotation characteristics of the member

Moment rotation characteristics of the joint

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Method of Structural Analysis

Load parameter

Rigid-plastic global analysis

LRP3

1 2 3

Usually a first order analysis Find critical mechanism Easy application for simple frames e.g. industrial portal frames Serviceability y deflection check
W H B C
1

Critical collapse load Plastic mechanism

Displacement parameter
W D w H B h D

E A

Beam mechanism
W H B C
3

Sway y mechanism

h D w

plastic hinge location

Combined mechanism

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Method of Structural Analysis

Elastic-perfectly plastic global analysis 2nd order analysis usually used Deterioration of frame stability as plastic hinges form Mj M Mpl.Rd M pl.Rd Mj.Rd j Rd Plastic hinge
Elastic-perfectly plastic response of member sections

M j.Rd Plastic hinge

Elastic-perfectly plastic response of joints

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Simple Modeling of Structures

First-order analysis may be used, if the following criterion is satisfied: Fcr = 10 For elastic analysis: cr FEd (5 1) (5.1) Fcr = 15 For plastic analysis: cr
FEd

Where, cr may be found using software or using Eq. 5.2 in EN 1993-1-1.

FEd

is the design loading on the structure

is the elastic critical buckling load for global instability mode based on initial elastic stiffnesses.

Fcr

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Simple Modeling of structures

A approximative formula for cr given by Clause 5.2.1(4) may be applied to: Portals with shallow roof slopes; Beam and column frames

H Ed h cr = VEd H,Ed
Where, Where

(5.2)

HEd is the horizontal reaction at bottom of the storey VEd is the total vertical load at bottom of the storey H,Ed is the storey sway when frame loaded with horizontal loads h is the storey height
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Simple Modeling of Structures

Limits on portal frames given in NOTE 1B & 2B of Clause 5.2.1: Note 1B: the portal rafter slope is not steeper than 1:2 (26) Note 2B: the axial load in the rafters or beams is not significant. when
Af y 0 .3 N Ed

(5 3) or rearranged (5.3) d to t

N Ed d 0.09 N cr

Where, Where Ncr is the elastic critical buckling load and

N cr =

2 EI
L2

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Simple Modeling of Structures

Fcr if cr = F 10 Ed Strength design using 1st order elastic analysis
Axial loading is so low that no instability of members or the frame would occur. Neglect equivalent imperfections or fictitious forces. From EC 3 cl. 6.3.1.2 simple compression ( 1) is appropriate for a member with Ncr/NEd 25. Need to check EC 3 equation (5.3) for in-plane beam or rafter member slenderness if 0 ,3
Af y N Ed

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Simple Modeling of Structures

If

3 cr < 10

Strength design using amplified 1st order elastic analysis EC3 allows the moments to be determined by amplifying the moments from a 1st order elastic analysis by a multiple, provided the equivalent global imperfections or fictitious forces are included in the analysis. the horizontal force, H, due to imperfections will be increased by the factor:
1 1 1 but cr 3.0 so,
H= 1 1 1

(VEd )

cr

cr

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40

Simple Modeling of Structures

If

<3
cr

EC3 requires 2nd order analysis rather than simply amplifying the moments from 1st order analysis. The equivalent global imperfections or fictitious forces are to be included in the analysis.

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Simple Modeling of Structures

When a braced or unbraced frame has very low slenderness, slenderness such as

15
cr

Strength g design g using g 1st order p plastic collapse p analysis. y The equivalent global imperfections or fictitious forces can be ignored in the analysis.

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2nd Order Effects in Portal Frame

The framing g spacing g is 10m c/c, and 1/200 equivalent horizontal load was applied.

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Method 1: Buckling Analysis

Eigenvalue buckling analysis is applied to predict the theoretical buckling strength of the portal frame. This method corresponds the elastic buckling analysis; an eigenvalue buckling analysis of a column will match the classical Euler solution. The design load and constraints were used to calculate the eigenvalue, g because each load has an associated buckled mode. Q was used to analysis y the The software ABAQUS buckling model

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Buckling Analysis
Eigenvalue from buckling analysis

Buckling load Fcr = = Eigenvalue = cr D i load Design l d F Ed

The boundary conditions: column base is pinned; All the beam-column joints are rigid; The column torsion is constrained; The torsion & out-of-plan rotation of rafter is constrained; the out-plan displacement of crane beam is limited.

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Buckling Modes
3 first buckling modes are shown for demonstration Including horizontal loads to simulate global imperfections

cr ,1

= 1.29

cr ,2

= 3.22

cr ,3

= 3.93

Beam, in-plane buckling

Column, Out-plane buckling

Column, Out-plane buckling

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46

Method 2: Eq. 5.2 in EC3

Limits on portal frames using formula 5.2 Slope of rafter: (15.12-13):21.5=1:10 (5.5) is less than 26, the formula is available. The largest axial load of rafter is 50kN, and the elastic critical load of thus rafter is 1843kN.

So,

N Ed 50 = = 0.027 < 0.09 N cr 1843

Formula 5.2 5 2 is available to calculate the factor cr in this portal frame

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Method 2: Eq. 5.2 in EC3

Taking Equivalent Horizontal Loads into account to simulate global imperfection:

EHF =

vertical load 2256 = = 11.3kN 200 200

For detailed F1 = 2.2kN F2 = 11.1kN

F2 F1

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Method 2: Eq. 5.2 in EC3

H,Ed is calculated by the software, and

H,Ed = 49mm
So,

H Ed h 1 13000 cr = = = 1.33 VEd H,Ed 200 49

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Method 3: BS 5950-1
This method is based on the plastic analysis, and was used in BS 5950. (see reference) For simplified, the axial load is calculated by software.
2 9

51 2 342

58

D C
37 492 316

B
250

558 743

854 Axial load (kN)

505

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50

Method 3: BS 5950 5950-1 1

For the left hand bay (ABC): Ic = 14300cm4 Ir = 21400cm4 Lr= 16.078m
I c Lr 14300 16.078 R= = = 1.276 I r h 21400 8.422
3EI r cr = 1.2 Lr 1 + p h + 0 . 3 p L c r r R 3 210 214 109 = = 2.0 1.2 3 160781 + 250 10 8422 + 0 . 3 20000 16078 1 . 276

Pc =250kN Pr =18kN 18kN

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Method 3: BS 5950 5950-1 1

For the right hand bay (DEF): Ic = 126000cm4 Ir = 41100cm4 Lr= 20.36m Pc =505kN (conservatively) Pr =34kN 34kN

I c Lr 126000 20.36 R= = = 4 .8 Ir h 41100 13

3EI r cr = 1.2 Lr 1 + pc h + 0.3 pr Lr R 3 210 411 10 9 = 1.51 = 1.2 6 20360 1 + 505 13 10 + 0 . 3 34000 20360 4 . 8
Reference: Plastic Design to BS 5950, SCI publication, publication 1996
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Comparison & Summary

Three method were used to calculate the factor cr Method 1: Method 2: Method 3:

cr

= 1.29

cr = 1.33
cr = cr = 1.51

The factor cr is less than 3, 3 and the second order effects must be considered in design.

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Resistance of Cross Section

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Resistance of Cross Section

Shear resistance Bending B di moment resistance i Tension resistance Compression resistance.

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Shear Resistance
The design shear force is denoted by VEd (shear force design effect). The design shear resistance of a cross-section is denoted by Vc,Rd Rd and may be calculated based on a plastic (Vpl,Rd l Rd) or an elastic distribution of shear stress. The design shear force, VEd, should satisfy:

VEd Vc, Rd

1.0

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Plastic Shear Resistance Vpl,Rd l Rd

Th The usual l approach h is i to t use the th plastic l ti shear h resistance i t Vpl,Rd in practice The plastic shear resistance is essentially defined as the yield strength y g in shear multiplied p by y a shear area Av The yield strength in shear is related the yield strength in tension using the von Mises yield criterion
A Vpl,Rd =
V

fy 3

M 0 = 1.0 1 0 (refer to NA to SS)

M0

For BS 5950, Pv = 0.6pyAv

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Shear Area Av
The shear area Av is in effect the area of the crosssection that can be mobilized to resist the design shear force with a moderate allowance for plastic redistribution.

For sections where the action is applied parallel to the web, this is essentially the area of the web (with some allowance for the root radii in rolled sections).

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Shear Area Av
EC 3
Rolled I and H sections, load parallel to web
Av = A 2bt f + (t w + 2r )t f hwt w
= 1.0 (refer to NA to SS)

BS 5950
Rolled I, H and Channel sections, load parallel to web Av = tD

Rolled channel sections, l d parallel load ll l to t web b

Av = A 2bt f + (t w + r )t f
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Shear Area Av
EC 3
Welded W ld d I, I H & box b sections, i load parallel to web Av = hwt w = 1.0 ( (refer to NA to SS) )

BS 5950
Welded I, & box sections, load parallel to web

Av = td

Welded I, , H & box sections, , load parallel to flange A = A h t ww v

Av =2 td

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Shear Area Av
EC 3
Rectangular hollow sections, load parallel to depth
Av = Ah / (b + h)

BS 5950
Rectangular hollow sections, load p parallel to depth p Av = AD(D+B)

Rectangular hollow sections, l d parallel load ll l to width id h

Av = Ab / (b + h)

Circular hollow sections

Av = 2 A /
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Circular hollow sections Av = 0.6A

61

Bending Moment Resistance

Eurocode 3 states that both cross-sectional cross sectional (in-plane (in plane bending) and member buckling resistance must be checked, i.e.
M Ed Mc,Rd M Ed M b,Rd
Cross-section check (In-plane bending) Member-buckling check

MEd = design bending moment Mc,Rd = design d b bending d resistance about b one principal l axis of a cross-section Mb,Rd b Rd = design buckling resistance moment

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Bending Moment Resistance

EC 3 Class 1 & 2 cross-sections:
M c, Rd = M pl, Rd = Wplf y M0

BS 5950 Class 1 & 2 cross-sections: Mc = pyS 1.2 1 2 pyZ or Cl Class 3 cross-sections: i Mc = pyZ Mc = pySeff 1.2 pyZ Class 4 cross-sections: Mc = pyZeff

Class Cl 3 cross-sections: i
M c, Rd = M El, Rd = Wel, min f y M0

Class 4 cross-sections:
M c, Rd = Weff , min f y M0

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Section Modulus
Subscripts are used to differentiate between the plastic, elastic or effective section modulus. Plastic modulus Wpl Elastic modulus Wel Effective modulus Weff

(S in BS 5950) (Z in BS 5950) (Zeff in BS 5950)

The partial factor M0 is applied to all cross-section bending resistances , and equal 1.0.

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Moment Resistance with High Shear

When the design value of the shear force is less than 50% of the design plastic shear resistance, i.e. VEd 0.5 Vpl,Rd, its effect on the moment resistance may be neglected. neglected When the design value of the shear force exceeds 50% of the design plastic shear resistance i.e. VEd > 0.5 Vpl,Rd, the yield strength fy should be reduced by (1 r) in the determination of the moment resistance, resistance Mc,Rd.
f yr = (1 ) f y

where = 2VEd 1 V pl , Rd

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Moment Resistance with High Shear

EC 3 When, VEd > 0,5Vpl,Rd
An alternative approach is available to determine the reduced design plastic resistance i moment for f class l 1 and 2 I-sections.

BS 5950
When, Fv > 0.6 Pv F Cl For Class 1 or 2 cross sections i Mc = py (S Sv) For Class 3 semi-comp sections Mc = py (S Sv/1.5) F Cl For Class 4 slender l d sections ti Mc = py (Zeff Sv/1.5)

M V , y , Rd =

2 (W pl , y , Rd 0.25 Aw / tw ) f y

M0

But Where Where,

M V , y , Rd M c , y , Rd
Aw = hwt w
2

2VEd = 1 V pl , Rd

Where, = [2Fv/Pv 1.0]2

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Tension Resistance
EC 3 states that tension resistance should be verified as follows:

N t , Ed N t , Rd

(Tension check)

Nt,Ed is the tension design effect Nt,Rd is the design g tension resistance Design tension resistance Nt,Rd is limited either by: , Yielding of the gross cross-section Npl,Rd Or ultimate failure of the net cross cross-section section Nu,Rd Rd Whichever is the lesser.
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Tension Resistance - Welding

For F members b connected t d by b welding ldi g tension resistance Nt,Rd q to the y yield Design t Rd is equal strength of the cross-section, Npl,Rd

N pl , Rd =

Af y

M0

A is the gross area of the cross-section M0 = 1.0 from Singapore NA

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Tension Resistance - Bolting

For members connected by y bolting, g, Nt,Rd t Rd is reduced due to holes and is the lesser of: 1. Yield resistance of gross section

N pl,Rd =

Af y

M0
Anet f u
Anett is the net area of the cross-section fu is the ultimate tension strength

2. Ultimate strength of net section

0.9 is a reduction factor for eccentricity, stress concentration etc

N u, Rd = 0.9

M2

M2 is the partial factor for fracture, and M2 = 1.10 in Singapore NA

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Determination of the Net Area

Th The Net Area of f the h cross-section i is i the h gross area deduction for bolt holes For each fastener hole, deduction is the gross cross sectional area of the hole g Special rules apply for Angles connected through one leg; T sections and channels connected through outstands

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Non-Staggered Non Staggered Fasteners

When the fastener holes are not staggered, gg , the total area to be deducted for fastener holes should be the maximum sum of the sectional areas of the holes in any cross-section perpendicular to the member axis. axis p
1

Anet = A nd 0t
n = number of holes
d0
Pl t thi Plate thickness k t

e2

p2

A Anet t

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Staggered Fasteners
When fastener holes are staggered, the total area to be deducted is the greater of: 1. The area for holes crossing a perpendicular cross section 2. the sum of the areas of all holes in any y diagonal g or zig-zag g g line across 2 the member less s t/4p for each gauge space in the chain of holes
Plate thickness t

d0

On section a a-a, a Net Area = A nd0t On section a-b, Net Area = A 2d0t s2t/4p Net cross-sectional area is the lesser of:

Anet = A nd d 0t
Anett s2 = A t nd 0 4 p 72
72

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Tension Resistance
BS 5950

EC 3 Tension resistance
N t , Rd = min (N pl , Rd ; N u , Rd )
N pl, Rd = Af y

Tension capacity
Pt = p y Ae

Ae is the sum of the effective net area ae ae = Ke*an ag

M0
Anet f u

For grade S275: Ke = 1.2 For grade S355: Ke = 1.1 For grade S460: Ke = 1.0 For other steel grades: Ke =(Us/1.2)/p /1 2)/py ag is the g gross area of the element an is the net area of the element

N u, Rd = 0.9

M2

Anet = A nd 0t
Anet = A nd 0t
MIN Staggered fasteners

Anet

s2 = A t nd 0 4 p

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Compression Resistance
The design g value of the compression p force NEd at each cross-section shall satisfy:

N Ed N c , Rd
For Class 1, 2 & 3 cross-sections Unaffected by local buckling Design i compression i resistance i Nc,Rd equals l the h plastic resistance Npl,Rd:

N c , Rd =

Af y

M0

M1 = 1.00, in NA to SS EN 1993-1

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Compression Resistance
For Class 4 sections: Local buckling of Class 4 prevents the attainment of the squash load Design D i compression i resistance i t limited li it d to t local l l buckling resistance,

N c , Rd =

Aeff f y

M0

Aeff is the area of the effective cross-section If Class 4 section is unsymmetrical, it has to be designed as beam-column due to the additional moment arising from eccentricity of the centroidal axis. axis

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Resistance to Transverse Force

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Resistance to Transverse Force

Web bearing and buckling Resistance to transverse forces Verification Example

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Introduction
Web Bearing g and Web Buckling g are modes of failure that arise from concentrated forces being transversely applied onto the webs through the flanges of the sections. sections

Web bearing (a) and buckling (b) failure modes

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Plate Stiffener

DOUBLE STRUT WITH SPLAY

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79

Strut-Waler Connection with Plate Stiffener

Plate Stiffener

Waler Flange

Waler

Strut

Waler Web

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Web bearing and buckling

Web bearing failure means that the web yields at the its most vulnerable location, close to the root radius at the junction of the web and flange where the force is concentrated. Buckling happens when the web behaves like a slender column and buckles. buckles At both ends of the web as a column, column it is assumed that the web is adequately restrained by the flange to which it is connected in the lateral direction, and therefore, the web can neither rotate nor move laterally.

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Design Treatment is very different from current Approach

BS5950 1 requires BS5950-1 i th t two that t i d independent d t checks h k are carried i d for web bearing and buckling. EC3 presents a single check to deal with these two failure modes. This single check accounts for the bearing and b kli buckling of f the th web b when h th member the b i subjected is bj t d to t a transverse force.

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Resistance to Transverse Force

EC1993-1-5 distinguishes between two types of forces applied through a flange on to the web: i) forces resisted by shear in the web [load types (a) and (c)] ii) forces transferred through the web directly to the other flange [load type (b)].

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Load Types yp & kF

Buckling coefficients for different types of load application

If there are no web stiffeners, a=, hw/a=0

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Web Failure
i. ii. For load type (a) and (c) the web is likely to fail as a result of: Crushing of the web close to the flange accompanied by yielding of the flange. Localised buckling and crushing of the web beneath the flange, the combined effect sometimes referred to as web crippling. crippling

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Web Failure
i i. ii. For loading type (b) the web is likely to fail as a result of: W b Crushing; Web C hi Buckling of the web over most of the depth of the member.

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Web Buckling g Failure

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Resistance to Transverse Force

For unstiffened or stiffened webs the design resistance to local buckling under transverse forces should be taken as:

FRd =

yw eff w

L t

M1

Where, tw is the thickness of the web; fyw is the yield strength of the web; M1 is the partial factor for resistance of members (M1 = 1.0 in SG National Annex) Leff is the effective length of web.

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Effective Length g for Resistance

The effective length g of web should be determined from:

Leff = f ly
where, f is the reduction factor due to local buckling ly is i the th effective ff ti loaded l d d length, l th appropriate i t to t the th length of the stiff bearing ss.

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Stiff Bearing g Length g

The stiff bearing length ss on the flange should be taken as the distance over which the applied load is effectively distributed at a slope of 1:1 ss is less than hw

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Stiff Bearing g Length g

The stiff bearing length is not given in EC3; it can be calculated with the following equations:
t T Ss r T Ss t s

ss=t+1.6r+2T

ss=t+1.6s+2T

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Stiff Bearing g Length g

If the bearing g surface of the applied pp load rests at an angle g on the flange surface, as shown below, ss should be taken as zero.

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Effective Loaded Length g

The effective loaded calculated as follow: For type (a) and (b) length ly should be

l y = s s + 2t f 1 + m1 + m 2

but ly distance between adjacent j transverse stiffeners.

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Effective Loaded Length g

For type (c) ly should be taken as the smallest value of the following equations.
2

l y = le + t f

l m1 e + + m2 2 t f

l y = l e + t f m1 + m 2
Where,
2 k F Et w le = ss + c 2 f yw hw

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Non-Dimensional Factors m1& m2

m1 = f yf b f f yw t w

where, fyf is the yield strength of the flange fyw is the yield strength of the web
hw m 2 = 0.02 t f
m2 = 0

if F > 0.5
if F < 0.5

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Longitudinal g Stiffener kF
For web with longitudinal stiffeners kF may be taken as:
b1 hw k F = 6 + 2 + 5.44 - 0.21 s a a
Where, b1 is the depth of the loaded subpanel taken as the clear Where distance between the loaded flange and the stiffener
2

b1 b1 0.3, and 0 .3 a hw And loading according to Type (a)

This equation is valid for 0.05

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Longitudinal g Stiffener kF
a s = 10.9 3 13 h hw t w w I sl ,1 b1 210 0 . 3 + a
3

Where, Isl,1 is the second moment of area of the stiffener closet to the loaded g flange including g contributing parts of the web according.

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Reduction Factor F
The reduction factor F should be obtained from:

F =

0 .5

1.0

where F = where,

l y t w f yw Fcr

3 tw Fcr = 0.9k F E hw

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Verification under Transverse Force

The verification should be performed as follow:

FEd 2 = 1 .0 f yw Leff t w

M1
Where Fed Where, d is the design transverse force; Leff is the effective length for resistance to transverse forces; tw is the thickness of the plate.

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Verification under Interaction

If the girder is subjected to a concentrated transverse force and bending , the combined effect should satisfy the following:

2 + 0.81 1.4
M Ed 1 .0 Where, 1 = f yW pl

M0

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Example - Resistance to Transverse Force

Determine the resistance to transverse force of a 406 140 UB39 Grade S355 steel section under the type of load application shown below:

ss = 50 mm

c = 2725 mm

5500 mm

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Section Properties
b z r tf

h = 398.0mm b = 141.8mm tw = 6.4mm 6 4mm tf = 8.6mm

y

h hw d

tw s z

r = 10.2mm tf = 8.6mm<16mm, hence fy= 355N/mm2 hence,

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Load Type & kF

The load application is type (a) There are no web stiffeners, stiffeners a=, /a=0 hw/
kF hw = 6 + 2 =6 a
2

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Fcr & Non Non-Dimensional Dimensional factor m

3 tw Fcr = 0.9k F E hw

6. 4 3 = 0.9 6 210000 380.8 = 780649 N

m1 = f yf b f f yw t w = 355 141.8 = 22.2 355 6.4

Assuming F > 0.5 hw m2 = 0.02 t f

2 380 . 8 = 0.02 = 39.2 8.6 2

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Effective Loaded Length ly

l y = s s + 2t f 1 + m1 + m2

= 50 + 2 8.6 1 + 22.2 + 39.2 = 202mm

F =
=

l y t w f yw Fcr 202 6.4 355 = 0.77 > 0.5 780649

ok

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Resistance to Transverse Force

F =
= 0.5

F
0.5 = 0.65 1.0 0.77
ok

Leff = F l y = 0.65 202 = 131mm

FRd =

f yw Leff t w

M1

355 131 6.4 = 10 -3 = 298kN 1.0

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