Natural Treatment and On-Site Processes Review by: Kevin D. White and Lawrence K.

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Natural Treatment and On-Site Processes

Kevin D. White and Lawrence K. Wang

Natural

treatment

and wastewater treatment), wetland systems (both for stormwatertreatment aquatic systems and on-site and small and community systems in this floating aquatic plant systems), (ponds
review.

systems

are divided

into several

categories:

land-treatment

systems,

LAND TREATMENT SYSTEMS

was studied in non-submerged overland flow over grass byDeletic (1999). Sediment transport was found to decrease exponentiallywith distance and reaches Sediment concentration in runoff a constant value. A simplified relationship between particle fall number,Nf, and thepercentage of particles trapped in thegrass was established. Munoz-Carpena et al.(1999) described a single eventmodel to predict sediment transportin vegetative filterstrips. The model links three submodels: a Petrov-Galerkin finiteelement kinematic wave overland flow submodel, a modified Green-Ampt infiltration submodel, and the University ofKentucky sediment filtration model. A set of 27 natural runoffeventswere used to test the model, with good predictive on A lands with treatedsewage effluentfor of irrigated study phosphorus storage capability. over 20 years found that P accumulation occured primarily in organic forms,bothwithin the soil and as peat on its surface (Menzies et al., 1999). This finding throws intoquestion the common practice of predicting disposal scheme life on thebasis of P adsorption curves.

WETLAND SYSTEMS
General. Gerba et al. (1999) evaluated a duckweed-covered pond, a subsurface flow wetland, and a surface flowwetland for the removal of indicatorbacteria and pathogenic protozoa. Larger microorganisms {Giardia and Cryptosporidium) were best removed in the the pond (sedimentation),while thebest fecal coliform removal occurred in the subsurface flow wetlands (98%). These results suggest thatcombinations of ponds and wetlands work best to was remove pathogenic organisms. A new mathematical model, using transport detention time, developed to describe BOD removal inwetlands by Chen et al. (1999). The model treats the wetland as a series of continuously stirredtank reactors and an nth-orderordinarydifferential equation was derived based onmass balancing and convection/dispersion. The model is compared to existing plug-flowmodels and is shown to be more accurate, particularly in transientconditions. Xue et al. (1999) quantified denitrification in constructedwetlands water column ranged from receiving agricultural tile drainage. Nitrate disappearance rates in the 12 to 6.fmgNm"2 hf1. Stormwater Wetlands. Hydrologie design considerations for stormwatertreatment wetlands were described by Koob et al. (1999). Detention structure designs based on the time
between events was encouraged to account for evaporation, infiltration, and treatment. Revitt

et

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al. (1999) discussed theuse of constructedwetland systems to reduce the impacts of urban runoff on receiving streamquality. Sedimentationmaintenance and an overflowmechanism to prevent sediment remobilizationwere described as key elements. A study of vegetative systems to treat highway drainage was described by Ellis (1999). Various vegetative bestmanagement practices with estimated pollutant removal efficiencies and a review of design (BMPs) are identified procedures. Brown et al. (1999) presented an optimization scheme thatsizes various stormwater wetlands. As a case study,an pollution control options, including stormwatertreatment was developed and applied to a suburb inAustralia to select the most effective algorithm A removal of organic simulation model for wetland limited funds. numerical for strategies was A matter in stormwater mechanistic system described by Shelley andMudgett (1999). was to under reasonable used behavior ranges of explore system dynamics approach area was to be key for Surface found conditions and environmental design parameters. establishing biofilms thatremove organicmatter. Blackwell et al. (1999) investigated the effectiveness of riparianbuffer systems to protect surfacewaters fromdiffuse agricultural pollution. The study concentrates on footslope seepage and overland flow,which aremore effective fornitrate removal. The use of constructedwetlands to treaturban snowmelt from streetsand snow disposal sites inAlaska was described by Jokela and Pinks (1999). A 5.7 ha wetland system is being used to treatrunofffrom snow disposal thatcontains suspended solids and metals. The system treatsdischarges from about 445 ha of residential, commercial, and
industrial

Acid Mine Drainage Wetlands. A constructedwetland system, in combinationwith spoil amendment,was used to reclamate an ironstone spoil heap in Scotland (Heal and Salt, 1999). Vegetation (trees)were planted in spoil amended with dried sewage sludge, limestone, and peat. The wetland system has been found to remove 33% of the acidity in runoffand between 20% and 40% ofmetal inputs. Iron andmanganese concentrations leaving the site have wetland system. A wetland system to treat increased, however, even afterpassing throughthe acidic spoil heap drainage was also investigatedby Jarvisand Younger (1999). Using waste manures and composts as substrate, the wetland was found to reduced iron and aluminum et al. (1999) investigated theuse of a lab-scaled and Groudev lowered concentrations, acidity.
anaerobic cell and constructed wetland to remove

drainage.

and sulphates fromcopper mine tailings. The anaerobic cell contained manures, compost, and sawdust; and was found to be effective for adsorbingmetal pollutants. Anaerobic cell effluents, wetland system to levels high in soluble organicmattter,were effectively treated in the reuse or areas. in industrial Two for populations ofwoolgrass (Scirpus agricultural appropriate cyperinus)were investigated to determine population level differences in aboveground and belowground growth response to acid mine drainage (Demchik and Garbutt, 1999). Results showed some differences in growth, suggesting that there is potential for selecting specific genotypes for increased performance in thepresence of acid mine drainage. Free Water Surface-Constructed Wetlands. Gearheart (1999) assessed the capability a California Reuse Standards for of constructedwetland and UV disinfection to achieve current public use irrigation.Removal of key constituents,along with the cost of the system, is model. Phosphorus removal from agriculturalwastewater incorporated into a decision support was studied by Serodes and Normand (1999), using a 4-cell surface-flowwetland system. Ortho-P removalwas found to be about 50%, while totalP removal averaged 63%. Phosphorus
compared to the results and costs of other reuse treatment alternatives. Performance data were

heavy metals,

radioactive

elements,

arsenic,

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gradientswere noted both horizontally and vertically. Bolton and Greenway (1999) investigated thepotential for constructed Melaleuca wetlands to provide bufferingof sewage spills. The was loaded with system primary settled sewage and was found to be excellent forTSS, BOD, and turbidity. Nitrogen removal was dependent on loading rate. A conceptual model for of dairy lagoon effluentin emergency bufferingof sewages spillswas presented. The treatability a lab-scale constructedwetland was investigatedby Benham andMote (1999). Ten scaled wetland systemswere used to examine several design and operational variables-loading rate and attachment sites (vegetated, inert,and none). A model was developed that includedmicrobial attachment site parameters and reaction rate constants. Sakadevan and Bavor (1999) studied the water column depth, and P-loading on phosphorus influence of hydraulic loading, retentiontime, and nitrogen removal. Results showed that low hydraulic loading and longer retentiontimes enhanced the removal of both nitrogen and phosphorus inwetland systems. A nitrogen balance for a pond/wetland systemwas developed by Lund (1999). Using a mass balance approach, it was found thatover 60% of thenitrogenwas lost from the system,via denitrification.Based on this study, wetland systemswere enhanced tomeet nitrogen discharge requirements ratherthat
traditional in-plant treatment improvements.

Subsurface Flow-Constructed Wetlands. An overall strategyfor sustainable wastewater treatment for small communities, using wetlands was described byGriffin and Upton (1999). A long-implementedpolicy is reviewed in termsof appropriateness, performance, and sustainability. Odor and stormwater issues are also discussed. Griffin et al. (1999) also investigatednitrogen removal in systems consisting of rotatingbiological contactors, subsurface flow reed beds, and employing recycle. Total nitrogen levels were maintained below 10mg/L. Summertime low oxygen conditions in the wetland was found to allow sulfate reducing conditions and odors. The distributionof nutrientsand heavy metals in a constructedwetland was investigatedby Obarska-Pempkowiak and Klimkowska (1999). Most nutrientsand metals were removed in the inlet areas of the wetland. Metal removalwas primarilyby adsoption to particulatematter. Distribution of elements in biomass was found to be insignificant. Maschinski et al. (1999) evaluated the efficiency of a small-scale subsurface-flowwetland systemwas operated at an elevation of 2350 m and was found to remove TKN and TP by 84% and 73% respectively. Fecal coliform removal achieved recreational full-body contact standards (200 cfu/100mL) in 14 out of 15months of operation. A pilot-scale wetland systemwas used to study the treatment of lignitepyrolysiswastewater thatcontained ammonia and organic components of largemolecular size (Wiessner et al., 1999). Results indicated thatnitrogen removalwas effective,but thatonly a limited removal capacity for lowmolecular and large
molecular organics organic decreased the decolorization and removal of total components was seen. Consequently, over time. Various substrates for subsurface-flow phosphate-removing system treating domestic wastewater using native southwestern U.S. plants. The treatment

wetlands were investigatedbyDrizo et al. (1999). Bauxite, shale, burntoil shale, limestone, zeolite, lightexpanded clay aggregates, and fly ash were characterized by pH, cation exchange capacity, hydraulic conductivity,porosity, specific surface area, particle size distribution,and phosphate adsorption capacity. Fly ash and shale were found to have thehighest P-adsorption values, with shale having thebest, overall characteristics foruse inwetland systems. Lee et al. (1999) studied the effectsof low temperatureon ammonia removals in constructedwetlands. was correlated to From 5?C to 23?C nitrificationrates only varied by 20%. Reduced nitrification

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AQUATIC SYSTEMS

low oxygen conditions.

Ponds. Mara and Pearson (1999) discuss the effectiveness of combining a waste stabilization pond with a wastewater storage and treatment reservoir to produce safe effluentsfor waste stabilization pond was used for restricted crop irrigation.During irrigationseason, the This systemprovides an internalreturnrate of 58% and was financially feasible. As the levels of dissolved oxygen inwaste stabilization ponds increased, the inactivation of both enterococci and F-RNA phages increased, as studied byDavies-Colley et al. (1999). The increased inactivation of enterococci and F-RNA phages was also dependant upon light-absorbingpondwater constituents. The natural disinfection inwaste stabilization ponds was mostly dependant on its exposure to sunlight. Coliform removal inmaturation and facultative ponds was studied byVon Sperling (1999). Two flow regimeswere investigated:CSTR and dispersed flow. Both models yielded similar removal efficiencyvalues. It is concluded thatfor any given removal efficiency,a shallow pond (due to its larger Kb) requires less surface area thana deep pond, even though the deeper pond has a higher detention time. Ghosh et al. (1999) explored the combination of a UASB reactor followed by two ponds for the treatment of domestic wastewater. The second as a was maturation pond and stockedwith common carp and silver carp. This pond served system achieved 30-35% organic pollutant removal, 30-80% nutrientreduction, and 97-99% fecal coliform reduction. The performance of a full-scale aerated lagoon was evaluated by Surampalli et al. (1999). The objective was to evaluate the lagoon's efficiencyunder varied nitrificationrates increasedwith increasing temperaturesand the 5-day BOD and suspended were met according to the solids limits National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System. Also, bacteria were found to be diminished inwinter,which resulted in reduced nitrification nitrifying
rates.

irrigation and the wastewater

storage

and treatment reservoir was

used

for unrestricted

irrigation.

temperature

conditions.

BOD5,

TSS,

and ammonia-N

were

assessed.

Results

showed

that

Floating Aquatic Plant Systems. The use of a hyacinthwetland system following a stabilization pond was found to be highly effective at pathogen removal (Fujioka et al, 1999). This scheme, in conjunctionwith coagulation, filtration, and UV disinfectionwas found to meets and unrestrictedreuse standard reduce fecal coliform by 99.99% and produce effluentthat of <1 fecal coliform/100 mL. Several indicator microorganisms were monitored. Zhu et al. trace studied the accumulation of elements (1999) bywater hyacinths and found thatcadmium, chromium, selenium, and copper were best accumulated. Bioconcentration factors of 2150 for cadmium, 1823 for chromium, and 595 for copper showed thathyacinths are a promising candidate forphyto remediation ofwastewaters containing cadmium, chromium, copper, and selenium. A macrophyte raft-lagoon systemwas studied by Perkins and Hunter (1999) in West more on focused research thedynamics of Yorkshire, England. This report indicates theneed for in indicator bacteria for the of sanitary macrophyte systems determining suitability water for recreational and public-supply purposes. Pradeep and Garde (1999) investigated the stratificationin 4 laboratory scale models of hyacinth ponds of varying depth over a 4-month period. Stratificationof hyacinth ponds was found to be unsubstantiated because: 1) a 90% reduction of radiation prevented thegrowth of algae and thus increased thedissolved oxygen was found, 3) influentand effluentstreams content, 2) no thermalor density stratification located at differentlevels produced secondary circulationwhich prevented stratification, and 4) it

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was concluded thatunstratified water hyacinth ponds promote uniform treatment. Van der Steen et al. (1999) evaluated the treatment of stabilization pond effluentthroughduckweed ponds to reduce algae concentration. Suspended solids concentrationswere found to increase and pathogen removalwas poor. Tarn andWong (1999) conducted experiments to determine the wastewater containing pollutant concentrations capacity ofmangrove soils in purifyingsynthetic 4 times of thatfound in local municipal sewage and of two salinities. Results of this study was affected by indicated that mangrove soils can retainpollutants. However, its efficiency was studied by Erten-Unal mine/millwastewater system for salinity. An innovative treatment andWixson (1999). A tailings pond was followed by a series of artificiallyconstructed meandering biotreatmentchannels and a polishing lagoon. The abundance of aquatic plants promoted the removal of heavy metals and sedimentation. This study confirms that thenew for removal of heavy metals and results in compliance with state systemprovides good treatment and federal regulatoryguidelines. Abissy andMandi (1999) assessed wastewater purification efficiency of Typha and Juncus, two higher aquatic plants. Organic load was reduced in both systems. COD and TSS removal efficiencieswere 91% and 73%, respectively forTypha and 92% and 76%, respectively forJuncus. Itwas also found that these helophytesmaintained where as the within the system to allow water percolation for treatment; porosity sufficiently winter months. control systemwith no plants, clogged in the Solar Aquatic Systems. Sinton et al. (1999) compared sunlight inactivation rates of somatic coliphages, F-RNA, and fecal coliforms during 7 summer and 3 winter survival RNA, winter inactivation rateswere lowest, but highest for fecal coliforms. The summer inactivation rates found, fromgreatest to least,were as follows: fecal coliforms,F-RNA phages and somatic coliphages. Spectral cutoff wavelengths (50% light transmission)were also investigated. Longer solarwavelengths, which are predominant in seawater, have higher inactivation rates forF-RNA phages and fecal coliforms than somatic coliphages. Sinton et al. (1999) suggested theuse of somatic coliphages as fecal and, possibly viral indicators, inmarine were investigatedbyMalato et waters. Particulate suspensions of Ti02 irradiated with solar light al. (1999) to catalyze theoxidation of organic contaminants. Organic anions might be added to was designed to focus on solar photocatalysts. enhance the organic degradation rate. This study the The results showed thatperoxydisulphate, organic anion, enhances thephotocatlytic most effectively. mineraliztion of agricultural rinsates the ON-SITE AND SMALL-COMMUNITY SYSTEMS
experiments. Dark inactivation rates were lower in winter and higher in the summer. For F

Septic Tank Systems. A septic tank system includes both theburied septic tank and subsurface soil absorption field. The septic tankprovides separation of solids and flotable materials from the wastewater, an anaerobic environment forpartial decomposition of organic the soil while carbon, absorption field realizes the complete degradation of organic carbon and nitrification.The produced nitrate leaches throughthe septic tank system due to the lack of external organic carbon. In situ septic tank effluentdenitrificationusing a sulfur-limestone autotrophic denitrification (SLAD) process systemwas attemptedby Shan (1998), Zhang and Lampe (1999) and Zhang and Shan (1999). Itwas observed by Zhang and Shan (1999) that while significantdenitrificationoccurred in the significantnitrificationoccured in the sand layer,

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sulfur-limestone layer. The SLAD system is effective in denitrification, while production of sulfate and hardness and existence of sulfide in effluent may be limitingfactors in its application. Wolfe (1999) described thehistory ofwastewater collection and treatment from the Mesopotamian Empire in 3500BC to year 2000, and presented a comprehensive sanitation technology fromprimitive cesspools to advanced denitrificationprocess. The feasibility of using a septic tank as a heat source forgeothermal heat pumps was discussed byHanegan and DenBraven (1999). There was no evidence of the septic tank freezing up or failing to properly function. The use of the septic tank on a full-timebasis was suggested. There was a need to have the septic tank surrounded on all side by a large amount of soil and insulated from theground surface. Lenox Instituteof Water Technology (1999) documented the U.S. Patents in the area of septic tank technology from 1969 to 1999. Urban legends regarding the environmental aspects of plumbing and septic tanswere examined byMorse (1999). Legends included the common belief thatdetergents might cause pipe backup and septic tanks needed to be pumped every few years. Often, other factors contributed to pipe back up, and septic tanks should be checked for sludge buildup before pumping. Doom and Likes (1999) conducted a study to estimate global and country-specific methane emissions fromopen sewers and on-sitewastewater treatment latrines and septic tanks. This studyused an systems, including emission factor thatexpresses methane emissions in termsofCOD reduction. The nitrogen cycle effects in these systems to qualify ammonia and nitrous oxide emissions from these systemswas also discussed. Itwas concluded that these systemswere likely to contribute significantquantities of ammonia and nitrous oxide to the atmosphere.Water Environment Federation (1997) provided a principle reference source for those associated with the specialized task ofmanaging and treatingseptage. This manual of practice is comprised of the collective experiences and innovations ofmany individuals involvedwith the applications of thebest and disposal of septage. Hedstrom and Hanaeus (1999) principles and practices for treatment on a information which of sludge presented study investigated the concept of on-site treatment from septic tanks with respect to dewatering and nutrients. The phosphate behavior in twowell-characterized, oxidizing septic systemplumes was monitored by Robertson and Harman (1999) for extended periods of two to fouryears after decommissioning of the tile beds. Their results showed thatrapid and reversible sorption reactions dominated thephosphate behavior in thegroundwater zone at these sites. The frontal part of thephosphate plume was observed to continue its advance during thedecommissioned period. A synoptic survey of septic indicators in streams and springs atMonte Sano Mountain, Madison County, Alabama in January 1998 was completed byMcPherson andMooty (1999) in cooperation with theCity ofHuntsville, Alabama. Recent heavy commercial and residential methods in communities development has required the construction ofwastewater treatment outside the reach of existingmunicipal sewage treatment systems.Water Engineering & a described effort the Management (2000) special by developers and community officials to water problems in Santa Cruz, Bolivia. In a demonstration solve wastewater issues and drinking system,effluentbypassed the old seepage pit and flowed from the septic tank into the chambers where it infiltrated into the soil. The modular plastic leaching chamber offered twice the infiltration capacity in the same space as a 24-inch stone and pipe septic leach field installation. Burnham (1999) developed and tested a model forpredicting contaminant transportin leaching beds. Burnham's model may prevent groundwater pollution frombacteria and nitrate transport

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in and throughthe septic tank leaching beds. The New JerseyPinelands area is characterized by sandy soil, underlain by a water-table aquifer. The Pinelands Commission allowed theuse of subsurface pressure dosing septic systems as an alternative to standard septic systems. No significantdifference in nitrogen removalwas found between the subsurface pressure dosing septic system and the standard septic system. Sixty residentialwells inPalm Bay, Florida were testedbyArnade (1999) for fecal coliforms, nitrates,and phosphates to determine if season has a significanteffecton the correlation between well contamination and septic tankdistance. wet season contained Ground water samples collected at all distances of septic tanksduring the twice as many fecal coliforms and higher concentrations of nitrates and phosphates compared with samples collected during thedry season. Chen (1999) completed a dissertation entitled, "Transformationsand Transport of Fixed Nitrogen fromSeptic Tanks in Soil Absorption Systems and Underlying Aquifers". Chen's environmental transport models were developed to predict groundwater pollution. Improved septic tank and soil absorption systemswere suggested. Griffin et al. (1999) conducted a detailed survey to determine the concentration ofmicrobial fecal indicators and thepresence of human pathogenic microorganisms. A total of 19 sites, including 17 canal sites and 2 near-shore water sites,were assayed forhuman pathogenic microorganisms. Results indicated that the canals and near-shorewaters throughouttheFlorida Keys were impacted by human fecal contaminants from septic tanks. Exposure to canal waters throughrecreation and work may be contributingto human health risks. Small Treatment Systems. The temperaturechanges affecting theperformance of was studied by Chungsying et al. (1999). Treatment of benzene, toluene, trickle-bedbiofilters and ethylbenzene o-xylene (BTEX) vapors was the focus of the study. A temperaturerange of when utilizing the trickle-bedbiofilter. Philippi et 25-35?C was determined to be most effective al. (1999) reportedan experiment involving theuse of a combined septic tank and root zone wetland system for treating domestic sewage from66 people. The experimentswere carried out in the Agriculture Secretary's Training Center, Santa Catarina State, Brazil. Outstanding performanceswere observed and documented. Krofta andWang (1999) compiled a technical of household reportfor introductionof conventional and innovative technologies for treatment wastes, septage and septic tank effluents.A compact dissolved air flotation (DAF) clarifier is feasible for treatingthe septic tankeffluents, while an ozone process (Oxyozone Process) is feasible for treatingthe septage and biosolids. Vanderholm et al. (1999) introduced the state-of the-art management of livestockwastes. A giant septic methodologies and technologies for tank (or septic building) and a lagoon connected in series are feasible for treatment of liquid
livestock wastes.

Decentralized Treatment. Zeeman and Lettinga (1999) described a decentralized wastewater treatmentthatemployed an anaerobic treatment unit in combination with vegetable, was and yardwaste. A model fruit, developed to evaluate hydraulic retentiontime, temperature, and solids retentiontime. Attitudes towards the sustainability of traditionaland decentralized wastewater systemswas discussed byHedberg (1999). Urban development and environmental sustainability are discussed, showing that thereexists a strongdriving force and interestin changing existing systems.

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Kevin D. White is an associate professor of civil engineering at theUniversity of South Alabama.

Lawrence

Kevin D. White, Department of Civil Engineering, Correspondence should be addressed to AL 36688. South Alabama, Mobile, University of

K. Wang

is dean

and professor,

Lenox

Institute

of Water

Technology.

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