I have taken efforts in this Assignment. However, it would not have been possible without the kind support and help of many individuals. I would like to extend my sincere thanks to all of them. We take this opportunity to thank all those who have assisted to us and guided, encouraged in numerous ways in our course and Assignment Department of Quantity surveying of the British College of Applied Studies., for helping us to obtain the information to carry out this Assignment Successfully. I extend my most grateful and sincere to thanks to our lecturer Mr.MM.Mubeen for guiding us throughout our Subject Duration and for all valuable suggestions given to us during the Subject time to complete the Assignment. I would like to express my gratitude towards my family of for their kind co-operation and encouragement which help me in completion of this project.
Thank you
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01.Task-1.1
A. Introduction..3 B. Truss.4 - 7 C. Spans....8 -10 D. Conclusion...11 E. Truss Manufacturer......12 - 13 02.Task -1.2 A. Concrete Casings..14 B. Board Casings...15 - 16 C. Prayed Coatings........17 - 18 D. Intumescent Paint..19 - 20 03.Task -1.3 A. Beam -Beam Connections.........21 B. Beam - Column Connections22 - 23 C. Column - Beam Connections ...24 D. Column Concrete base Connections .25 - 26 E. Bolting and Riveting 27 - 28 F. Welding..29 - 31 04.Task -1.4 A. Introduction...32 B. Advantages of Prestressing...33-34 C. Source of Prestressing force.........35 D. External or Internal...36 E. Pre-tensioning or Post tensioning.37 F. Linear or Circular Prestressing.....38 G. Multiaxial Prestressing.....39 Conclusion..40 Reference.41
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Introduction A truss, or lattice structure, is a structural assembly of small interconnected elements. Trusses are formed by an interconnected assembly of relatively small elements, which create a lattice arrangement. The overall form, size and shape of the truss is as important as the strength of the individual components, and a wide variety of design options is available. A truss acts like a beam, with bending resisted by the couple created by forces in the top and bottom members. When an I-shaped beam is subjected to simple bending it can be seen that the bulk of resistance to bending moment is offered by a couple consisting of the forces in the flanges multiplied by the distance between them. Accepting that little error is involved in assuming that all resistance to bending is offered in this way, the most efficient system will be one in which the flange forces are reduced to a minimum to save material, and the distance between increased accordingly.
Figure 1.11 Shear forces are resisted by the internal members. This, however, leaves the problem of accommodating shear forces which, in the case of the Ibeam, were absorbed by the web. To continue to provide a solid web would waste a lot of material. As an alternative, discrete members running diagonally, and sometimes vertically, are used to carry the shear. The resulting system, given the generic name of a truss, will carry loads over large spans with great economy. Trusses are structurally efficient and particularly popular for long span roofs. Trusses are highly efficient, able to span considerable distance, and they are visually light. The economy in use of materials has led to the use of truss systems in preference to beams in a large number of situations, both in the vertical and horizontal planes. They became popular solutions to the problem of roofing in large clear areas such as factories, workshops and railway stations. In these situations the increased structural depth inherent in truss structures was not unduly punitive. In contrast, their use as floor support systems was hampered by their increased depth.
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In Architecture and Structural Engineering, a truss is a structure comprising one or more triangular units constructed with straight slender members whose ends are connected at joints referred to as nodes. External forces and reactions to those forces are considered to act only at the nodes and result in forces in the members which are either tensile or compressive forces. Moments (torsional forces) are explicitly excluded because, and only because, all the joints in a truss are treated as revolutes.
In this article, we are going to discuss the various types of roof trusses in wood and steel and their uses in various kinds of construction.
Different types of Steel Roof Trusses Pitched roof trusses Pratt trusses Howe trusses Fink trusses Fan trusses Fink and Fan Truss Mansard trusses Parallel chord trusses Floor Girder Warren Truss lattice girders
1.111 Pitched roof trusses Most common types of roof trusses are pitched roof trusses wherein the top chord is provided with a slope in order to facilitate natural drainage of rainwater and clearance of dust/snow accumulation. These trusses have a greater depth at the mid-span. Due to this even though the overall bending effect is larger at mid-span, the chord member and web member stresses are smaller closer to the mid-span and larger closer to the supports. The typical span to maximum depth ratios of pitched roof trusses are in the range of 4 to 8, the larger ratio being economical in longer spans. Pitched roof trusses may have different configurations
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Figure 1.12 Pratt truss In Pratt trusses web members are arranged in such a way that under gravity load the longer diagonal members are under tension and the shorter vertical members experience compression. This allows for efficient design, since the short members are under compression. However, the wind uplift may cause reversal of stresses in these members and nullify this benefit Howe Trusses
Figure 1.13 Howe truss The converse of the Pratt is the Howe. This is commonly used in light roofing so that the longer diagonals experience tension under reversal of stresses due to wind load. Fink trusses
Figure 1.14 Fink truss Fink trusses are used for longer spans having high pitch roof, since the web members in such truss are sub-divided to obtain shorter members.
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Figure 1.15 Fan truss Fan trusses are used when the rafter members of the roof trusses have to be sub-divided into odd number of panels Fink and Fan Truss
Figure 1.16 Fink and fan truss A combination of fink and fan can also be used to some advantage in some specific situations requiring appropriate number of panels. Mansard trusses
Figure 1.17 Mansard truss Mansard trusses are variation of fink trusses, which have shorter leading diagonals even in very long span trusses, unlike the fink and fan type trusses.
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Figure 1.18 Warren Truss Warren configuration is frequently used in the case of parallel chord trusses. The advantage of parallel chord trusses is that they use webs of the same lengths and thus reduce fabrication costs for very long spans. Modified Warren is used with additional verticals, introduced in order to reduce the unsupported length of compression chord members.
Figure 1.19 lattice girders The saw tooth north light roofing systems use parallel chord lattice girders to support the north light trusses and transfer the load to the end columns. The economical span to depth ratio of the parallel chord trusses is in the range of 12 to 24. The total span is subdivided into a number of panels such that the individual panel lengths are appropriate (6m to 9 m) for the stringer beams, transferring the carriage way load to the nodes of the trusses and the inclination of the web members are around 45 degrees.
Figure 1.2
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The rates have been developed from cost models of the different building types and for each the average weight of the structural frame has been given. As already highlighted, before using such standard ranges it is important to confirm the anticipated frame weight and variables such as the floor to floor heights with the design team to determine whether they are above or below the average and to adjust the rate used accordingly.
Similarly, all of the other key cost drivers of complexity, site conditions, location, function, logistics, programmed and procurement strategy should be considered in turn.
Low rise buildings with a regular, short span structural grid are typical features of business park offices and teaching facilities. A key feature of these buildings is flexibility, particularly for speculative business park developments that need to appeal to as many potential occupiers as possible. The buildings often need to be easily subdivided into smaller units and have large floor plates, typically are two to four storeys and have floor to floor heights of 3.75-4m These buildings will typically have a uniform grid of 6 to 9m that provides largely column-free space and relatively high floor to floor heights. The lack of complex steel structures needed to construct the regular grid contributes to keeping the average steel frame weight down, typically 50-60kg/m2 including fittings, but this category can cover a lot of building types and functions and this central assumption therefore needs to be reviewed with the design team.
Due to the low rise nature of these buildings, the fire protection requirements are not as onerous as for high rise developments and 30 to 60 minute fire protection would be considered standard.
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High rise construction (10 to 15 storeys) is a typical feature of city centre construction and particularly commercial buildings. These buildings will often have a requirement for longer structural grid spans to achieve more open space in the lettable floor areas, increasing the weight of the steel frame.
To maximise floor to ceiling heights non-standard steel sections may also be adopted, with cell beams used to increase stability, distribute services and increase flexibility in the building fit out. These heavier sections will also increase the weight of the frame.
City centre buildings are generally constructed on existing confined or irregular sites, which influence the building form and is likely to prevent the use of a regular column grid and may result in alterations to floor plates on the upper storeys.
In mixed use schemes, transfer structures may also be utilised to reduce the wider grids of office or retail areas at lower levels to a more rationalised residential grid on upper floors. All of these factors contribute to a higher average weight of the steel frame, typically 7585kg/m2 including fittings, and along with the increased complexity result in significantly higher structural frame ranges than for the simpler, more regular low rise buildings.
The rate range given in figure 3 is generally applicable for buildings up to around 15 storeys; tall buildings above 15 storeys start to have less comparables in terms of benchmarks and are likely to have a much higher proportion of complex elements, non-standard sections and complicated logistics, especially when constructed on tight city centre sites. The rate range for tall buildings can be 15-20% higher than the top of the standard range.
Industrial buildings can cover a range of uses, for example warehouses, non-food retail, science parks and distribution centres. The most common building form is a single storey warehouse with varying proportions of office space in a first floor mezzanine level. The traditional structural frame for an industrial building is a steel portal frame, as flexibility of the internal space is a priority, which necessitates regular column spacings and long spans for a clear internal area.
There can however be variants on the standard frame design, for example a steel portal frame incorporating north lights, and this would be a project specific factor that would need consideration as part of the adjustment of the standard cost ranges. The use of a north light frame, for example, can increase the frame cost by as much as 30%.
Another factor that must be considered as part of industrial building frame costs is the fire protection requirements. Commonly fire protection is only required in single storey buildings to satisfy boundary conditions and this is a project specific factor that will need some liaison with the design team.
Another key factor in determining the frame cost of industrial buildings is the storey height of the warehouse space. While the gross internal floor area may be the same, the weight of the steel frame of a high eaves single storey industrial building will be higher than for a low eaves building, resulting in a higher overall frame cost per m2.
Typical structural steel frame weights for low eaves buildings (6-8m high) are around 40kg/m2 overall of GIA, including fittings and are around 50kg/m2 for high eaves buildings (1013m high). However, ranges for high eaves buildings are generally wider than for low eaves buildings as they can have a much higher proportion of upper floor areas, across as many as 3 mezzanine levels; the frame rates for these buildings therefore need to be looked at carefully on a building by building basis.
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Manufacturing Steel roof trusses are typically assembled on large metal or wood tables. The tables are fitted with pins and clamp fixtures that hold the truss pieces in place. Chords and webs are placed in the jig, and then drilled using self-tapping hexagonal screws. After the jig has been completed, it typically takes two experienced workers a short time to lay out the material attach them with screws. Ideally, the truss is loaded directly on the delivery truck. However, when this is not possible, the completed trusses are stacked, banded and stored in the truss yard, either vertically or horizontally. When hauling steel trusses, they are stacked along their bottom chord and secured at the top with additional pieces of light gauge track or stud.
Step 1. Truss material comes off the assembly line cut to length and machinelabeled. The material for each truss is stacked and staged on movable carts and staged for assembly.
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Figure 1.24
Figure 1.25
Step 4. Trusses are loaded onto trucks directly from the assembly stations. This assembly station, located in Freeport, FL has a built in crane/boom assembly to place trusses directly onto waiting trucks.
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1.2 How do you apply different fire resisting systems in the above steel portal frame.
In buildings, fire protection entails a series of measures that lead to the provision of escapes, compartments and suppression systems to either prevent or mitigate an outbreak of fire. A wide range of materials and products are available to protect structural steelwork from fire. An appropriate type of protection can be selected based on the needs of the development. The fire protection system can be applied using the profile, box and solid methods. Steel beams that are designed as a composite section with the slab usually require a three-sided protection. Vertical members such as columns usually require a four-sided protection. The materials used for protection of structural steel work may be grouped as. Concrete casings Board casings Sprayed coatings Intumescent Paint
Concrete casings Traditionally, designers would provide the fire protection in accordance to the prescriptive fire code. Concrete encasement or concrete infill of hollow steel sections, is one such method of fire protection for structural steelwork.
Figure 1.27 Concrete casings The advantages of concrete encasement are Durable and robust; used mostly in cases where resistance to impact damage, abrasion and weather exposure are important. Elements can be designed as composite members to enhance the load resistance.
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Board casings Fire- rated board systems that meet the required fire resistance rating are permitted to be used for protection to structural steel beams and columns in buildings. Such boards are usually made from calcium silicate or gypsum plaster and are used for cladding steelworks. The boards may vary from 15 mm to 30 mm thick and can provide up to 4 hours of fire-rating.
Figure 1.28
Fire-Rated Board
Proprietary board systems (including the framing and fixing details) must be installed in accordance with the manufacturers specifications. The fire-rated boards need not be in full contact with the steel element. Gaps between the board and steel element are allowed. However, all board joints should be filled with non-combustible materials such as gypsum or cement grout. The purpose of the joint filling is to provide support to the boards to prevent them from being damaged due to impact. Fire-rated boards can also be used to clad circular steel members and any other non-standard steel members.
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The advantages of fire-rated boards are: Easy to install in a dry process Easy to finish with decorative materials The disadvantages are: Holes cut into the board (e.g. for services) have to be filled with a compatible fire protection material. Gypsum plasterboard will lose its insulation property after a fire, so replacement is likely to be required.
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Cementitious spray-fire proofing Cementitious spray-fireproofing can be used on structural steel columns, beams, joists, trusses, floor and roof decking. However, for application on columns, the spray-on material will be more susceptible to damage during construction, fitting-out or maintenance. Therefore the site personnel should exercise care to ensure that the applied protection remains in place. The advantages of spray-fireproofing are: Lower cost compared with other passive fire protection system Easy to apply onto complicated detailing and connections Quicker in application through spraying Higher productivity for fast-setting versions
The disadvantages are: Application method is wet, and can be messy when the building is in use Compared to architectural finishes, the resulting textured surface finish is not as aesthetically pleasing Spray-on material needs to be protected from damage during construction, fitting-out or renovations Not suitable for off-site application due to the risk of damaging the protection during transportation and erection
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Installation of trades such as clips, hangars, support sleeves, and other attachments which are required to penetrate the fireproofing should be done BEFORE the application of the ire proofing material. Installation of services such as ducts, piping, equipment or other suspended items should be done AFTER the fireproofing is completed and inspected.
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5.
Conclusion Im propose intumescent Paint coating to fire protection to steel structure. Low maintenance, Start up cost benefits, Project life cost benefits, Construction Speed for depend these futures .
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Connections Many types based on function Beam-to-Beam Connections Beam-to-Column Connections Column-to-Column Connections Column-to-concrete base Connections Gusset plate connections (truss type, frame type, bracings, ) Beam-beam connections The principles of beam-beam connections are similar to those for beam-to-column connection, although some additional preparation may be necessary if beams are to be connected with the top flanges level as is normal. Beam-beam connections are normally detailed so that the top flanges of the two beams are level. The end of the secondary (supported) beam is therefore often notched to enable attachment to the web of the main (supporting) beam. The simplest concept for a beam-beam connection is to support one beam directly on the top flange of the other. This is often used with the parallel beam system, providing an efficient means of distributing services horizontally and vertically above and between the main beams respectively. For other framing arrangements for floors this is not a common detail since it leads to deep construction zones. It is, however, commonly used in roof construction where purlins, acting as secondary structural beams, are supported directly on the main beam or rafter.
Because of the amount of fabrication involved, this is a fairly expensive type of joint. However, for single storey sheds the benefits are significant and overall economies can be realised. For multi-storey buildings, the advantages are much less and simple connections are widely used. Haunched connections are therefore common in portal frames, but are much less common in other buildings. Figure 1.32 Beam-to- column Connections
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Figure 1.33 Roof Beam-to- column Connections The web cleat connection is similar to the fin plate detail but can be entirely bolted. It is formed by bolting short angle cleats between the web of the beam and the column face. It was popular for rectangular (orthogonal) grids in which the beams and columns all meet at right angles, but is now less common. Flange cleats provide a direct bearing for the beam; they were once popular but are now seldom used. The use of a seating cleat provides a connection which is quick and easy to erect because the beam can be positioned directly onto the support angle. It can be fully bolted, with no welding necessary. A cleat can also be fixed to the top flange to provide additional restraint against twisting of the beam. Figure 1.34 Beam-to- column Connections One disadvantage is that the seating cleat can impact on the ceiling finishes at the column position. Other connection details have become more popular and this connection is now seldom used. A detail suitable for beam-column joints using hollow sections is to use a cut-out at the end of the tube to provide access for bolting.
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The connection between a column base and concrete foundation is detailed to distribute the stresses in the concrete and provide adjustment on site for inevitable inaccuracies. A very common column base connection involves casting holding down bolts into the concrete foundation. The concrete base is poured under typical site conditions, and a high degree of precision is unrealistic. After the concrete has hardened, the top level of the base can be checked, and shims placed so that when the column is erected, it will be placed at the correct level. The bolt boxes allow the bolts to be adjusted sideways to fit into the holes in the baseplate. The bolts serve to locate the column and provide some stability until the frame is braced. They may also be required to resist uplift or bending of the column base, if the building design requires this. Once the column position has been checked, the space under the baseplate can be grouted, and the baseplate can then distribute the high stresses in the steel section over a large area of concrete in bending
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Bolting and Riveting Bolts are available in standard sizes and a range of lengths. Bolts can act in two ways, namely in tension and shear. The individual parts of a bolt comprise a hexagonal head and a circular section shank, which may be fully or partly threaded. They come in shank diameters from very small (6mm) up to 36mm. Larger diameters may be available to special order. Two standard bolt strengths are commonly used. Two grades of bolt are commonly used. These are grade 4.6 and 8.8. The first digit relates to the ultimate strength of the material, whilst the second is the ratio of yield stress to ultimate strength. Thus grade 4.6 bolts have an ultimate material strength of 400 N/mm2, and the yield (or proof) stress is 60% of the ultimate strength. Similarly grade 8.8 bolts have an ultimate strength of 800 N/mm2 and a ratio of yield/proof stress to ultimate strength of 80%. Simple grade 4.6 bolts without corrosion protection are commonly called 'black bolts'. Other bolt types may be used in special circumstances. Turned and fitted bolts are similar to 'ordinary' grade 4.6 and 8.8 bolts, but are machined on their shanks and installed in reamed holes. This creates a very tightly fitting bolt, slip is negligible, and higher stresses can be used. Due to the high cost of the bolts themselves and the costs of installation, these bolts are not often used. Figure 1.37 Bolting High Strength Friction Grip bolts (HSFG bolts) work in a different way. They are made from a material very similar to grade 8.8 bolts, but have different shaped heads and nuts. The nut is tightened in a carefully controlled manner to put a large pretension into the bolt shank. This has the effect of clamping together the plates between the bolt head and the nut. The mating surfaces are called 'faying' surfaces, and they must be flat and unpainted. Because the tightening requires
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Single sided bolting systems such as Flowdrill and Hollobolt are used where it is necessary to make a connection directly to the face of a hollow section. Rivets are no longer a practical method of forming structural connections. Figure 1.38 riveting Rivets used to be a very common method of forming steelwork connections, but they are almost never used now. Before fitting, rivets are rather like unthreaded bolts. They are installed hot in pre-drilled holes, and then the portion of shank protruding from the hole is hammered down to form a second 'head' to the rivet.
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Submerged arc welding (SAW) is an automatic process used in the fabrication of elements requiring long, straight weld runs. Figure 1.4 welding detail In automatic welding the filler material (electrode) is moved automatically by a machine. It is often referred to as the 'submerged arc' process because the arc is shielded by granular flux which is deposited in advance of the welding head, and 'vacuumed' up again after the head has passed. It is particularly suitable for built up members using plate in the form of box or I girders where long continuous runs of weld are necessary. The weld produced is of very high quality with a smooth and uniform bead making it highly suitable for heavy plate fabrication. Single or multiple weld runs can be laid down quickly, but the equipment is not portable and the process is therefore only used in the fabrication shop, not on site. Different types of weld in common use are the fillet weld, which does not develop full strength, and the butt weld, which develops higher strengths but requires special preparation. The most common weld type is the fillet weld, either in a tee or lap configuration. This is normally used where the connection does not need to develop the full strength of the connected components. It is a relatively inexpensive process because plate edges do not need to be prepared (machined), less weld metal is deposited, and inspection is usually less extensive than for butt welds. It is adequate for most applications.
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Increase welding strength There is no for welded joints subjected to entirely tensile applied loading cycles. If the applied loading is partly or wholly compressive, PWHT will be beneficial, provided residual stresses are fully relieved. The relevant UK standard BS7608:1993 'Code of practice for fatigue design and assessment of steel structures' allows 40% of the compressive part of the cyclic stress range to be ignored in estimating the fatigue design life. However, there is a requirement to demonstrate that stress relief is effective, for example by measuring the residual stress adjacent to the joint of interest after PWHT.
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Pre-tensioning Pre-tensioning is the application, before casting, of a tensile force to high tensile steel tendons around which the concrete is to be cast. When the placed concrete has developed sufficient compressive strength a compressive force is imparted to it by releasing the tendons, so that the concrete member is in a permanent state of prestress.
Post-tensioning Post-tensioning is the application of a compressive force to the concrete at some point in time after casting. When the concrete has gained strength a state of prestress is induced by tensioning steel tendons passed through ducts cast into the concrete, and locking the stressed tendons with mechanical anchors. The tendons are then normally grouted in place.
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2) High span-to-depth ratios Larger spans possible with prestressing (bridges, buildings with large column-free spaces) Typical values of span-to-depth ratios in slabs are given below.
28:1 45:1
For the same span, less depth compared to RC member. Reduction in self weight More aesthetic appeal due to slender sections More economical sections.
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This is the simplest type of prestressing, producing large prestressing forces. The hydraulic jack used for the tensioning of tendons, comprises of calibrated pressure gauges which directly indicate the magnitude of force developed during the tensioning. Mechanical Prestressing
In this type of prestressing, the devices includes weights with or without lever transmission, geared transmission in conjunction with pulley blocks, screw jacks with or without gear drives and wire-winding machines. This type of prestressing is adopted for mass scale production.
Electrical Prestressing
In this type of prestressing, the steel wires are electrically heated and anchored before placing concrete in the moulds. This type of prestressing is also known as thermo-electric prestressing.
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When the prestressing is achieved by elements located outside the concrete, it is called external prestressing. The tendons can lie outside the member (for example in I-girders or walls) or inside the hollow space of a box girder. This technique is adopted in bridges and strengthening of buildings. In the following figure, the box girder of a bridge is prestressed with tendons that lie outside the concrete.
When the prestressing is achieved by elements located inside the concrete member (commonly, by embedded tendons), it is called internal prestressing. Most of the applications of prestressing are internal prestressing. In the following figure, concrete will be cast around the ducts for placing the tendons
Post-tensioning
The tension is applied to the tendons (located in a duct) after hardening of the concrete. The precompression is transmitted from steel to concrete by the anchorage device (at the end blocks). The following figure shows a post-tensioned box girder of a bridge.
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When the prestressed members are straight or flat, in the direction of prestressing, the prestressing is called linear prestressing. For example, prestressing of beams, piles, poles and slabs. The profile of the prestressing tendon may be curved. The following figure shows linearly prestressed railway sleepers.
Circular Prestressing
When the prestressed members are curved, in the direction of prestressing, the prestressing is called circular prestressing. For example, circumferential prestressing of tanks, silos, pipes and similar structures. The following figure shows the containment structure for a nuclear reactor which is circularly prestressed.
Figure 1.47 Circularly prestressed containment structure, Kaiga Atomic Power Station, Karnataka
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When the prestressing tendons are parallel to one axis, it is called Uniaxial Prestressing. For example, longitudinal prestressing of beams.
Biaxial Prestressing
When there are prestressing tendons parallel to two axes, it is called Biaxial Prestressing. The following figure shows the biaxial prestressing of slabs.
Multiaxial Prestressing
When the prestressing tendons are parallel to more than two axes, it is called Multiaxial Prestressing. For example, prestressing of domes.
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Steel is a versatile material that allows the architect and engineer to design any type of structure, ranging from orthodox portal frames for industrial use to state of the art buildings with architectural features, unorthodox shapes or any other requirements the stakeholders might have. Structural steel design is familiar and efficient, providing elegant cost effective solutions. Structural steel can be combined with other materials to achieve the desired look, properties or functionality. Fabrication of a steel building is carried out in a workshop, ensuring a high quality product and contributing to a low waste, sustainable solution. Standardized details and forms of construction are available which allow fast erection on site, with minims disruption to the surroundings. Steel has a very high resistance to weight ratio, resulting in a light, attractive solution with minimal intrusion into the working area of the structure. The transportation of highly prefabricated elements reduces deliveries to site, which is especially important in congested areas, such as city centers. The structural efficiency of steelwork results in lower loads being transferred to the foundations, leading to further economy. Long span buildings can easily be designed in steel, resulting in large clear areas. This increases the functionality of the structure, offering flexibility of building use. Steel buildings are adaptable and may be easily extended, making refurbishment of the building a realistic solution for future use, instead of demolition. Steel has excellent sustainability credentials. Steel buildings can easily be dismantled and reused. The steel can always be recycled without any loss of strength, minimizing the amount of raw material required.
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Sustainable Construction - A Guide on Fire Protection and Performance-based Fire Engineering BCA Sustainable Construction Series 2 Best Practice in Steel Construction: Industrial Buildings, Guidance for Architects, Designers and Constructors RFCS project deliverable for Euro-Build Available from the Steel Construction Institute, UK VSL International Ltd. http://www.tatasteelconstruction.com/en/reference/teaching_resources/architectural_studio_
reference/elements/connections/beam_to_column_connections/ 18/8/2012
http://www.fgg.uni-lj.si/kmk/esdep/master/wg01b/l0510.htm 23/8/2012
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