COLLEGE PHYSICS: PHYS 111 Tribble SUMMARY MATERIAL ON FLUIDS

Dr.

A fluid is a substance which can flow. Hence, under the term 'fluid' we include both liquids and gases. In 'particle' motion we usually have the mass of the particle fixed (constant throughout the problem. !e have a similar situation when dealing with fluids. However, it is not the 'mass' which is fixed, rather the density (mass"unit volume . #iven the density of the fluid, the mass is calculated from$ m % & . 'asic (implifying Assumptions on )luids$ In our study of fluids we will simplify the problem by assuming that the density is a constant. ( % constant . *his means that we assume an 'ideal' fluid$ + homoge eo!" #l!i$$ i.e., the density is everywhere the same. , i %om&re""ible #l!i$$ we assume (as an approximation that the fluid cannot be compressed. ()or solid's and liquids the compressibility '-' is small. Hence, for liquids this is a good approximation. !e will not be able to use this approximation for gases, however . !e also assume conservation of mass for the fluid. *hat is, no fluid is 'created' (sources , or 'destroyed' (sin-s throughout the problem. *his assumption gives us a basic relation for fluids$ Co 'i !i'( Rel)'io $ If we consider a fluid (liquid passing through a pipe as shown, then conservation of mass requires that the same amount of mass comes out the pipe, as goes in during any time interval. (electing the time interval as one second, then we must have$ .in"sec % A+ v+ % .out"sec % A, v, (ince is constant, we have the /ontinuity 0quation$ Co 'i !i'( E*!)'io $ A+ v+ % A, v, A&&li%)'io o# Me%h) i%" 'o Fl!i$"$ If we apply the wor-1energy theorem to a sample of an ideal fluid, we can develop a fundamental relation called 'ernoulli's 0quation. *his states that at any point in the fluid a combination of quantities is always constant. !e write this stating that at two points (+ 2 (, in the fluid we have$ 3+ 4 g y+ 4 (+", (v+ where$
,

v2 x v1 A
2

(equ.+

3, 4 g y, 4 (+", (v,

(equ. ,

3 % pressure (force"unit area in the fluid y % elevation of point above a fixed hori5ontal level v % speed of fluid *he terms can be recalled with ease by noting that they are essentially energy"unit volume terms. *hus 3 %

)"A % () x "& or wor-"unit volume6 g y is a gravitational potential energy"unit volume6 (+", v, is a -inetic energy"unit volume . All fluid problems can be treated using these , fundamental relations. )or special situations we can use these , equations to deduce useful, special situation, formulas. *hus we will brea- up the problem into fluid statics (fluids at rest , and fluids in motion. I+ FLUIDS AT REST$ + . 3ressure 7ifferential in a (tatic )luid$ If we insert v % 8 the continuity equation reduces to the identity 8 % 8. 'ernoulli's equation, however, gives us the result$ 3, 1 3+ % g y+ 1 g y, or 3 % g h (h % y+ 1 y, .

*he difference in pressure between , points in a static fluid depends only on the depth. 0.g., !hat is the pressure at the bottom of a swimming pool 9m deep: !e have$ 3 % g h % (+ gm"cm9 (;.< m"sec, (9 m % (+89 -g"m9 (;.< (9 % ,;.9 x +89 ="m, *he absolute pressure at the bottom is then$ 3, % 3+ 4 ,;.9 x +89 % 3atm 4 .,;9 x +8> % +.,;9 x +8> ="m, ?or 3a (3ascals @ , *he Hydraulic 3ress$ P)"%)l," L)-$ A3ressure applied to an enclosed fluid is transmitted undiminished to every portion of the fluid and the walls of the containing vessel.A /onsider the hydraulic press shown. (ince the fluid is static, the pressure (at the same depth is everywhere the same. *hen by 3ascal's F2 F1 Baw, if the pressure at point (+ is increased by the application of the force )+, then we have$ 3+ % )+"A+ % 3, % ),"A,. *hus$ ), % (A,"A+ )+ . A
1

*hus the force exerted on a bra-e pedal (small piston is magnified many times at the bra-e shoes (or drums by the hydraulic system.

9 3ressure #auges$

Illustrated is the open1tube manometer being used to measure the pressure in a container filled with a gas. (ince the liquid is at rest, then the pressure differential between points (+ and (, is measured by the difference in elevation of the liquid levels. (ince the tube at (, is open, then 3, % atmospheric pressure, and we have$ 3+ % 3atm 4 g(y, 1 y+ . (ince many types of pressure gauges have an 'open end', then we will have to add atmospheric pressure to the reading of the gauge in order to determine absolute pressure.

liquid

(2)

Gas
(1) y
1

)or instance, when your tire gauge reads A 9, lb"in, A it is reading gauge pressure. *his means the pressure inside is 9, lb"in, greater than outside. Hence, the absolute pressure inside is$ +C.D lb"in, 4 9, lb""in, % CE.D lb"in, . C Archimedes' 3rinciple$ An obFect of weight '!' attached to a spring balance 2 submersed in a fluid produces a reading on the balance which is less than !. *he obFect is in equilibrium 2 hence the sum of vertical forces must be 5ero. )rom the figure we have$ )sb 4 )bot % ! 4 )top where )sb is the force exerted by the spring balance (the apparent weight 2 the )top 2 )bot are the forces at the top 2 bottom of the obFect due to the fluid. F sb Ftop

m
Fbot. W

If we assume the obFect has a constant cross sectional area 'A', then we have$ )sb % ! 4 )top 1 )bot % ! 1 (3bot 1 3top A *he pressure differential between bottom 2 top is Fust of the obFect. *hus we have$ Apparent !eight % )sb % ! 1 g & . *he product g & is the weight of the fluid displaced by the obFect. Hence the statement of Archimedes' 3rinciple$ Ar%hime$e" Pri %i&le$ AAn obFect (partially, or fully submersed in a fluid is bouyed up by a force equal to the weight of the fluid displaced.A > )orce Against !all of a 7am$ g h and the product of 'h' 2 'A' is the volume &

*he pressure is a function of the depth of the water only. *he force exerted on the wall is different at different depths. !hat is the total force on the wall of the dam: (ince 3(y (the pressure at depth y is a linear function of y, then we may use for an average value, the expression$ 3ave % (+", G 3(y, 4 3(y+ H % (+", g Gy, 4 y+H .

F y
1

*his last expression is also the pressure at the point half way down.

*he total force on the face of the dam is then this pressure (+", way down times the total area of the face of the dam (exposed to the water . II+ FLUIDS IN MOTION: )or fluids in motion we have both 'ernoulli's equation and the continuity equation. *here are a number of special situations we can discuss. + . *orricelli's *heorem (speed of efflux /onsider the tan- of liquid shown. !e have a small hole at point (, and wish to determine the velocity of the water coming out the hole (2 hence, the number of gallons"minute . Bet us apply 'ernoulli's equation at the points$ (+ top of liquid in the tan-, and (, at the hole. *he absolute pressures 3+ 2 3, in 'ernoulli's equation can be replaced by gauge pressures since we would have a 3atm on both sides of the equation. *hus we would have$ 3+ 4 g y+ 4 (+", (v+ , % 3, 4 g y, 4 (+", (v,
,

(1) A y
2 1

P1 v1

h A y
1 2

P2 v2 (2)

!e also have a ,nd equation from the continuity equation.

*his gives us a relationship between the velocity of the water at (, (speed of efflux and the velocity of the liquid at (+ (speed with which the water level is dropping . v, % (A+"A, v+ . (=ote$ if one includes 'streamlining effects' at the hole, then one uses a figure of approximately E>I of the area of the hole for A, . #iven$ y+, y,, 3+, 3,, , A+, A, , we see we have two equations in the two un-nowns$ v + 2 v, . However, we note that there are a number of cases where the problem simplifies even more. /ase +$ Jpen *an-$ If the top of the tan- is 'open' then the pressures at (+ and (, are both atmospheric 2 these cancel. If the tan- is enclosed, then we can set 3 , % 8 (8 gauge pressure and 3+ % gauge pressure inside the tan-.

/ase ,$ Barge *an-$ If the cross1sectional area of the tan- is much larger than that of the hole, then we can neglect the speed at which the level of water in the tan- is falling (v+ 8 . *hus if we assume a large open tan-, then 'ernoulli's equation gives us$ v, %
, gh

where 'h' is the vertical distance between the hole 2 the top of the liquid. =ote that this is the same result as for a 'body dropped through a distance 'h'. /ase 9$ High 3ressure *an-$ If the tan- is closed and the gauge pressure inside is high, then the pressure differential due to the depth 'h' can be neglected. Assuming the tan- is large, then we have simply$ v, %
,P "

, . &enturi *ube$ (meas. of speed 2 amount of flow Applying 'ernoulli's equation to the situation shown, we have the g y terms canceling and, hence 3+ 4 (+", (v+
,

3, 4 (+", (v,

*he continuity equation tells us that the ratio of the speeds at (+ to (, is given by the inverse ratio of the areas. *hus the speed at (, is greater than the speed at (+ and, from the above result, we see that the pressure at (+ must be greater than the pressure at (, .

(1)

v1

(2) v2

*he pressure differential between (+ 2 (, is measured directly from the elevations of the fluids in the two open tubes. *hus, if the speed at (+ is -nown, the speed at (, can be simply calculated. If, on the other hand, the speed at (+ is not -nown, we can measure the diameters of the tubes at (+ 2 (, , obtain the areas and write out the continuity equation. *his again gives us , equations in the , un-nown speeds. In either case, we find that the square of the speed at (, is directly proportional to the pressure differential. Hence the tube at (, can be 'scaled' to read directly the speed v ,. Ksed in this fashion, the device is frequently called a '&enturi .eter'.

9 . .easurement of 3ressure in a .oving )luid$

*he pressure '3' in a fluid flowing in an enclosed pipe can be measured with an open tube manometer as shown in the figure. *he probe inserted into the pipe is small so that the flow in the pipe will not be significantly disturbed. (ince the fluid in the manometer is at rest, we have$ 3 % 3atm 1 m g h (where m % density of the manometer fluid

P
h

3itot *ube$ *his is a device which also measures pressure in a moving fluid. In the figure a stagnation point forms at the opening of the probe tube (point (, . (etting v, % 8 in 'ernoulli's equation and ta-ing the other point anywhere in the fluid far removed from the probe , we have$ 3, % 3 4 (+", v, . *he pressure 3, is determined by measurement of 'h'. Lnowledge of the speed of flow (v permits calculation of the pressure '3'.

C Bift on an Airplane !ing$ .ost /ollege 3hysics texts will include a section on the 'Beft on an Airplane !ing.' *he argument is that the air travels faster over the curved top than the bottom and hence by 'ernoulli's equation there is a pressure difference between the top and the bottom. *his is true. However, this is not what produces 'lift' for an airplaneM (If this were true a plane couldn't fly upside down.