Hazardous Waste Treatment Technologies

Hazardous Waste Treatment Technologies Author(s): Byung J. Kim, Shaoying Qi and Richard S.
Shanley Source: Water Environment Research, Vol. 66, No. 4, 1994: Literature Review (Jun., 1994), pp. 440-455 Published by: Water Environment Federation Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/25044442 . Accessed: 03/11/2013 17:02
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Hazardous
Wastes
culations Mound. Knox,
R.C., Press, Boca Raton, J. (1993) Use Krieger, Chem. Krukowski, Waste Kuryla, Lemont, M.
and Tracking Movement of a Subsurface Hydrocarbon Ground Water Monit. Remed., 13, 139. et a! ( 1993) Subsurface Transport and Fate Processes. CRC Fla. of Hazardous Waste in Cement Kiln Backed.
R.C Fees: Charging for Envi R., and Dower, (1993) Green Environ. Activities. Sei. Technol, ronmentally Damaging 27, 214. of Flow and Transport in Rhee, S.W., et al (1993) Stochastic Modeling Deep-Well Injection Disposal Systems. J. Hazard. Mater., 34, 313. of VLEACH to Vadose Zone Rosenbloom, J., et al (1993) Application Repetto, of VOCs at an Arizona Transport Monit. Remed., 13, 159. and W?hle, C. (1993) Runnells, D.D., Method for Removing Sulfate Metals Groundwater. Ground Water Monit. Ryti, R.T. Superfund Site. Ground Water as a from
71, 36. Engr. News., J. ( 1993) Don't Wear Blinders When Carrier. Pollut. Eng., Traps (1993) TSCA 100, 161. 25, 32. for the Unwary Role of Ecological Sites. J. Hazard.
Choosing
a Hazardous
Plant Manager. Assessments
Chem. in the
In Situ Electromigration and Other Contaminants
Eng.,
Mater., 35, 295. is a Hazardous Waste. Pollut. Eng., (1993) When Wastewater 25, 34. of Contaminant Plumes by Boreholes Geo Mack, T.J. (1993) Detection Remed., physical Logging. Ground Water Monit. 13, 107. Levy, D. Maslansky, J., 47, S.P. 59. ( 1993) Site Safety Plans: Who Needs Them? Water Well
S., et a! (1993) The of Contaminated Evaluation
Remed., 13, 121. Soil Cleanup: Developing the Piazza Road (1993) Superfund Remedial J. Air Waste Manage. Assoc, Design. 43, 197. F.O. (1993) Necessity of Uncertainty Anal Shevenell, L., and Hoffman, yses in Risk Assessment. and Harrington, in Environmental II (1993) Fla. Project Technol, to Use 5, Several 13. Remediation Tech Simes, G.F., ination 43, /. Hazard. Mater., 35, 369. J.S. (1993) The Measurement of Contam /. Air Waste Manage. Assoc, Samples. Risk Assessment. CRC Press, Boca
1155. Ecological
Suter, G.W., Raton, Todd,
in Soils from McDaniels, A.E., et a! (1993) Genotoxic Activity Detected a Hazardous Waste Site by the Ames Test and an SOS Colorimetric Test. Environ. Molec 22, 115. Mutagen., McEwen, M.A., et a! Environ. Techno!, D., et a! el a! (1993) Watching 5, 40. Out for Water Quality. Water
niques.
L. (1993) Wyoming Water Environ.
McLaughlin, Ground-Water Mines, Mullins, Nazari, Nelson, Nuckols, B.O., Water
(1993) A Stochastic Method Contamination. Ground Water, (1993) Sampling System. Ground Pollution of VOCs with Water Monit. Progress.
for Characterizing 31, 237. the BAT Ground Remed., Water 13, 115. Environ.
of Nickel and Cobalt Twidwell, L.G., et al. (1993) Selective Recovery from Electromachining Hazard. Waste Hazard. Sludge Materials. Mater., 10, 297. and Kaupp, H. (1993) A Sampling Device for Semivolatile G, in Ambient Air. Chemosphere Organic Compounds (G.B.), 27,1293. U.S. Environmental of Ecological As Protection (1993) Review Agency sessment Case Studies from a Risk Assessment EPA/ Perspective. U.S. EPA, Washington, D.C. 630/R-92/005, Umlauf, Evaluation of Groundwater Con P., et al. (1993) Risk-based Varshney, tamination Pesticides. Ground Water, 31, 356. by Agricultural D. (1993) Recycling Paint and Solvents and Reducing Use of Walpole, Waste Manage, 1,1,1-Trichloroethane. 13, 195. Wichmann, tribution Vehicle Williams, H., et al. (1993) Sampling Strategy Behavior of Low Volatile Pollutants Fires J., et al. in Traffic Tunnels. to Investigate Like "Dioxins" the Dis
Sampling M.L. (1993) Techno!, 5, 90.
Prevention
Study
et a! (1993) Urban Ground Water A Case Pollution: M.M., from Coventry, United Kingdom. Ground Water, 31, 417. et a! (1993) Toxicity of Contaminated in Di Sediments M.K., Sediments. J.R., et a! (1993) Integration in a Health-Effects (G3.), 27,1789. Chemosphere of Environmental and Epide Study for a Hazardous-Waste
lution Series with Control Data miologie Site. Am. J. Epidemiol., Olsen, R.L., and Kavanaugh, Be Achieved? Ostendorf, Pore Patterson, D.W., Sleeves.
138, 667. M.C. (1993) Can Groundwater Restoration Water Environ. Techno!, 5, 42. et a! (1993) Hydrocarbon in Intact Vapor Diffusion Water Monit. Remed., 13, 139. for in of Two Integrated Methods (1993) Comparison of Volatile and Analysis Compounds Organic Ground Water Monit. Remed., 13, 118.
Contamination Water Monit. Ziegler,
During Chemosphere (G.B.), 26, 1159. of Electromagnetic to (1993) Application Logging in Sand-and-Gravel Investigations Aquifers. Ground 13, 129. Hazardous Materials Personnel. Pollut. Eng.,
Remed.,
Ground
B., et a! the Collection Water.
P. (1993) Protecting 25, 22.
Ground Pearson, G,
and Remediation and Oudijk, G of (1993) Investigation Product Release from Residential Storage Tanks. Ground Water Monit. Remed., 13, 124. Petroleum R.V., W.J. and Grenney, for Hazardous (1993) Waste STEP: Modeling for Tech Site Cleanup. J. Environ. Membrane (G.B.), Costs De 27,
Penmetsa, nology Eng., Petty, J.D., vices 1609.
Screening
119,231. et a! (1993) Application as Passive Air (SPMDs) (1993)
of Semipermeable Samplers. Waste Method
Chemosphere Disposal
Hazardous Cutting Scientist, 7, 17. Preslan, J.E., et a! (1993) An Improved and its Metabolites Trinitrotoluene nated Randall, Soils. J. Hazard. P.M., Mater., A.R. 33,
Potter, CD. Research.
in Lab
Hazardous treatment technologies
waste
of 2,4,6 for Analysis and Contami from Compost 329. of Filtration Coolant. and J. Air
Distillation
and Gavaskar, (1993) Evaluation Methods for Recycling Automotive
Byung J. Kim, Shaoying Qi, Richard S. Shanley

This ogies. found review Note that waste, emphasizes the hazardous directly industrial This waste treatment technol
Waste Manage. Assoc, 43, 463. Concentrations Environmental Rappe, C. (1993) Sources of Exposure, of PCCDs and Exposure and PCDFs. Assessment Chemosphere (G.B.), 27, 226. Reif, to Mercury Evaluation of Exposure J.G., et a! (1993) Two-Stage at a Hazardous and Biomarkers Site. J. Waste of Neurotoxicity Toxico! Environ. Health, 40, 413.
technologies and specific volume.
related wastes review
to groundwater, may consists be of also four
radioactive
elsewhere
in this
parts: ( 1) general, (2 ) biological

physical treatment, and (4) thermal
treatment, (3 ) chemical and

treatment.
440
Water
Environment
Research,
Volume
66, Number
Hazardous
Wastes
GENERAL
Holmes
books that
gases. were
Experimental
results
showed
that
the
pure
culture
was
more efficient than themixed one, and high degrees of conversion et al. ( 1993) and Ayers et al. ( 1993) provided hand
included chapters on hazardous waste treatment obtained at a residence time of 54 seconds. Fanlo et a!
(1993) demonstrated
from wastewater
technologies. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) (1993a) reported to Congress on the status of the Superfund Innovative Technology Evaluation (SITE) Program. Since its inception in 1986 through 1992, the SITE program had dem
onstrated viewed 44 technologies. Hazardous of innovative Waste Consultants waste over treat commercialization hazardous
that a biofilter with dry activated sludge

as substrate performed close to 7.0. well for de
treatment
odorizing
residence
industrial waste air containing hydrogen sulfide at a

time of 42 seconds and a pH Speitel and
Mclay
(1993) applied a bioreactor that supported the growth of

bacteria to treat gas streams containing chlo
methanotrophic
ment technologies during last 10 years, and Kim and Gee ( 1993)
presented a literature review on hazardous waste treatment
technologies cited in the references published in 1992. Several major conference proceedings ( 1993) discussed haz
ardous waste treatment technologies: Proceedings of the 47th
Purdue Industrial Waste Conference, the 25th Mid-Atlantic In dustrial Waste Conference, the 86th Annual Meeting of theAir
and Waste Management Association, the Water Environment
rinated organic solvents. Removal efficiencies for trichloroeth ylene (TCE) and 1,2-DCEA were found to range from 20 to 80% at influent concentrations of 300 to 1000 Mg/L and resi dence times of 5 to 12minutes. Shareefdeen et a! (1993) developed a mathematical model to describe biofiltration of methanol vapor. Both experimental data and model predictions indicated that the methanol biofil tration process was limited by oxygen diffusion and methanol degradation kinetics. Overcamp et a! (1993) developed an in
tegrated theory to describe the steady-state operation the of a sus
Federation 66th Annual Conference, and the 19th Annual Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory Research Symposium (U.S. EPA, 1993b). The U.S. EPA (1993c) provided an inventory of research, field demonstrations, and strategies for improving groundwater remediation technologies. The U.S. EPA ( 1993d) evaluated the Toronto Harbour Commissioners (THC) soil remediation sys
tem. The treatment inorganic treatment train consisted of an attrition and technology, biological removal to reduce by chelation, organic soil-washing a chemical and Although
pended-growth
gases. ciency liquid Predictions was flow
bioscrubber for the control of volatile organic

of the theory flow showed Law rate, that constant, and removal ratio of effi of the stages. of Henry's the
a function rate
to the gas
the number
Speitel and Mclay ( 1993 )demonstrated that biofilm models were able to describe the removal of TCE and DCEA from gas streams
by a biofilter. rinated lites both solvents appeared Enzyme and competition toxicity significant. from between chlorinated methane solvent and chlo metabo
contaminants.
indicated that the processed soil did not meet reuse criteria as fill material, especially for the attrition soil washing achieved the primary benzo(a)pyrene, the analysis the THC's
criteria for oil and grease, and total recoverable petroleum hy
Tonga and Singh ( 1993 ) analyzed the biological treatment of a variety of VOCs and VOC mixtures using biofilters and bio trickling filters, with the emphasis on the practical operating
regimes regimes reactor bioreactor of these and two systems. of They suspended also addressed culture the operating sys limitations biotreatment
drocarbons. The U.S. EPA (1993e) evaluated BioGenesis

washing washing
soil
The reactor consisted of high energy mixer technology. or a proprietary to remove BioGenesis solution using Total recoverable
tems. Wittorf
design
et a! ( 1993) developed an innovative concept of

and engineering system called that "Biokatalysator." lies in between The the con
ganics and subsequent biological treatment of residual soil con

tamination and contaminant-rich wastewater.
is a three-phase
ventional biofilter and bioscrubber, using biomass immobilized

on macroporous, air flow. reactor bioscrubber tubiform supports installed showed than in parallel that such to the a bio Laboratory-scale cost is more for the investigations to operate
petroleum hydrocarbon removal efficiency of washed soil was 65 to 73%. Bricka et al ( 1993a) overviewed heavy metal sep
aration cleanup research and efforts needs. immobilization of the U.S. /treatment Department technologies of Defense and for soil identified
effective treatment
a conventional air stream.
of a solvent-laden
Zappi et al (1993) identified the knowledge gaps associated

with in situ bioremediation and developed a research program effectiveness vitrification, of some in situ technologies extraction. using
Kim et al (1993) pointed out that field experience demon

strated the cost bioremediation, and vacuum
that will improve field applicability of the technology at U.S. Army clean up sites. Bulman et al (1993) identified oxygen
treatment as capable contaminated diesel fuel the in situ bioremediation of of enhancing soil. A bioventing system was designed
BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT
Dos Santos and Livingston
reactor volatile These configurations organic designs to address compounds involved
(1993) described two novel bio

the problem a membrane of air stripping bioreactors. to extract the of in conventional
(VOCs) the use of
and tested. A 30% reduction of total hydrocarbons was defined when nutrient addition was instituted. Lee and Swindoll ( 1993 ) conducted laboratory treatability studies that showed that bio venting could be successfully employed to light and heavy hy
drocarbons, as well as other volatile and semivolatile compounds.
VOCs
into a biofilm where they are physically separated from

gas stream and the use of pure oxygen in stoichio
the aerating
Dupont ( 1993 )discussed the fundamentals of bioventing ap plied to fuel contaminated sites. Two key elements of bioventing
system design the evaluation are in situ microbial activity and air
metric quantities with C02 for VOC removal via wet scrubbing. Dichloroethane (DCEA) loss in these reactors was negligible, in
contrast compound to the conventional via reactor where 25 to 34% of the escaped air stripping. to remove from waste
permeability. Dulaney
timating venting. vided ambient Health-based for comparison
et al ( 1993) provided procedures for es

air concentrations air action associated levels were with also bio pro ambient
Zilli et al (1993) used a biofilter that supported the growth

of a Pseudomonas putida strain phenol
to the estimated
concentrations.
Aronstein
and Alexander
(1993)
studied the feasibility of
June
1994
441
Hazardous
Wastes_
adding
a nonionic
surfactant
to enhance
the biod?gradation
of
phenanthrene
adding
and biphenyl within

at low concentrations
soil. They concluded

may benefit
that of
surfactants
in situ deg
mentation. Prince and Sambasivam (1993) biologically reme diated petroleum wastes from the refining of lubricant oils. Pre liminary study showed that limited effectiveness of biological
treatment (2%) sludge at conditions concentrations and low bacteria employing indigenous in Bushnell-Hass Ju and De media.
radation of hydrophobic contaminants without mobilization

the compounds.
Seagren et al
flushing aqueous and
(1993) provided a quantitative

for enhancing model
evaluation of
of non developed.
vinny (1993) examined

mediation tests demonstrated a 25%
the effects of pulverization

with petroleum in treatment reduction
on biore
Field when a
biod?gradation phase liquids. A mathematical
dissolution was
of soil contaminated
products. time
Dhawan et al ( 1993) developed a macropore flow model to account for bioremediation in the interstitial spaces among soil
aggregates and combined it with another that encompasses dif
pulverizer was used to grind the soil instead of disc plowing.

Li, K.Y. et al (1993) determined biod?gradation rate con
stants of petroleum products. Atlas ( 1993) found that the gen

eration time of hydrocarbon-degrading microorganisms was near
fusion and biod?gradation

in the establish soil-water aggregates. the effects partition Numerical of initial
in the micropores
experiments concentration,
and soil particles

conducted size, to and aggregate
were
1.5 hours after an oil spill and that it increased by several orders of magnitude within a day. Black and Zamora ( 1993) conducted
a study to isolate determine were which possible were most and microorganisms The most efficient degraders Escherichia coli, and Enterobacter oil-degrading efficient.
coefficient.
Hendry and Lawrence ( 1993) examined the feasibility of in

situ formation of biological barriers to contain was pollutants that in sub reduced surface environments. A biobarrier developed
Serratia
marcescens,
agglomerans.
the hydraulic conductivity by two orders of magnitude and dis played self-sealing properties with changes in hydraulic head. Bellin and Rao ( 1993) investigated the impact of bacterial bio
mass on contaminant of naphthalene, fine-textured behavior calcium, silt in porous and loam media. transport quinoline soil. and Sorption were reviewed
Basseres et al ( 1993 ) examined the application of nutrients

of natural degradation. growth origin, The such use as animal of these meals, products to enhance resulted hydrocarbon in considerable kinetics. Vensoa
of bacteria
and
increased
degradation
in a subsurface,
et al ( 1993) tested 10 bioremediation products regarding their ability to enhance artificially weathered crude oil. Five of the
analytes were found to enhance biotransformation of the crude
Montemagno et al ( 1993) studied the ability of bioremedia tion to treat a diesel fuel spill deep in the vadose zone. Laboratory studies confirmed the capability of the natural microorganism
population nutrient and to degrade oxygen the contaminant transport can be and demonstrated by adding soil that di enhanced
oil analytes. Lee et al ( 1993) examined the efficacy of nutrient

formulations in a low-energy 15?C to enhance shoreline. the biod?gradation The fertilizers the application to authors for overlying of soluble, of waxy recommended water crude oil the use tempera fer
valent cations to injected waters. Keegan et al ( 1993 ) reviewed

an in situ process This for process with simultaneously has been VOCs and remediating used successfully has demonstrated reduced remediation et al and groundwater. sites at several several times, ( 1993)
of granular tures above
slow-release and
inorganic
tilizers at lower temperatures. Anid et al ( 1993) tested the ability

of indigenous toluene, with uous ethylbenzene, microorganisms and peroxide separately (BTEX) degrade in aquifer The benzene, columns contin xylenes and nitrate
contaminated
promising cost savings,
improvements and a model in an increased
including recovery the on
hydrogen removal
amendments. evidence
rates. Woods fate the and results transport of
of all components
provided
for biod?g
developed phenols degradation
to predict based
of chloro bio
radation.
aquifer, column
laboratory
and
sorption
experiments.
Irvine et al ( 1993a) investigated bioremediation of soils con taminated with bis-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (BEHP) in a soil of
slurry-sequencing batch reactor. Removal efficiencies of greater
Taylor et al
TCE-contaminated
( 1993 ) assessed the in situ bioremediation

subsurface plumes with a microbial
filter.
This strategy was successfully displayed using methanotropic resting-cells. Hopkins et al ( 1993a and b) evaluated the effects
of TCE concentration on its co-metabolism with phenol. Greater
than 96% for both BEHP and total petroleum carbons were ob served in the reactor. Hanify et al ( 1993) described a bioslurry
reactor for treatment of slurries containing minerals, soils, and
sludges. Castaldi ( 1993 )developed amethod for improved slurry

phase sludge SITE bioremediation and of organic sludge soils and mixtures by dissolving organic-contaminated results of of organic the con
than 87% of the TCE was removed for concentrations up to 500 mg/L when phenol was injected at 12.5 mg/L. Bowman et al ( 1993) characterized the methanotropic community present at
a TCE-contaminated groundwater site and found that it was
taminants into an aqueous phase. Lewis ( 1993 ) presented the

demonstration slurry-phase biod?gradation of
dominated by group IImethanotrophs. Erickson et al (1993) investigated the loss of polynuclear aromatic compounds (PAH) during bioremediation of soils from
a manufactured resistance of PAH gas plant. Among several by results include the to mineralization the microorganisms.
PAH contaminated soil. Total PAH biod?gradation was found to average 93.4% over a 12-week study period with semivolatile and VOC emissions detectable only during the first 4 days of operation. The U.S. EPA ( 1993f) evaluated the performance of
pilot-scale inoculum a media calcium, weeks bioslurry of broth and varied treatment PAH on cresote-contaminated degraders, potassium, used. Treatment ammonia phosphate, soil. An nitrogen, magnesium, after 12 and indigenous containing iron were from 66.8
Gunnison et al ( 1993) initiated a study to develop rapidly mi crobial populations for biologically treating PAH-contaminated
materials. most active A screening test was PAHs. developed On to select the basis the species results, signifi priority against was a single microorganism selected that demonstrated PAHs cant removal of two of the four priority analyzed. of these
efficiencies
to 92.6%.
Haas and Polprasert ( 1993 ) studied the feasibility of using

the treat sulfide high generated strength from the anaerobic metals. use of this digestion Overall technique. process results to are waste-containing the potential
Englert et al ( 1993) discussed bioremediation

products scribed in soil. Major as aerobic microbiological anaerobic metabolisms respiration,
of petroleum
were and de fer
encouraging
regarding
Lovely
respiration,
( 1993 ) discussed the ability of specialized anaerobic microbiota

442 Water Environment Research, Volume 66, Number 4
Hazardous
Wastes
to mineralize tary settings,
organic with
compounds acting chromium,
metals
and in groundwater as oxidants. Examples selenate, and
sedimen of iron,
phenol
in the presence and absence of magnetic

in the degradation rate was realized
fields. A 30%
when a mag
enhancement
manganese,
hexavalent
radioactive
bacteria were provided. Dissimilatory metals metal?reducing reductions were presented as potential factors in treating polluted
waters.
netic south pole of 0.45 Tesla was applied to the bioreactor. Tyagi et al ( 1993b) conducted a laboratory experiment to assess the feasibility of amodified rotating biological contactor (RBC)
with polyurethane Results foam showed attached a general to the disks improvement as porous over support media. conventional
Torma
technology contaminated
(1993) discussed the potential of using mineral bio

to remove soils, heavy metals and and processing take radionuclides effluents. from Holan and mining nodosum
RBC in terms of biod?gradation of COD, NH3, phenol, hydro

carbons, and suspended solids.
et al
algae,
(1993) proved that biomass of nonliving, dried marine

Ascophylum could up significant amount
of cadmium from aqueous solutions. Delgado et al. ( 1993) found that after the growth of water hyacinth Eichornia crassipes for
24 days, the three heavy metals, zinc, chromium, and cadmium
Hasbach (1993) described a successful bioremediation process that destroys polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), benzene, and vinyl chloride (VC) by providing high-purity oxygen and nu
trients The to the elevated indigenous oxygen microorganisms transfer efficiency of a disposal of the system lagoon. cut the
were completely depleted from the nutritive solution. Davidova et al (1993) investigated the sorption of heavy metals by yeast cell walls. Experimental data provided evidence that ion ex change is the principal mechanism of sorption. Guan et al ( 1993) indicated that solution pH and the state of the biomass
had the greatest influence upon the sorption capacity of chro
offgas from the process by 99%, as well as lowering toxic air monitored the effect of process emissions. Makinen et al ( 1993 )
upsets reactor. effluent after reliable on chlorophenol treatment concentrations in an and aerobic the fluidized-bed of reduced monitored to be a Chlorophenol on Photobacterium quality interruptions. of impact were
phosphoreum Microtox
oxygen
This
test proved
mium by a consortia of denitrifying bacteria. Blake ( 1993) focused his study on biotransformation of se lenium and ionic lead and found that the conversion of the two metals into insoluble biocolloids occurred widely in the genus Xanthomonas. Yamamoto et al ( 1993) investigated the kinetics
of hexavalent also chromium reduction in Enterobacter model coloacae. that approx They imated developed a simple data mathematical well.
indication
the degradative
effectiveness.
In a study by Vipulanandan and Krishnan ( 1993), activated sludge degraded 1 500 ppm of phenol. The biod?gradation of phenol was described by two models: the Haldane model and a
new model that overcomes Haldane model limitations. Fujita
et al ( 1993 ) accelerated phenol removal by amplifying themet abolic pathway responsible for its degradation by introducing a
plasmid engineered grew mg/L. containing catechol-2,3-oxygenase clearly for phenol degraded gene. The genetically and to 100 microorganism rate at an elevated the compound up
the experimental
( 1993a) removed heavy metals from sewage sludge by bacteria leaching in a con aerobically digested Couillard and Mercier
stirred tank tinuous reactor. A minimal mean hydraulic residence
concentrations
time of 0.75 day resulted in solubilization of 52% of the Cu, 62% of the Zn, and 78% of the Mn. They also found that the
leached sludge was more easily dewatered than the untreated
Nagasawa et al ( 1993) reported aerobic mineralization of 7 HCH ) by Pseudomonas paucimobilis ( hexachlorocyclohexane

sp. UT26. 9.3% of ,4C02 the applied was produced 14C, and from intermediates 14C-7-HCH preceding at a rate mineral of
sludge. Couillard andMercier (1993b) performed an economical

evaluation of biological and removal of heavy metals from wastewater
sludge. It was demonstrated

lime neutralization land
that bacterial leaching, including

spreading, was less expensive for
ization were identified. Jokela et al (1993) analyzed the mo lecular weight distribution of organochlorine compounds and
its effect molecules served plants on their biological were removed, treatment. but slightly the All sizes of solvent-soluble better removal activated organic was ob
undigested than for digested sludge, and was competitive with land spreading of nondecontaminated dewatered sludge for a plant treating 388 000 m3/d of wastewater. Jain and Tyagi ( 1993 ) investigated the factors affecting metal removal from anaerobically digested sewage sludge by enriched
sulphur-oxidizing microorganisms. Metal solubilization was en
in the lower molecular-weight 19 to 55% of removed
range. Also, adsorbable
sludge carbon,
while aerated lagoons removed 58 to 68%. Pettigrew et al ( 1993 ) presented the results of a field dem
onstration contaminated centrations microgram minutes using with of VOCs per by liter a fixed-film mixtures were bioreactor of aromatic to treat compounds. groundwater The con
hanced by the pH decline and redox potential increase. Tyagi et al ( 1993a), however, found that initial pH of the sludge (7.0 to 3.0) did not affect the capacity of metal leaching. The high concentration of Cu2+ and Zn2+ adjusted in the sludge did not greatly affect the microbiological activity of metal-leaching bac teria. Biais et al. ( 1993) indicated that the growth of leaching
bacteria was the rate-limiting step for metal solubilization from
reactors
to the the milligram reduced from a time at of 40 retention range hydraulic with colonized groundwater indigenous
bacteria and Pseudomonas

conducted monomers a comparative styrene, methyl
sp. JS150. Jung and Sofer (1993)

study on the biod?gradation (MMA), and of the methacrylate 0-hy
the sludge, and the metal removal from sludge by biological method was strongly influenced by the temperature of the bio
reaction.
droxybutric acid (HBA) to examine the effect of molecular structure on biodegradability. The relative degradability in
creased from to straight with ring chain chain straight monomers monomers with without bond, a double bond, a double to monomers
Babcock and Stenstrom ( 1993) examined the use of the en

richer-reactor (ER) process for assisting tests showed and activated-sludge systems. to de be
structure.
Acclimation
compounds. grade tween inducer
to target wastes
Bench-scale
ismaintained
for an ER comparable enrichment
by adding inducer
designed performance culture augmented
Fennel et al
tached-film degradation of eight mixed rates
(1993) degraded TCE in a methanotropic

Low efficiencies the need of TCE to improve removal methanogenic indicated
at
and
system
bioreactor.
1-naphthylamine subculture
TCE degradation. Broholm et al ( 1993) examined the ability of

cultures of methane-oxidizing cultures to degrade
reactors. Jung et al
June 1994
(1993)
compared the biod?gradation
443
Hazardous
Wastes
TCE. The experiment revealed a significant variation in the ability of the different cultures to degrade TCE, even though
they were grown under the same conditions. Nevalainen et al
reduction
of aromatic
nitro
compounds
in anaerobic
ecosystems.
( 1993) examined dechlorination of 2,4,6-trichlorophenol (2,4,6 TCP) by a nitrifying biofilm. Inorganic chloride release and total
organic chlorinated carbon and removal mineralized indicated in that the the compound Golovleva was de et al reactor.
Findings showed that their transformation to the corresponding amines may be widespread in the bacterial world. Young and Tabak ( 1993) investigated a multilevel protocol to provide a method of determining the fate and effect of toxic
organic compounds involves in anaerobic assessment treatment of toxic level protocol transformations, and degradation actor size and effects three This systems. on cosubstrate transformations, variations techniques. in re
(1993) biodegraded high concentrations of individual chloro phenols and their mixtures. Tiedje et al ( 1993) reviewed the
developments nated selective lighted. organic of anaerobic chemicals. microorganisms Reductive to degrade chlori dechlorination a provides was high of the
acetogenic kinetics. type, as well
and methanogenic The protocol permits as measurement
advantage The
compounds electron
advantage as a carbon
to the responsible microorganisms to the anaerobes is not in the use and energy et al source, (1993) but
Suidan et al ( 1993) tested two anaerobic granular activated carbon (GAC) fluidized-bed bioreactors (FBR) for pretreatment
of CERCLA leachates. The reactors were found to provide ac
as an alternate the an
ceptable pretreatment
under methanogenic
of synthetic organic chemicals

sulfate-reducing conditions. The
(SOCs)
SOCs
acceptor.
Haeggblom
evaluated
and
aerobic biodegradability of monochlorinated

zoic acids under conditions. Metabolism
phenols and ben
and sulfidogenic methanogenic, denitrifying, on both the electron was dependent ac in at one
were primarily removed by biological activity. GAC adsorption serves to provide stability and buffering of load fluctuations to
these systems. of Narayanan volatile wastes and with of et al (1993a and organic b) examined compounds GAC was reactors. docu the in treatment high strength semivolatile anaerobic
ceptor and the positions of the chlorinated substituents. The

compounds of were amendable environments. to biod?gradation least the anaerobic
expanded-bed and semivolatiles
Effective
removal
the VOCs
Rhee et al ( 1993) studied the effects of biphenyl enrichment on the anaerobic dechlorination of Aroclor 1254.Dechlorination occurred more rapidly and extensively in the nonenriched sed iments. Results showed that 38 and 32% of theCl was respectively
removed in the nonand biphenyl-enriched sediments. Alder et
mented. Edwards et al ( 1993) demonstrated advantages of GAC

over sand as a biocarrier. waste In aerobic stream, a GAC FBR biotreatment handled of surges a chemical industry reactor
inCOD loading while performance diminished in a sand reactor. Flora et al ( 1993 ) evaluated an anaerobic fluidized-bed GAC
a simulated carbon for treating replacement employing wastewater concentrations of containing inhibitory over 98% of the The removed system chlorophenols. effectively reactor industrial
al (1993) investigated reductive dechlorination of PCBs under methanogenic and sulfidogenic conditions with two freshwater
sediments. fate under ments, rination conditions. of The the PCBs methanogenic although occurred there effects were that added also organic in all of substrates had on the explored. Dechlorination the applied rates. No occurred environ dechlo
conditions were
overall chemical oxygen demand. Fox and Suidan ( 1993) com pared a hybrid GAC expanded-bed reactor designed to decouple
bed removal from physical biological reactor for treating inhibitory rates and removal and a GAC The expanded performance wastewaters.
differences
in the under
in any
of the sediments
sulfate-reducing
of the GAC reactor deteriorated with increasing 3-ethylphenol

loading eventually failed, while only minor changes
Fava et al ( 1993 )used microorganisms from a contaminated experimental soil to reductively dechlorinate the PCBs of Fenclor 54 and a synthetic mixture of PCBs. The dechlorination rate and extent increased with the chlorination degree of the com
pounds, and occurred primarily at the meta and para positions.
in effluent quality resulted in the hybrid reactor. Dikshitulu et al ( 1993) studied competition for phenol be
tween two microbial populations in a sequencing how data batch reactor
(SBR) and confirmed model predictions with experimental re

sults. The study demonstrated scale-up on of biod?gradation of phenolic can discrepancies if population dynamics in an SBR. arise in are not
Carter and Jewell ( 1993) investigated the feasibility of using an

attached film expanded-bed process for treatment of tetrachlo
roethylene (PCE) at low temperatures. Reductive dechlorination of PCE to TCE, DCE, vinyl chloride, and ethylene was observed at a conversion efficiency above 98%. Thomas and Lester ( 1993)
isolated of degrading microorganisms a variety from manufactured phenolic compounds. gas plants Phenol, capable di cresols,
considered. Nakala et al ( 1993) examined organic loading effects

treatment wastewaters Phenol and
o-cresol were treated, and high toxicant loadings did not hinder
the biodegradability for biotreatment of other wastewater components.
Belkin et al ( 1993) tested various laboratory configurations

of a saline wastewater reactor dissolved rich in halogenated the anaerobic carbon and de or In an anaerobic/aerobic ganics. was to reduce phase required to a batch reactor scheme, organic
methyl-, and trimethylphenol were all mineralized in the study. Boopathy et al (1993) conducted a laboratory study on the
anaerobic of removal was of 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene exposed to methanogenic, (TNT). A consortium sulfate reducing, re soil bacteria
toxify the system. Pesari and Grasso

glycerin cycles. (NG) Nitroglycerin as a nongrowth but behaved produced high in an anoxic phase. levels
( 1993) introduced nitro

and anoxic degradation, of NG treated
and nitrate reducing conditions. An 82 and 30% reduction of

TNT was documented under nitrate and sulfate conditions,
with aerobic operated was amenable to aerobic substrate. which Aerobic were
spectively. Roberts et al
stration soil. of the anaerobic
(1993) presented an on-site demon

remediation of Dinoseb contaminated
treatment subsequently
of NO3-N,
Bhattacharya et al (1993) investigated the anaerobic treat ment of soil contaminated with nitrophenols and cadmium. Both
uncompetitive and competitive inhibition models were used to
Irvine et al ( 1993b, c) reviewed periodically operated, in situ

bioremediation plication Sequencing of SBR, Batch systems Soil Biofilm for treating Slurry-Sequencing Reactors were leachates and soils. The ap and et al. Batch Reactors, Hess
quantify the toxic effects of 4-nitrophenol and cadmium on the methanogenic population. Gurevich et al ( 1993) examined the
reviewed.
(1993)
investigated the effect of glucose addition on 2,4-dini
444
Water
Environment
Research,
Volume
66, Number
_Hazardous
Wastes
trophenol (DNP) degradation kinetics in sequencing batch re actors. The addition of 100mg/L of glucose to the system max imized degradation by increasing the populations of DNP-de grading bacteria. Concentrations above 500 mg/L of glucose were found to be inhibitory. Long ( 1993a and b) assessed the biod?gradation of 12 chlo
rinated, sequential aliphatic compounds (CACs) batch-fed in aerobic, reactor anaerobic, systems. The and se anaerobic-aerobic
indicated that over 80% removal efficiency can be obtained as long as the enzyme activity is not limiting. Wu et al (1993)
studied the enzymatic removal of phenol from wastewater in
the presence of polyethylene glycol (PEG). Addition of PEG resulted in reducing the amount of HRP enzyme required by
40and 75-fold for 1 and 10 mM phenol concentrations, re spectively.
quential system outperformed the others by degrading 10 of the

feed CACs, as well as the anaerobic metabolites dichloromethane
Venkatadri and Irvine (1993) cultivated PC and produced lignin peroxidase using two novel biofilm reactors: hollow fiber
reactor reactor and silicone membrane reactor. for application The silicone membrane waste appears promising to treat Such from as a hazardous
and cis~ 1,2-dichloroethylene. Zitomer and Speece (1993) re viewed the application of sequential environments for degrading
aqueous contaminates. The enhanced treatment of compounds was
treatment process. Basheer et al ( 1993) developed an enzyme

membrane the food reactor industry. the enzyme present cyanide-containing a reactor offers effects wastewaters the advantage from of pro com used a
most readily degraded through a combination of reductive and

oxidative steps, such as PCBs, benzenes, (1993) waste aliphatic and CACs, examined components, hydrocarbons. biological chlorinated detailed. technol as chlo con are and Richardson Murray to degrade chlorinated ogies rophenols cluded most that and chlorinated process such
tecting ponents
adverse
of high molecular (1993)
in the wastewaters.
Livingston concocted
membrane bioreactor to degrade 1000 mg/L

in an acidic contact a contact time time and salty synthetically 98.5% 65% of 6 hours, of of phenol of phenol was was
of phenol present
wastewater. degraded, degraded. also At and a at
It was systems
sequential
anaerobic-aerobic hazardous
promising
for mineralizing
wastes.
1.9 hours
Mueller et al ( 1993 ) presented results on bench- and pilot-scale

studies for of a sequential of inoculation, creosoteand The continuous-flow pentachlorophenol of the creosote bioreactor (PCP) com remediation
Rothenburger
mation
and Atlas
(1993) described the biotransfor

by Pseudomona putida. They
of 6-methylquinoline
contaminated
groundwater.
majority
ponents were biologically

addition of a Pseudomonas
removed in the first bioreactor. The

sp. to the second bioreactor allowed
discussed the biotransformation of quinolines by immobilized cells in aqueous and nonaqueous systems. Preuss et al ( 1993) isolated a sulfate-reducing bacterium that uses TNT as the sole
nitrogen source. The organism was found to be able to reduce
the subsequent degradation of 77% of the PCP. Majcherczyk et al (1993) used white-rot fungi to degrade PAH in soils. Baud-Grasset et al ( 1993) found that the depletion of selected PAH after fungal treatment was associated with a reduction of the soil genotoxicity. Davis et al ( 1993) conducted a field evaluation of the lignin-degrading fungus Phanearochaete
s?rdida to treat creosote-contaminated soil. After 56 days, PAHs
TNT
to triamiontoluene
and to further
(TAT) in growing cultures and cell

transform TAT to still unknown
suspensions
products. Pahm and Alexander ( 1993) investigated the effect of low concentrations of p-nitrophenol (PNP) on growth of four PNP degrading bacteria. They also investigated the abilities of
these tions organisms in culture to metabolize and samples from the compound a lake. at low concentra
containing >5 rings persisted at their original concentrations, while on an average, 91% of 3-ring and 45% of 4-ring PAHs
were depleted, respectively.
CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL TREATMENT

Advanced oxidation. Venkatadri and Peters (1993) reviewed the application status and potential of three advanced oxidation methods: ultraviolet (UV) light/hydrogen peroxide (H202)
processes, Fenton's reagent treatment, and titanium dioxide
Segura et al (1993) applied white-rot fungi to treat a black liquor derived from nonwood feedstock. Shaking and rising temperature enhanced the ability of the fungi to reduce color
and aromatic compound several content. Lamar fungi for and Evans (1993) treat removal compared ment lignin-degrading solid-phase soil. The
(Ti02)-assisted
these methods inants ranging with
photocatalytic degradation.
are effective from to degrade inorganic compounds times compounds and in the order
Itwas showed that

contam to com to a such as cyanide aromatic
of a pentachlorophenol-contaminated
or to mineralize
efficiency strongly depended on the type of fungi used. Bumpus and Aust (1993) showed that mineralization of chlordane and
pentachlorophenol by a white-rot fungus, Phanerochaete chry nitro
chlorinated pounds few
aliphatic reaction
complex of a few minutes
sosporium
cultures,
(PC) was promoted

mineralization was
in nutrient nitrogen-deficient
suppressed in nutrient
hours.
while
Hayashi
ozone aqueous with
et al
UV
(1993) destructed five chlorinated VOCs by

radiation. was The destruction to the rate in both gas and of reac proportional concentration
gen-sufficient cultures. Funk et al ( 1993) proposed that the an aerobic metabolism of TNT-contaminated soils by PC occurs in two stages: reductive stage in which TNT is reduced to its
amino derivatives and degradation to nonaromatic products. cer provided
phases
tants and theUV intensity.Weir and Sundstrom ( 1993 ) oxidized TCE using UV light-catalyzed H202 in solution. Results showed
that at H202 increased higher dependent the short concentrations linearly concentrations, of H202 wavelength with the below increase the 3 mM, the TCE reaction rate At in of H202 reaction Loraine of concentration. rate (1993) aqueous became investigated carbon tetra
Loper et al ( 1993 ) investigated immunological cross-reactivity

among evisiae cytochrome and Candida p-450 system proteins Experimental of Saccaromyces results tropicalis.
however, concentration. UV photolysis
evidence for gene relationships

isolation and subsequent
that should be useful in gene

of p-450 enzyme systems
engineering
in yeast. Siddique et al (1993) evaluated the ability of horse radish peroxidase (HRP) enzyme attached on three different
reactor tubing, matrices: to remove cellulose filter paper, from nylon aqueous balls, and nylon Results 4-chlorophenol solution.
chloride (CC14). In the gas phase, oxidation by atomic oxygen was the primary mechanism for removal of CC14 while direct photolysis of CC14 and reaction with OH* played minor roles.
In the aqueous phase, direct photolysis of CC14 was minimal
June
1994
445
Hazardous
Wastes_
and reactions with OH and H from the photolysis of H20 dom

inated the removal rate.
heavy-metals
to be reliable
from groundwater. The hybrid system promised

and to reduce treatment costs below that for costs
Potter and Roth (1993) showed that the Fenton's reagent both oxidizes and dechlorinates the chlorinated phenolic com
The monochlorinated pounds. phenols as phenol, the dichlorphenols while oxidized reacted nearly as rapidly more slowly. Mo
if either CT or RO were used alone. Legault et al (1993) removed arsenic from groundwater by
a process that incorporates The selective polymer binding and ultra
filtration (UF) membrane

removal pended was on achieved. the concentration
separation. A high degree of arsenic

retention and type of arsenic, of anion however, present de in so
hanty andWei ( 1993) demonstrated that 2,4-dinitrotoluene (2,4 DNT) could be effectively oxidized in aqueous solutions by
Fenton's 30?C reagent. decreased the Increasing contact the time temperature drastically. one to greater The contact than time
lution. Golovanov
retention with
et al ( 1993) mathematically
polymers during
described meltal
membrane filtra
water-soluble
was also reduced by using Fe3+ in conjunction with Fe2+ and by

applying H202 sequentially rather than single dose.
tion. The metal retention data obtained experimentally could be explained using the models based on the theory of kinetics
of reactions in partially open systems.
Pramauro et al ( 1993) studied the photocatalytic degradation in aqueous Ti02 dispersion. The hydrophobic of Monuron
compound 4-chlorophenyl isocyanate was one of the major in
Yamagiwa et al ( 1993) examined the membrane fouling in UF of a hydrophobic nonionic surfactant by hydrophilic poly
olefin membrane and by hydrophobic polysulfone membrane.
termediates. Mills
PCP was destructed
and Hoffman (1993) investigated the pho tocatalytic degradation of PCP on Ti02 particle suspensions.
via hydroxyl radical attach on the para po
The polylefin membrane was hardly fouled by the surfactant, while the flux of the polysulfone membrane decreased drastically
at temperatures above the cloud point of the surfactant. The
sition of the PCP ring to form a semiquinone

proportionated to yield /7-chloranil carbon and
radical that dis
tetrachlorohydroqui and molecular
U.S. EPA SITE Program (Kreiton and Beckman,

uated by SBP the formed-in-place, for membrane removal system removed of filtration creosote Technologies The membrane and
1993) eval
offered
none. Nimios
roacetyl chloride
et al. ( 1993) discovered the existence of dichlo

(DCAC), monoxide,
system
contamination performed 95% an 82%
chlorine during gas-phase photocatalytic oxidation of TCE over Ti02. DCAC was formed when TCE molecules were oxidized
in a chain reaction involving Cl atoms. Pignatello and Huang
from water. volume
effectively greater than
reduction,
of high mo
lecular weight PAHs and 92% of total PAHs from the permeate
stream. for The membrane of system however, was not very such effective as the removal low-molecular-weight compounds
(1993) conducted a study to determine the fate of polychlori nated dibenzo-/?-dioxin (PCDD) and dibenzofuran (PCDF)
contaminants ment by in 2,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacetic photoassited Fe3+ catalyzed on was sulfided analyzed hydrogen acid after treat oxi peroxide
phenolics.
Sengupta and Sengupta (1993)

sorptive/desorptive ion exchange
investigated a new class of

made of fine par
dation. Murena
using alyst. ature Reaction was
et al. ( 1993) detoxified

kinetics and
1,2,3-trichlorobenzene
cat of temper the effect
membranes
hydrodechlorination examined.
NiO-Mo03/7-Al203
ticles of chelating polymers entrapped in thin sheets of porous

polytetrafluoroethylene. taminate membranes solids but They applied sludges. by high the membranes Results concentrations of chelating showed to decon that the heavy-metal-laden were not fouled retained the original
Zhang and Rusling ( 1993 ) showed that PCBs can be effectively dechlorinated by electrochemical catalysis in a bicontinuous microemulsion. Dechlorination of 100mg of Arcolor 1260 (60% of Cl) in 20 mL microemulsion was achieved in 18hours, which
was claimed cathodes to the best previous to be equivalent in a buffered surfactant dispersion. result on Hg
of suspended exchangers.
properties
Nakashio (1993) reviewed recent advances in separation of metals by liquid surfactant membranes (LSM) with emphasis
placed on development of a suitable surfactant. Shiau and Jung
Topudurti
oxidation with the organics. technologies,
et al
They
( 1993) described the applicability of UV/

technologies also presented contaminated for groundwater an analysis of factors affecting from two pilot-scale results
(1993) extracted metal ions from solution through LSMs and found that at low pH with the presence of ammonia in the feed,
was in the order of Zn > Cd > Ni, while the degree of extraction to Ni > Cd > Zn. Raghuraman at high pH, the order was reversed
treatment
and
experimental
andWiencek
(HFM) batch/continuous
( 1993 ) used microporous

as an alternate dispersion of emulsion
hollow-fiber membrane
method to direct The liquid membranes.
studies. Dougherty et al ( 1993) theoretically and experimentally

demonstrated /7-dioxin can that be soil containing 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo the com by extracting and subsequently in an organic solvent mixture exposing to the UV in sunlight. available and Mehos the mixture energy can in situ decontaminated
contactors
contacting
high surface area of HFM

metal extraction by reducing
resulted in improved efficiency of

membrane swelling and leakage.
pound
Yun et al ( 1993) developed a mathematical model

the extent of copper extraction from the aqueous
to describe
synthetic
Turchi ( 1993 )demonstrated in the field thatUV energy available

a photocatalyst, in sunlight in conjunction with Ti02, to destroy in groundwater. used toxic organic compounds be
wastewater by microporous
equilibrium experimental membranes constant partitioning for air pollution and
hydrophobic HFM modules.

was determined to be data.
The
for copper
1.7 from
Membrane
ceramic alumina petrochemical metals, organic
technologies. Lahiere and Goodboy

microfiltration streams emulsions (MF) with membranes wastewater solvent containing solids,
(1993) used
to treat the heavy oils.
Logsdon et al ( 1993 )presented a report of using gas separation

control. Feng et al ( 1993) prepared
precipitated and aromatic
dry asymmetric poly (ether imide) membranes

inversion technique applied the membranes
by the phase
to separating
Jamaluddin et al ( 1993) applied nonofiltration (NF) to separate

salts from that the NF a hydrogen membranes species Edlund ionic sulphide retained scrubber organic solution. materials Results and showed iron and
VOC/nitrogen
polyphosphazene in cleaning the
gas mixtures. Peterson et al ( 1993 ) showed that

membrane can effectively be used technology that has been contaminated groundwater removal from and concluded
allowed
to permeate.
S203~, C032~, (e.g., S042~, a reverse-osmosis et al ( 1993 ) investigated
and HC03~)
up air and
with chlorinated hydrocarbons. Brown et al (1993) reviewed

options for VOC gas phase
(RO)/coupled-transport
(CT) hybrid system for removal of
446
Water
Environment
Research,
Volume
66, Number
Hazardous
Wastes
that membrane vide an
separation and
combined
with
air stripping safe with
will
pro for
found that hexane extraction of the SDS surfactant solutions

contaminated phenyl was with an effective /7-dichlorobenzene, method for cleaning naphthalene, up these and surfactant bi
economically
environmentally contaminated
technology VOCs.
remediation
of groundwater
Vapor sparging /extracting. Burchfield and Wilson (1993) developed mathematical models for describing the removal of dense nonaqueous phase liquid (NAPL) droplets dispersed in a contaminated aquifer by in situ air sparging. Benson et al ( 1993 )
numerically of NAPL analyzed mixtures the vapor and extraction process in the presence Johnson et al nonideal conditions.
solutions for recycle. Rouse et al ( 1993) proposed an hypothesis that surfactants with two head groups would exhibit lower losses
in the subsurface while maintaining remediation as compared high can with single head group surfactants ver solubilization. They experimentally
ified the hypothesis and concluded that surfactant losses in sub

surface be minimized using twin-head anionic surfactants.
( 1993 )pointed out that the effectiveness of soil vapor extraction

based methods can be greatly improved by applying air sparging.
Erkey et al (1993) studied supercritical carbon dioxide (C02)

extraction isotherms of organic and compounds profiles desorption the adsorption by determining for the compounds in the
Gamliel and Abdul (1993) performed numerical investiga tions of optimal well spacing and the effect of screen length and
surface sealing on gas flow toward an extraction well. Roberts
( 1993) studied the effect of spatial variations in the pneumatic permeability on cleanup time distributions by in situ
soil relate had vapor extraction with (SVE). average Rate of cleanup was but time found this to cor somewhat a good deal permeability, in cleanup correlation for.
and Wilson
presence of liquid and supercritical C02. Wai et al (1993) dis cussed the recent studies on the solubilities of metal chelates in supercritical C02 and the development of selective chelating
agents (ionizable crown ethers) for the extraction of lanthanides
and actinides. Tomasko et al ( 1993) designed and tested a pilot

scale GAC ability regeneration process C02 of supercritical fluids. supercritical using to extract model contaminant The com
of variation
unaccounted
Clarke et al ( 1993a) indicated that SVE wells were commonly

at high gas flow rates and the classic Darcy's law was operated no longer applicable. a quadratic function of They developed the molar into account inertial gas flow rate of the well by taking as viscous as well forces. data from four vapor Experimental extraction dependence. Flushing /washing /extracting by solvents or solvent solutions. wells were in excellent agreement with this quadratic
and subsequently from GAC contaminant pounds drop out most An economic in a liquid phase was determined. indicated analysis cost compares with that the processing thermal regen favorably eration.
Annable et al. (1993) tried to reduce gasoline-leaching po tential by soil venting. They found that chemical equilibrium
between phases was in the reached leachate in effluent could water and contaminant reduced. Ve concentrations be effectively
Underwood et al (1993a) determined the solubilities of mixtures of naphthalene, biphenyl, and phenanthrene in 50 and 100mM aqueous sodium dodecylsulfate (SDS) solutions at room tem
perature. pounds No to appreciable form solid tendency solutions was with observed each other. for these Brandes com and
lazquez et al ( 1993) indicated that low temperature treatment is an effective method to strip VOCs from contaminated soil
and to minimize the hazards of heavy-metal emissions. Ikenberry stack
and Ikenberry ( 1993) reported that a patented system is now

available heated Hanson mediate air. et al ( 1993) used a heap-leaching soils. More technique than 99% to re of Chro for extracting contaminants from soil by
Farley (1993) showed the importance of phase behavior on the removal of residual TCE and PCE from porous media by alcohol flooding. Pennell et al ( 1993) investigated the solubilization of
dodecane nonionic aquifers. the the by polyoxyethylene surfactant The sizable of for sorbitan recovering of monooleate, from a potential contaminated enhanced even under et NAPLs surfactant in soil solubilization.
chromium-containing
capacity
solutions columns, Later,
mium (VI) was removed from the typical arid climate soils using tap water as the leaching agent. O'Neill et al ( 1993 ) studied the
possibility extraction tration ducted of with or sodium in situ treatment hydrogen hydroxide peroxide of organic-contaminated at varying solutions at varying that 80% pH. of phenol soil by concen Tests was con re
recovery conditions
residual of
dodecane
rate-limited
Abri?la
al ( 1993 ) presented a mathematical model

solubilization of residual dodecane was
to describe how the

by the surfac
solutions indicated
enhanced
in permeameters
tant solutions. Model

were in good agreement
simulations with calibrated parameters

with the experimental data.
covered by permeation with either hydrogen peroxide or sodium

hydroxide.
Clarke et al
evaluated up by surfactant 98% of toluene
( 1993b) and Orna et al

surfactant recycle soil washing. Ninety-nine were from removed
(1993) designed and

system for soil clean and con of biphenyl a solution
Meckes
under the
et al
SITE
(1993) and U.S. EPA (1993g) reported that

Program, a pilot-scale evaluation of the Basic
a pilot-scale
percent using
taining 2.5% of SDS. They further showed that the effectiveness of recycled SDS solution was as good as that of virgin solution in removing the biphenyl. Megehee et al (1993) verified the
modified mathematical column good models or test for beds. operation Model of surfactant ap washing/flushing to yield peared simulations data.
Extractive Sludge Treatment (BEST )process was conducted on sediment samples. For the samples with total PCB of 10mg/kg and total PAH of 520 mg/kg, 96% of PAHs and more than 99%
of PCBs were removed after seven sequential extractions. Esti
mated costs were between $94 and $ 112 per ton for remediating
soil, sediment, or sludge.
U.S. EPA (1993h) field-evaluated

nologies Inc.'s Pneumatic under the SITE program. Fracturing Extraction
a few remediation
Remedial process was found
tech
to
agreement
with
the experimental
Accutech
Systems,
Allen and Chen ( 1993) remediated heavy-metal containing soil by ethylenediamine tetraacetic acid (EDTA) incorporating
electrochemical recovery of metal and EDTA. Baek and Dwor
zanski (1993) conducted bench- and pilot-scale studies and showed that simple distillation could recover about 80% of the
reusable of NAPL, solvents PCB, with and less than 2 ppm PCB from the mixture et al ( 1993b) reusable solvents. Underwood
provide substantially higher extracted air flow and trichloro ethane (TCEA) removal rate. Solidification /stabilization. Soundararajan et al (1993)
evaluated amounts the performance cement, of kiln binders dust, composed fly ash, and of varying of portland slag powder
for the stabilization/solidification
(S/S) of lead contaminated 447
June
1994
Hazardous
Wastes
soils.
The
leach
values
of
the binder/waste
mixtures
cured
for
chemical
wastes
solvents from highly toxic and concentrated

in a chemical analytical can be effectively discussed three laboratory
liquid
28 days approached to drinking-water standards.Ma et al ( 1993 ) developed a technology to in situ immobilize lead in contami nated soils and wastes using hydroxyapatite (HA). The aqueous
lead concentration in Pb-contaminated soil materials was re
generated in wastewater oilseed
by a batch
fractionation method. We ( 1993 ) showed that toxic compounds

found and effluent removed by cereal of non removal byproducts. et al. ( 1993)
duced from 2 273 to 36 ?ig/L after reaction with HA. Yang ( 1993 ) conducted a durability study of a solidified mer
cury-containing sludge and showed that solidification with the
Penetrante thermal
applications sulfide,
plasmas:
decomposition
of hydrogen
binder STA II reduced the cumulative amount of mercury from 10.57% to less than 0.66% by weight. Yang et al ( 1993) found
that an increase of polymer latex addition increased the strength
of TCE, and removal of nitric oxides. Nunez et al ( 1993) de veloped an industrial scale corona reactor capable of efficiently and cost efficiently destroying VOCs and air toxics at ambient
temperature and pressure. Cooper et al (1993) demonstrated
of the solidified specimen. In addition, the specimen solidified by any of the polymer latex modified cementitious binders had
a much lower mercury concentration of the TCLP leachate.
that high energy electron beam irradiation is an effective process for the destruction of TCE and PCE in aqueous solutions at large scale. Mathews et al ( 1993a and b) presented technical
aspects of using an electron accelerator to destruct VOCs dis
Bricka and Jones (1993) evaluated the effects of interfering substances and type of binders on the S/S of a synthetic plating
sludge chromim, heat mixes containing nickel, substantial and mercury. for toxic waste that occurred concentrations Hills and et al of cadmium, the ( 1993) measured portland waste
solved inwater and in air, PCBs dissolved in oil, high explosives

dissolved in groundwater, and chemical weapon surrogates.
U.S. EPA (1993j) evaluated an EPA Risk Reduction

neering The unit Laboratories included settling settling when water were (RREL)'s a miniwasher, tank, and a mixing carbon added the system was mobile volume reduction a coagulated a flocculation optimum temperature average vibrasceens, tank filters. and and
Engi
unit. plate tank, con of
of hydration and indicated reactions
ordinary
cement of normal
a progressive with
deterioration
hydration
increasing
addition.
Lin
interceptor another ditions, wash
et al ( 1993) investigated the copper stabilization in a cemen titious matrix and found the copper species were stabilized by
the two major mechanisms: the heterogeneous solid solution of
tank, surfactant
Under pH and
increased,
achieved
removal
copper species in the hydrated tricalcium aluminate (C3A) and the physical entrapment within the hydration products of C3A. Wasay and Das ( 1993 ) interpreted the results of leaching the
chromium and containing lime or with bitumen function and sulfide and the flow sludge mixed based of with on the fly ash, gypsum, mass fly ash, pattern the specific leaching
efficiencies of 97% for PCP and 95% for PAH contaminants. U.S. EPA ( 1993k) field evaluated proprietary PO* WW*ER
technology. oxidizer, The consisted of an evaporator, system a scrubber and a condenser. Feed wastes a catalytic of volatile
transfer
column.
organic compounds from 0.00035 to 110 mg/L, ammonia of 140 to 160mg/L, and cyanide of 24 to 33 mg/L were treated,
and none were detected in the product condensate.
Taffinder and Batchelor ( 1993) developed an electrical conduc tivity method to determine the effective diffusivity of contami
nants through hazardous waste solidified with cementitious
binders. The method

advantages of much
appeared to be reliable and offered the

rapid analysis than conventional methods.
THERMAL TREATMENT
Combustion/incineration. Kinner
that to treat
et al
employs hazardous
(1993) described a
com secondary wastes. At least
Eklund et al
ambient soil or sludge.
(1993) provided procedures for estimating

associated ambient with S/S of contaminated levels were Health-based air action ambient electron
the
also
reverse-burn bustion of
gasification the product
process gases
air concentrations
99.9999% of PCBs destruction efficiency was achieved without

producing drogen both undesirable chloride. organic They substances byproducts also showed and significant that the mix amounts wastes of hy containing can be re
for comparison given et al ( 1993) Roy dispersive termine phases of X-ray
to the estimated used scanning
concentrations. energy to de
microscopy, diffractometry and a synthetic
spectroscopy,
and X-ray
radioactive
materials
the microstructure, cementitious
microchemistry, for S/S binders of
component electro
mediated with complete retention of radionuclides. McGowin et al ( 1993 ) indicated that the gasified residue from the reverse
burn mobilized process gasification in cement. might be recycled before being im
plating sludge. Joshi et al ( 1993 ) showed that the dynamic pro cesses involved in binding and leaching of waste materials in
solidification evaluated measurements. systems using the can be effectively pulse and velocity nondestructively and attenuation ultrasonic
Alcocer and Chowdhury

investigate system the feasibility gulf to remediate coast
(1993) conducted experiments

a "low-temperature" burner soil. They crude-oil-contaminated
to
of using
A U.S. EPA ( 1993i) survey showed that S/S had been selected as the treatment technology of choice for 26% of the remedial actions completed at Superfund sites through fiscal year 1992. The agency prepared the Technical Resources Document (TRD)
with the intention of providing a resource for S/S user com
concluded that the remediation by such a system is technically feasible but may not be economically practical because of the
long the The variety remaining retention time required to achieve the goal. incineration operating
Dempsey
current review
and Oppelt
state covered
(1993) provided a critical review on

waste and technologies. experiences, of air pollution, the the
of hazardous the design technologies, and research
munity
S/S
and a guide to promote the best future application of
processes.
of process issues,
the control needs.
Other chemical /physical processes. Barkley et al ( 1993) re ported that highly charged aluminum polyhydroxide generated
by alternating of removing current colloidal solids, electrocoagulation oil droplets, technology and soluble is capable ionic pol
Leger et al. ( 1993a) studied the bed mixing and heat transfer in a batch-loaded rotary kiln and developed a simple model to
predict the thermal history of a charge of solids, based on mea
lutants from wastewater.
Lin and Chang
(1993)
recovered
surable parameters of the kiln and bed. Leger et al. ( 1993b) also
448
Water
Environment
Research,
Volume
66, Number
_Hazardous
Wastes
developed a three-dimensional numerical model for a field-scale rotary kiln incinerator to describe the temperature and flow field that exit within the rotary kiln. Good agreement between the model simulation and experimental data was obtained for the
lower experimental location, but poor agreement was noted for
the removal efficiency of pesticides by thermal desorption were

soil time treatment at the temperature, temperature. total treatment time, and treatment
Swanberg (1993) evaluated the performance evaluation of thermal processor for treating petroleum refining MX-2500
wastes of and contaminated value recovered soils. of Results showed wastes and that virtually secondary all ma the hydrocarbon could be refinery
the upper location. Khan et al ( 1993) demonstrated that the commercial fluid mechanics code FLUENT can be used to solve a highly simplified model of a full-scale rotary kiln incinerator
and produce data. simulation results in good agreement with exper imental
terials
to produce
a solid with
contaminant
residues meeting EPA Land Disposal Restriction

ment levels.
(LDR) treat
Pershing et al
solid composition,
(1993) examined
moisture content,
the effect of temperature,

and mixing condition on
Plasma /vitrification. Sekiguchi et al (1993) studied the de composition of dichlrodifuoromethane using a thermal argon
plasma generated by a DC arc discharge. Experimental results
the fate of heavy metal and hydrocarbon

waste incineration important evolution in rotary kilns. as the most hydrocarbon parameter and with high the
species during solid

was identified favoring of toxic temperature formation
Temperature
enhancing
and kinetic calculations indicated that the chlorofluorocarbon was completely decomposed with the simultaneous additions of hydrogen and oxygen. El-Naas et al ( 1993 )pyrolyzed the residue
from cation The a chemical using rate of were at an process argon for heavy plasma with and strongly surface. oil upgrading the the and coal gasifi of hydrogen. injection rate of formation of gas on was the rate of
metal fumes. Dempsey

emissions from hazardous
( 1993) presented a comparison of organic

waste incinerators and the 1990 toxic
release inventory air releases. Linak andWendt

the mechanisms and control of toxic metal
( 1993) discussed
from in
residue found the
emissions
products heat and ucts. ment
pyrolysis to be residue
dependent Some were an soot
cineration. Martinez et al ( 1993 ) used hydroxide or ozone to enhance the incineration of VOC vapors. Erb ( 1993 ) showed
that addition of another catalyst bed was an economical way to
transfer acetylene, Rosocha
produced, as gas prod waste treat in
and methane ethylene, et al ( 1993) described that uses two stages:
detected innovative
boost the destruction efficiency of old incinerators back to ac ceptable levels. Crosley and Kedl ( 1993 ) found silica was an
effective sorbent for removal of cesium from simulated incin
technology
a packed
bed
reactor
the first stage to volatilize and/or combust liquid organics and

a silent discharge plasma reactor to even to remove lower entrained levels. hazardous compounds in the off-gas treatment results of buried were
erator flue gases. Lancia et al (1993) demonstrated that up to 95% of mercuric chloride vapors from incinerator flue gases could
be removed bed. by adsorption on calcium hydroxide particles in a packed
Surma et al ( 1993 ) evaluated the plasma arc heated furnace

for the radioactive in terms efficiency, and hazardous product wastes. qual reli Promising ity, volume Hansen obtained heating of waste and
King et al ( 1993 ) conducted a series of tests on a pilot-scale

rotary kiln incinerator for the treatment of contaminated soils.
reduction, et al.
operational
ability and versatility.

( 1993) explained of water types of contaminant response
Waterland et al (1993) performed a comparison of thermal treatment PCB data from two Superfund sites to confirm that the required 99.999% destruction and removal efficiency could
be achieved by conventional incineration. Leger et al. (1993c
and ultimate disposition during in situ vitrification (ISV). The

presence and movement during ISV was considered as
and d ) used a field-scale rotary kiln incinerator to obtain data

on the processing evaluation of toluene-contaminated sorbent contained
a key factor in evaluating potential applications of ISV.Grandy et al ( 1993) presented correlations of thermodynamic properties
and process parameters of of high-temperature basalt. The slag for a range were and moni of of ex compositions pected toring iron-enriched for providing melting waste. correlations in design
in plastic packs. Dellinger et al ( 1993) presented the results of

a full-scale of the thermal stability-based the discharge hazardous
to be used
assistance systems
organic waste incinerability ranking. Lerner ( 1993) reported that

a patent method is available for reducing of con
of high-temperature and hazardous radioactive
for the treatment
taminated liquid streams in the treatment of hot waste incin

erator fly ash, exhaust gases containing oxides, and hydrochloric toxic organic acid gas, particulate toxic metal compounds.
Carey et al ( 1993) developed a finite-element model for ISV of buried hazardous wastes. The coupled electric field, heat
transfer, and fluid flow processes associated with this technology
Thermal desorption. Wilson and Tamaushi ( 1993 ) developed simple mathematical models to describe the removal of semi volatile organic compounds (SVOCs) by thermal desorption in batch and continuous flow units. Dulaney et al ( 1993) presented
procedures rate and on for evaluating the effect of on the thermal treatment rates from and the contaminant concentration the emission distances ambient to the
were considered in their model. Hawkes (1993) presented a three-dimensional model of heat transfer during ISVwith melting
and cool down. data It was shown that the model and melt agreed shape. well with experimental for melt volume
Czuczwa et al (1993) reported that a pilot cyclone furnace developed by Babcock andWilcox was successfully demonstrated
vitrify in a 2-year Superfund technology a heavy metal-contaminated Wet oxidation /wet air oxidation research EPA project synthetic to melt and soil matrix. water oxida
the ambient
air concentrations
at selected
thermal levels bient
Health-based unit/site. desorption were also provided for comparison air concentrations of the desorbed
air action am
estimated
/supercriticalless than above
contaminants.
tion. Dell'Orco for

was destructed with pilot, with reacted
et al ( 1993) showed greater than 99% of nitrate

at the residence time of 6 seconds Both when nitrate at temperatures 500?C.
Troxler
treatment and was
et al
(1993)
investigated thermal desorption

soils that by laboratory, the thermal soils desorption
of pesticide-contaminated full-scale shown studies. It was technology
methanol
and nitrite could be destroyed with high efficiency at the residence

time of less 30 seconds when reacted point with ammonium (374.2?C). ion at Li temperatures above supercritical of water
an effective
for treating
contaminated
a variety of organochlorine
pesticides. The key factors affecting
June
1994
449
Hazardous
Wastes_ of Monoaromatic P.J., et al. ( 1993) Biodegradation Hydrocarbons in Aquifer Columns with Hydrogen Amended Peroxide and Nitrate. Water Res. (G.B.), 27, 4, 685. of Gasoline Component Annable, M.D., et al. ( 1993) Reduction Leaching Potential J. Contam. Hydrol, 12, 1-2, 151. by Soil Venting. Sur (1993) Effect of a Non-Ionic on the Biodegradation of Aromatic the Soil. Appl. MicrobioL Biotechnol, 39,
et al ( 1993) investigated super critical water oxidation (SCWO) for destructing organic pollutants associated with dinitrotoluene (DNT) process wastewaters and found that organic destruction efficiencies greater than 99% can be achieved at temperatures of
450?C or higher, and within a reaction time of 1minute.
Anid,
Hao et al ( 1993a and b) demonstrated that wet air oxidation (WAO) is feasible for treatment of TNT red water. Removal efficiency was found to be a function primarily of temperature
and, to a less extent, increased of the oxygen the WAO pressure. rate. A Addition preliminary of Cu(II) toxicity activated as a catalyst
M. B.N., and Alexander, Aronstein, factant Added to the Soil Surface Hydrocarbons 386. Atlas, KM. diation. Mt., Within
study on treated red water (320?C and oxygen pressure of 1.31

MPa) showed no adverse effect on the heterotrophic
and Oil Spill Bioreme ( 1993) Petroleum Biodegradation on and Bioremediation 25th Annu. Symp. Bioprocessing, Amer. Chem. Colo. Soc, Denver, et al. (1993) Government Environmental
sludge culture with the addition of the treated red water up to

75%. However, ture in converting in the presence the efficiency ammonium of treated of the enriched was nitrosomonas significantly cul reduced to nitrite red water.
Ayers, K.W., Handbook.
and Technology Science MD. Institutes, Inc., Rockville, Babcock, R.W., and Stenstrom, M.K. (1993) Use of Inducer Compounds of 1-Naphthylamine in the Enricher-Reactor Process for Degradation Wastes. Environ. Res., 65, 1, 26. and Dworzanski, G.M. of Solvent Re ( 1993) Assessment Phase Liquid covery from Ground Water Containing Nonaqueous Waste Hazard. Mater., J. Hazard. with Polychlorinated Biphenyls. Water N.H., 10, Barkley, 1,49. N.P.,
Hao and Phull ( 1993) proposed the reaction pathways for WAO of nitrotoluenesulfonic acid (NTSA) based on the end
products and intermediates detected. Toxicity analysis indicated
Baek,
that some byproducts formed during the oxidation might be more toxic than NTSA itself. Harradine et al (1993) studied
the oxidation in supercritical ficiencies, and chemistry water. of explosives They also and rocket fuel components the destruction of reaction throughout. products, ef investigated
et al. ( 1993) Alternating Current Electrocoagulation for J. Air Waste Manage. Site Remediation. Assoc, 43, 784. Superfund Reactor of an Enzyme Membrane Basheer, S., et al. ( 1993) Development from the Food Wastewaters for Treatment of Cyanide-Containing Basseres, Biotechnol. 41, 4, 465. Bioeng., of Spilled Oil Biodegradation A., et al. ( 1993) Enhancement of Natural Origin. 1993 International Oil Spill Con by Nutrients In Amer. Petroleum Response, Preparedness, ference: Prevention, Industry. D.C. stitute., Washington, of a Creosote of Genotoxicity S., et al. ( 1993) Reduction Determined Soil after Fungal Treatment Contaminated by the Tra Test. Mutat. descantia-Micronuleus Res., 303, 2, 77.
the environmental for
acceptability process
three methods
increasing
Kodra and Balakotaiah ( 1993) developed a two-phase model for subcritical (200 to 325 ?C) oxidation of aqueous wastes in a
deep-well on reactor. The model simulations showed that very high
Baud-Grasset,
destruction efficiencies can be obtained if the reactor is operated

the ignited steady state. It was also shown that maximum
flow rate is limited by the oxidation kinetics and very low or

even state no pressurizing of the inlet stream is required for steady operation.
of a High Salinity Chemical Belkin, S., et al. ( 1993) Biological Treatment 105. Water Sei. Technol. Industrial Wastewater. (G.B.), 27, 7-8, and Rao, P.S. ( 1993) Impact of Bacterial Biomass on Con Beilin, CA., taminant MicrobioL, Benson, Sorption 59,6, et al. and Transport 1813. in a Subsurface Soil. Appl. Environ.
(1993) reported that supercritical water oxidation (SCWO) was now being commercialized for treatment and dis Modell
posal mental of both hazardous and and cost nonhazardous effective manner. wastes Jain in environ (1993) re acceptable
ported that a field-scale SCWO reactor was being built by the

Texaco Chemical Company to treat organic wastes.
and General D.A., Vapor Extraction (1993) Modeling and Nonideal Con in the Presence of NAPL Mixtures Transport ditions. Ground Water, 31, 3, 437. of Soils Con Biotreatment S.K., et al. ( 1993) Anaerobic Bhattacharya, taminated Aust. With viron Manag, Toxic Organic compounds Geo- Water & Eng. Aspects and Heavy Metals. En Int. Conf, Wollongong,
Byung J. Kim, Shaoying Qi, and Richard S. Shanley are re

searchers with U.S. Army Construction Engineering Research
Laboratories. Correspondence should be addressed toUSACERL J Kim) P.O. Box 9005, Cham (ATTN: CECER-EPD/Byung IL 61826-9005. paign,
to Aid in Hy J. ( 1993) Using Microorganisms Black, W., and Zamora, /. Tennessee Acad. Sei., 68, 2, 1993. drocarbon Degradation. from Sewage Sludge: Effect of Metals Biais, J.F., et al. (1993) Bioleaching Water. Res. (G.B) 27, 1, 111. of Temperature. Blake, R. of Toxic Metals ( 1993 ) Biotransformation by Bacteria. Rep. Air Force Off. Scientific Res., Boiling AFB,
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Hazardous Waste Treatment Technologies Author(s): Byung J. Kim, Shaoying Qi and Richard S.

culations Mound. Knox,

Plant Manager. Assessments

In Situ Electromigration and Other Contaminants

S., et a! (1993) The of Contaminated Evaluation

Suter, G.W., Raton, Todd,

L. (1993) Wyoming Water Environ.

McLaughlin, Ground-Water Mines, Mullins, Nazari, Nelson, Nuckols, B.O., Water

Sampling M.L. (1993) Techno!, 5, 90.

Contamination Water Monit. Ziegler,

B., et a! the Collection Water.

P. (1993) Protecting 25, 22.

Penmetsa, nology Eng., Petty, J.D., vices 1609.

119,231. et a! (1993) Application as Passive Air (SPMDs) (1993)

of Semipermeable Samplers. Waste Method

Potter, CD. Research.

Hazardous treatment technologies

and Gavaskar, (1993) Evaluation Methods for Recycling Automotive

Byung J. Kim, Shaoying Qi, Richard S. Shanley

technologies and specific volume.

related wastes review

to groundwater, may consists be of also four

parts: ( 1) general, (2 ) biological

treatment, (3 ) chemical and

that a biofilter with dry activated sludge

industrial waste air containing hydrogen sulfide at a

(1993) applied a bioreactor that supported the growth of

bioscrubber for the control of volatile organic

drocarbons. The U.S. EPA (1993e) evaluated BioGenesis

et a! ( 1993) developed an innovative concept of

ganics and subsequent biological treatment of residual soil con

ventional biofilter and bioscrubber, using biomass immobilized

a conventional air stream.

Zappi et al (1993) identified the knowledge gaps associated

Kim et al (1993) pointed out that field experience demon

(1993) described two novel bio

(VOCs) the use of

into a biofilm where they are physically separated from

et al ( 1993) provided procedures for es

Zilli et al (1993) used a biofilter that supported the growth

studied the feasibility of

and biphenyl within

soil. They concluded

radation of hydrophobic contaminants without mobilization

(1993) provided a quantitative

vinny (1993) examined

the effects of pulverization

biod?gradation phase liquids. A mathematical

pulverizer was used to grind the soil instead of disc plowing.

stants of petroleum products. Atlas ( 1993) found that the gen

fusion and biod?gradation

and soil particles

Hendry and Lawrence ( 1993) examined the feasibility of in

Basseres et al ( 1993 ) examined the application of nutrients

oil analytes. Lee et al ( 1993) examined the efficacy of nutrient

valent cations to injected waters. Keegan et al ( 1993 ) reviewed

of granular tures above

tilizers at lower temperatures. Anid et al ( 1993) tested the ability

promising cost savings,

improvements and a model in an increased

including recovery the on

rates. Woods fate the and results transport of

developed phenols degradation

( 1993 ) assessed the in situ bioremediation