Robbins: Organizational Behavior

Chapter Two

FOUNDATIONS OF INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOR

LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this chapter, students should be able to: 1. 2. 3. !. #. %. (. Define the key biographical characteristics. Identify two types of ability. Shape the beha ior of others. Distinguish between the four schedules of reinforce"ent. $larify the role of punish"ent in learning. &ractice self'"anage"ent. )*hibit effecti e discipline skills.

CHAPTER OVERVIEW +his chapter looks at three indi idual ariables,biographical characteristics, ability, and learning. -iographical characteristics are readily a ailable to "anagers. .enerally, they include data that are contained in an e"ployee/s personnel file. +he "ost i"portant conclusions are that age see"s to ha e no relationship to producti ity0 older workers and those with longer tenure are less likely to resign0 and "arried e"ployees ha e fewer absences, less turno er, and report higher 1ob satisfaction than do un"arried e"ployees. -ut what alue can this infor"ation ha e for "anagers2 +he ob ious answer is that it can help in "aking choices a"ong 1ob applicants. Ability directly influences an e"ployee/s le el of perfor"ance and satisfaction through the ability'1ob fit. .i en "anage"ent/s desire to get a co"patible fit, what can be done2 3irst, an effecti e selection process will i"pro e the fit. A 1ob analysis will pro ide infor"ation about 1obs currently being done and the abilities that indi iduals need to perfor" the 1obs ade4uately. Applicants can then be tested, inter iewed, and e aluated on the degree to which they possess the necessary abilities. Second, pro"otion and transfer decisions affecting indi iduals already in the organi5ation/s e"ploy should reflect the abilities of candidates. 6ith new e"ployees, care should be taken to assess critical abilities that incu"bents will need in the 1ob and to "atch those re4uire"ents with the organi5ation/s hu"an resources. +hird, the fit can be i"pro ed by fine'tuning the 1ob to better "atch an incu"bent/s abilities. 7ften "odifications can be "ade in the 1ob that, while not ha ing a significant i"pact on the 1ob/s basic acti ities, better adapts it to the specific talents of a gi en e"ployee. )*a"ples would be to change so"e of the e4uip"ent used or to reorgani5e tasks within a group of e"ployees. A final alternati e is to pro ide training for e"ployees. +his is applicable to both new workers and present 1ob incu"bents. +raining can keep the abilities of incu"bents current or pro ide new skills as ti"es and conditions change. Any obser able change in beha ior is pri"a facie e idence that learning has taken place. 6hat we want to do, of course, is ascertain if learning concepts pro ide us with any insights that would allow us to e*plain and predict beha ior. &ositi e reinforce"ent is a powerful tool for "odifying beha ior. -y identifying and rewarding perfor"ance'enhancing beha iors, "anage"ent increases the likelihood that they will be repeated. 7ur knowledge about learning further suggests that reinforce"ent is a "ore effecti e tool than punish"ent. Although punish"ent eli"inates undesired beha ior "ore 4uickly than negati e reinforce"ent does, punished beha ior tends to be only te"porarily suppressed rather than per"anently changed. &unish"ent "ay produce unpleasant side effects such as lower "orale and higher absenteeis" or turno er. In addition, the recipients of punish"ent tend to beco"e resentful of the punisher. 8anagers, therefore, are ad ised to use reinforce"ent rather than punish"ent. 3inally, "anagers should e*pect that e"ployees will look to the" as "odels. 8anagers who are constantly late to work, or take two hours for lunch, or help the"sel es to co"pany office supplies for personal use should e*pect e"ployees to read the "essage they are sending and "odel their beha ior accordingly.

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Robbins: Organizational Behavior WEB EXERCISES

Chapter Two

At the end of each chapter of this instructor/s "anual, you will find suggested e*ercises and ideas for researching the 666 on 7- topics. +he e*ercises 9)*ploring 7- +opics on the 6eb: are set up so that you can si"ply photocopy the pages, distribute the" to your class, and "ake assign"ents accordingly. ;ou "ay want to assign the e*ercises as an out'of'class acti ity, or as lab acti ities with your class. 6ithin the lecture notes the graphic will note that there is a 666 acti ity to support this "aterial.

The chapter opens introducing Kevin Nguyen is a flight attendant for Continental Airlines !e had "ust won one of two new #ord $%plorers given away as part of Continental&s attendance'reward progra( The progra( is wor)ing *t has saved the co(pany (ore than +,- (illion by reducing the airlines absenteeis( rate .ore than /01---1 or one third of the e(ployees1 2ualified for the $%plorer giveaway The progra( has had other benefits in addition to i(proving attendance3(orale has i(proved and custo(ers ran)ed Continental higher than ever on satisfaction surveys CHAPTER OUTLINE -iographical $haracteristics 1. 3inding and analy5ing the ariables that ha e an i"pact on e"ployee producti ity, absence, turno er, and satisfaction is often co"plicated. 2. 8any of the concepts,"oti ation, or power, politics or organi5ational culture ,are hard to assess. 3. 7ther factors are "ore easily definable and readily a ailable,data that can be obtained fro" an e"ployee/s personnel file and would include characteristics such as: A Age Age .ender 8arital status <ength of ser ice, etc. Notes:

1. +he relationship between age and 1ob perfor"ance is increasing in i"portance. 3irst, there is a widespread belief that 1ob perfor"ance declines with increasing age. Second, the workforce is aging0 workers o er ## are the fastest growing sector of the workforce. +hird, =.S. legislation largely outlaws "andatory retire"ent. 2. )"ployers/ perceptions are "i*ed. +hey see a nu"ber of positi e 4ualities that older workers bring to their 1obs, specifically e*perience, 1udg"ent, a strong work ethic, and co""it"ent to 4uality. 7lder workers are also percei ed as lacking fle*ibility and as being resistant to new technology. So"e belie e that the older you get, the less likely you are to 4uit your 1ob. +hat conclusion is based on studies of the age'turno er relationship.

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Robbins: Organizational Behavior A Age 4cont 5 Notes:

Chapter Two

3. It is te"pting to assu"e that age is also in ersely related to absenteeis". 8ost studies do show an in erse relationship, but close e*a"ination finds that the age'absence relationship is partially a function of whether the absence is a oidable or una oidable. In general, older e"ployees ha e lower rates of a oidable absence. >owe er, they ha e higher rates of una oidable absence, probably due to their poorer health associated with aging and longer reco ery periods when in1ured.

!. +here is a widespread belief that producti ity declines with age and that indi idual skills decay o er ti"e. ?e iews of the research find that age and 1ob perfor"ance are unrelated. +his see"s to be true for al"ost all types of 1obs, professional and nonprofessional. 8ost studies indicate a positi e association between age and satisfaction, at least up to age %@. 7ther studies, howe er, ha e found a ='shaped relationship. 6hen professional and nonprofessional e"ployees are separated, satisfaction tends to continually increase a"ong professionals as they age, whereas it falls a"ong nonprofessionals during "iddle age and then rises again in the later years. 6ender

#. +he relationship between age and 1ob satisfaction is "i*ed.

1. +here are few, if any, i"portant differences between "en and wo"en that will affect their 1ob perfor"ance, including the areas of: &roble"'sol ing Analytical skills $o"petiti e dri e 8oti ation Sociability <earning ability 2. 6o"en are "ore willing to confor" to authority, and "en are "ore aggressi e and "ore likely than wo"en to ha e e*pectations of success, but those differences are "inor. 3. +here is no e idence indicating that an e"ployee/s gender affects 1ob satisfaction. !. +here is a difference between "en and wo"en in ter"s of preference for work schedules. 8others of preschool children are "ore likely to prefer part'ti"e work, fle*ible work schedules, and teleco""uting in order to acco""odate their fa"ily responsibilities. 6o"en/s 4uit rates are si"ilar to "en/s. +he research on absence consistently indicates that wo"en ha e higher rates of absenteeis". +he logical e*planation: cultural e*pectation that has historically placed ho"e and fa"ily responsibilities on the wo"an. 28

#. Absence and turno er rates

Robbins: Organizational Behavior

Chapter Two

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Robbins: Organizational Behavior C .arital 7tatus Notes:

Chapter Two

1. +here are not enough studies to draw any conclusions about the effect of "arital status on 1ob producti ity. 2. ?esearch consistently indicates that "arried e"ployees ha e fewer absences, undergo less turno er, and are "ore satisfied with their 1obs than are their un"arried coworkers. 3. 8ore research needs to be done on the other statuses besides single or "arried, such as di orce, do"estic partnering, etc.. 8 Tenure

1. +he issue of the i"pact of 1ob seniority on 1ob perfor"ance has been sub1ect to "isconceptions and speculations. 2. )*tensi e re iews of the seniority'producti ity relationship ha e been conducted: $ +here is a positi e relationship between tenure and 1ob producti ity. +here is a negati e relationship between tenure to absence. +enure is also a potent ariable in e*plaining turno er. +enure has consistently been found to be negati ely related to turno er and has been suggested as one of the single best predictors of turno er. +he e idence indicates that tenure and satisfaction are positi ely related. Ability

1. 6e were not all created e4ual0 "ost of us are to the left of the "edian on so"e nor"ally distributed ability cur e. 2. ) eryone has strengths and weaknesses in ter"s of ability in perfor"ing certain tasks or acti ities0 the issue is knowing how people differ in abilities and using that knowledge to increase perfor"ance. 3. Ability refers to an indi idual/s capacity to perfor" the arious tasks in a 1ob. It is a current assess"ent of what one can do. !. Indi idual o erall abilities are "ade up of two sets of factors: intellectual and physical. # *ntellectual Abilities

1. Intellectual abilities are those needed to perfor" "ental acti ities. 2. IA tests are designed to ascertain one/s general intellectual abilities. )*a"ples of such tests are popular college ad"ission tests such as the SA+, .8A+, and <SA+. 3. +he se en "ost fre4uently cited di"ensions "aking up intellectual abilities are: nu"ber aptitude, erbal co"prehension, perceptual speed, inducti e reasoning, deducti e reasoning, spatial isuali5ation, and "e"ory. 47ee $%hibit ,'/5.

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Robbins: Organizational Behavior # *ntellectual Abilities 4cont 5 !. Bobs differ in the de"ands they place on incu"bents to use their intellectual abilities. 3or e*a"ple, the "ore infor"ation'processing de"ands that e*ist in a 1ob, the "ore general intelligence and erbal abilities will be necessary to perfor" the 1ob successfully. #. A careful re iew of the e idence de"onstrates that tests that assess erbal, nu"erical, spatial, and perceptual abilities are alid predictors of 1ob proficiency at all le els of 1obs. %. +he "a1or dile""a faced by e"ployers who use "ental ability tests is that they "ay ha e a negati e i"pact on racial and ethnic groups. (. Cew research in this area focuses on 9"ultiple intelligences,: which breaks down intelligence into its four sub'parts: cogniti e, social, e"otional, and cultural. 6 9hysical Abilities Notes:

Chapter Two

1. Specific physical abilities gain i"portance in doing less skilled and "ore standardi5ed 1obs. 2. ?esearch has identified nine basic abilities in ol ed in the perfor"ance of physical tasks. 47ee $%hibit ,',5 3. Indi iduals differ in the e*tent to which they ha e each of these abilities. !. >igh e"ployee perfor"ance is likely to be achie ed when "anage"ent "atches the e*tent to which a 1ob re4uires each of the nine abilities and the e"ployees/ abilities. ! The Ability':ob #it

1. )"ployee perfor"ance is enhanced when there is a high ability'1ob fit. 2. +he specific intellectual or physical abilities re4uired depend on the ability re4uire"ents of the 1ob. 3or e*a"ple, pilots need strong spatial' isuali5ation abilities. 3. Directing attention at only the e"ployee/s abilities, or only the ability re4uire"ents of the 1ob, ignores the fact that e"ployee perfor"ance depends on the interaction of the two. !. 6hen the fit is poor e"ployees are likely to fail. #. 6hen the ability'1ob fit is out of sync because the e"ployee has abilities that far e*ceed the re4uire"ents of the 1ob, perfor"ance is likely to be ade4uate, but there will be organi5ational inefficiencies and possible declines in e"ployee satisfaction. %. Abilities significantly abo e those re4uired can also reduce the e"ployee/s 1ob satisfaction when the e"ployee/s desire to use his or her abilities is particularly strong and is frustrated by the li"itations of the 1ob. <earning All co"ple* beha ior is learned. If we want to e*plain and predict beha ior, we need to understand how people learn. Notes:

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Robbins: Organizational Behavior A 8efinition of ;earning Notes:

Chapter Two

1. 6hat is learning2 A generally accepted definition is 9any relati ely per"anent change in beha ior that occurs as a result of e*perience.: 2. +he definition suggests that we shall ne er see so"eone 9learning.: 6e can see changes taking place but not the learning itself. 3. +he definition has se eral co"ponents that deser e clarification: 3irst, learning in ol es change. Second, the change "ust be relati ely per"anent. +hird, our definition is concerned with beha ior. 3inally, so"e for" of e*perience is necessary for learning.

A. Theories of ;earning
+here are three theories,classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and social learning. Classical Conditionin 1. $lassical conditioning grew out of e*peri"ents conducted at the turn of the century by a ?ussian physiologist, I an &a lo , to teach dogs to sali ate in response to the ringing of a bell. 2. Dey concepts in classical conditioning E&a lo /s e*peri"entF +he "eat was an unconditioned sti"ulus0 it in ariably caused the dog to react in a specific way. +he bell was an artificial sti"ulus, or what we call the conditioned sti"ulus. +he conditioned response. +his describes the beha ior of the dog0 it sali ated in reaction to the bell alone. 3. <earning a conditioned response in ol es building up an association between a conditioned sti"ulus and an unconditioned sti"ulus. !. 6hen the sti"uli, one co"pelling and the other one neutral, are paired, the neutral one beco"es a conditioned sti"ulus and, hence, takes on the properties of the unconditioned sti"ulus. #. $lassical conditioning is passi e,so"ething happens, and we react in a specific way. It is elicited in response to a specific, identifiable e ent. O!"#ant Conditionin 1. 7perant conditioning argues that beha ior is a function of its conse4uences. &eople learn to beha e to get so"ething they want or to a oid so"ething they do not want. 2. +he tendency to repeat such beha ior is influenced by reinforce"ent or lack of reinforce"ent. 3. >ar ard psychologist -.3. Skinner/s research on operant conditioning e*panded our knowledge. !. +enets of 7perant $onditioning are: -eha ior is learned. &eople are likely to engage in desired beha iors if they are positi ely reinforced for doing so. ?ewards are "ost effecti e if they i""ediately follow the desired response. Any situation in which it is either e*plicitly stated or i"plicitly suggested that reinforce"ents are contingent on so"e action on your part in ol es the use of operant learning. 32

Robbins: Organizational Behavior A Theories of ;earning 4cont 5 Social L"a#nin 1. Indi iduals can also learn by obser ing what happens to other people, by being told about so"ething, as well as by direct e*periences. 2. <earning by obser ing is an e*tension of operant conditioning0 it also acknowledges the e*istence of obser ational learning and the i"portance of perception in learning. 3. +he influence of "odels is central to social learning. !. 3our processes deter"ine the influence that a "odel will ha e on an indi idual. Attentional processes. &eople learn fro" a "odel only when they recogni5e and pay attention to its critical features. ?etention processes. A "odel/s influence will depend on how well the indi idual re"e"bers the "odel/s action after the "odel is no longer readily a ailable. 8otor reproduction processes. After a person has seen a new beha ior by obser ing the "odel, the watching "ust be con erted to doing. ?einforce"ent processes. Indi iduals will be "oti ated to e*hibit the "odeled beha ior if positi e incenti es or rewards are pro ided. Notes:

Chapter Two

Inst#$cto# Not"% At this point in the lecture you "ay want to introduce the e*ercise found in the 8;+> 7? S$I)C$)2: <ou Can&t Teach an Old 8og New Tric)s= bo* found in the te*t. +he purpose of the e*ercise is to replace popularly held notions with research'based conclusions. It is suggested that you conduct the e*ercise prior to discussing the findings discussion within the bo*ed te*t. Additionally, you "ay want to introduce the $ase )*ercise: Bonne Bell #actory $(ployees Average Age >-. &'TH OR SCIENCE( G ?<ou Can&t Teach an Old 8og New Tric)s=@ +his state"ent is false. +his state"ent reflects a widely held stereotype. Studies consistently de"onstrate that older e"ployees are percei ed this way, but the e idence indicates that older workers Htypically defined as people aged #@ and o erI want to learn and are 1ust as capable of learning as any other e"ployee group. 7lder workers do see" to be so"ewhat less efficient in ac4uiring co"ple* or de"anding skills. +hat is, they "ay take longer to train. -ut once trained, they perfor" at co"parable le els to younger workers. +rainability has been the sub1ect of "uch research. +here are differences between people in their trainability. A nu"ber of indi idual'difference factors Hsuch as ability, "oti ational le el, and personalityI do influence it0 age, howe er, has not been found to influence these outco"es. Class E)"#cis" $onduct this e*ercise before discussing this 8;+> 7? S$I)C$) bo*. 1 Ask students to describe how people, o er #@, are different fro" the" or a recent college graduate. ?ecord their ideas on the board. E+o pri"e the pu"p, ask the" to co"pare the"sel es to their parents or grandparents.F 2 After generating a list of at least 2@ characteristics, ask the" to help you sort the characteristics into two sets: positi es regarding work, negati es regarding work. 3 Discuss with students two ideas: 1I 6hy are older people different in these ways than younger,i.e., older people tell stories about the good old days, and 2I If they were a "anager, would the list of positi es or negati es weigh "ore hea ily in their hiring decision2 ! Discuss the "aterial abo e Halso found in the student/s te*tI. # $onclude by asking students to research this issue on the 666 Ha suggested e*ercise can be found in the 6)- )J)?$IS)S found at the end this chapter, or you can photocopy an article on this issue and hand it out in classI. >a e the" report back in the ne*t class about how the article affected their thinking. Start the ne*t class with 1# "inutes on discussion of their research.

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Robbins: Organizational Behavior C 7haping: A .anagerial Tool Notes:

Chapter Two

1. 6hen we atte"pt to "old indi iduals by guiding their learning in graduated steps, we are shaping beha ior. 2. It is done by syste"atically reinforcing each successi e step that "o es the indi idual closer to the desired response. 3. 8ethods of Shaping -eha ior. &ositi e reinforce"ent,following a response with so"ething pleasant Cegati e reinforce"ent,following a response by the ter"ination or withdrawal of so"ething unpleasant &unish"ent is causing an unpleasant condition in an atte"pt to eli"inate an undesirable beha ior )*tinction,eli"inating any reinforce"ent that is "aintaining a beha ior. 6hen the beha ior is not reinforced, it tends to gradually be e*tinguished.

!. -oth positi e and negati e reinforce"ent result in learning. +hey strengthen a response and increase the probability of repetition. -oth punish"ent and e*tinction, howe er, weaken beha ior and tend to decrease its subse4uent fre4uency. #. ?einforce"ent, whether it is positi e or negati e, has an i"pressi e record as a shaping tool. %. A re iew of research findings: So"e type of reinforce"ent is necessary to produce a change in beha ior. So"e types of rewards are "ore effecti e for use in organi5ations than others. +he speed with which learning takes place and the per"anence of its effects will be deter"ined by the ti"ing of reinforce"ent. +his point is e*tre"ely i"portant and deser es considerable elaboration.

7chedules of Reinforce(ent

1. +he two "a1or types of reinforce"ent schedules are: 1I continuous and 2I inter"ittent. 2. A continuous reinforce"ent schedule reinforces the desired beha ior each and e ery ti"e it is de"onstrated. 3. In an inter"ittent schedule, not e ery instance of the desirable beha ior is reinforced, but reinforce"ent is gi en often enough to "ake the beha ior worth repeating. It can be co"pared to the workings of a slot "achine. +he inter"ittent payoffs occur 1ust often enough to reinforce beha ior.

!. ) idence indicates that the inter"ittent, or aried, for" of reinforce"ent tends to pro"ote "ore resistance to e*tinction than does the continuous for". #. An inter"ittent reinforce"ent can be of a ratio or inter al type. %. ?atio schedules depend upon how "any responses the sub1ect "akes0 the indi idual is reinforced after gi ing a certain nu"ber of specific types of beha ior.

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Robbins: Organizational Behavior 8: 7chedules of Reinforce(ent 4cont 5 1. Inter al schedules depend upon how "uch ti"e has passed since the last reinforce"ent0 the indi idual is reinforced on the first appropriate beha ior after a particular ti"e has elapsed. 2. A reinforce"ent can also be classified as fi*ed or ariable. 3. Inter"ittent techni4ues be placed into four categories, as shown in )*hibit 2'!. !. 3i*ed'inter al reinforce"ent schedule,rewards are spaced at unifor" ti"e inter als0 the critical ariable is ti"e, and it is held constant. So"e e*a"ples: +his is the predo"inant schedule for "ost salaried workers in Corth A"erica,the paycheck. Notes:

Chapter Two

#. Kariable'inter al reinforce"ents,rewards are distributed in ti"e so that reinforce"ents are unpredictable. &op 4ui55es A series of rando"ly ti"ed unannounced isits to a co"pany office by the corporate audit staff

%. In a fi*ed'ratio schedule, after a fi*ed or constant nu"ber of responses are gi en, a reward is initiated. A piece'rate incenti e plan is a fi*ed'ratio schedule.

(. 6hen the reward aries relati e to the beha ior of the indi idual, he or she is said to be reinforced on a ariable'ratio schedule. Salespeople on co""ission

Inst#$cto# Not"% At this point in the lecture you "ay want to introduce the +)A8 )J)?$IS): 9ositive Reinforce(ent vs 9unish(ent found in the te*t Hand at the end of the lecture notesI. HAllow 2@'2# "inutes for the e*erciseI. $ Reinforce(ent 7chedules and Behavior 4$%hibit ,'A5

1. $ontinuous reinforce"ent schedules can lead to early satiation. =nder this schedule, beha ior tends to weaken rapidly when reinforcers are withheld. $ontinuous reinforcers are appropriate for newly e"itted, unstable, or low' fre4uency responses.

2. Inter"ittent reinforcers preclude early satiation because they do not follow e ery response. +hey are appropriate for stable or high'fre4uency responses.

3. In general, ariable schedules tend to lead to higher perfor"ance than fi*ed schedules. !. Kariable'inter al schedules generate high rates of response and "ore stable and consistent beha ior because of a high correlation between perfor"ance and reward. +he e"ployee tends to be "ore alert since there is a surprise factor.

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Robbins: Organizational Behavior

Chapter Two

Inst#$cto# Not"% At this point in the lecture you "ay want to introduce the 7- IC +>) C)6S: The !igh'Tech 7toc) Bubble and Reinforce(ent 7chedules bo* found in the te*t. +he purpose of the e*ercise is to help students better understand how learning theory is applied to situations which occur in daily business life. A suggestion for a class e*ercise follows the introduction of the "aterial in the bo* below.

OB IN THE NEWS G The !igh'Tech 7toc) Bubble and Reinforce(ent 7chedules +he Casda4 stock inde*, which is hea ily laden with the stocks of high'tech and Internet related co"panies, soared to o er #@@@ in 8arch 2@@@. In 1LLM and 1LLL, this inde* had been raising at better than M@ percent. In spite of stratospheric price earnings ratios H"any of the fastest rising stock, in fact, had no earnings and were losing tens of "illions of dollars a "onthI, "ost stock analysts continued to reco""end that in estors buy stocks in co"panies like $isco Syste"s, 7racle, &ets.co" and A"a5on.co" because of the analysts/ belief that the price of these stocks would go a whole lot higher. +hey were wrong Hin the Spring of 2@@2, the Casda4 inde* was below 2@@@I, but "illions of in estors bought into the analysts/ irrational e*uberance. 6ith the rally in technology stocks in the late 1LL@s ca"e a change in the way that "any people looked at their in est"ent portfolios. Instead of passi ely handing their "oney o er to a traditional stockbroker and pursuing a long'ter" strategy, "any people beca"e aggressi e traders. +hey opened up on'line brokerage accounts and relied on real ti"e 4uotes and $C-$ to pro ide the" with a daylong supply of "arket news and stock reco""endations. +hey acti ely bought and sold stocks, in so"e cases selling a stock within "inutes of buying it if they could lock a 4uick profit. In retrospect, the e*plosi e run'up in the Casda4 inde* was an e*a"ple of the power of inter"ittent reinforce"ent schedules. 8any of the in estors who bid up Internet shares were happy to ad"it they knew nothing about business, technology or aluation theories. <ike a slot "achine addict in <as Kegas, they 1ust wanted in on the ga"e. Ironically, for "any traders during 1LLM and 1LLL, trading in technology stocks actually looked "ore like continuous reinforce"ent than inter"ittent. ) erything they bought went up in price. A large nu"ber of in estors who stood on the sidelines, chastising the foolishness of buying 9Internet drea"s,: e entually began to consider the"sel es fools for not playing the ga"e. 6hy stand on the sidelines, watching e eryone else "ake "oney, when they could play too2 -y spring of 2@@@, "illions of historically conser ati e in estors had been sucked into the Internet bubble and ended up losing a large part of their sa ings and retire"ent portfolios. Class E)"#cis"% 1. 2. 3. !. #. >a e students break into s"all groups. Assign a learning theory to each group and ask the" to apply the theory to the facts of the case. Ask the" to use a learning theory to e*plain the beha ior of in estors during this ti"e period. >a e a spokesperson fro" each group outline their application of the theory. Ask the class to decide which theory has the strongest possibility for this situation.

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Robbins: Organizational Behavior # Behavior .odification Notes:

Chapter Two

1. A classic was study conducted at )"ery Air 3reight Hnow part of 3ederal )*pressI: )"ery/s "anage"ent wanted packers to use freight containers for ship"ents whene er possible. &ackers intuiti ely felt that L@ percent of ship"ents were containeri5ed. An analysis showed that it was only !# percent. 8anage"ent established a progra" of feedback and positi e reinforce"ents by asking each packer to keep a checklist of his or her daily packings, both containeri5ed and noncontaineri5ed. At the end of each day, the packer co"puted his or her container utili5ation rate. $ontainer utili5ation 1u"ped to "ore than L@ percent on the first day of the progra" and held. +his si"ple progra" of feedback and positi e reinforce"ents sa ed the co"pany N2 "illion o er a three'year period.

2. +his progra" at )"ery Air 3reight illustrates 7- 8odification. 3. +he typical 7- 8od progra" follows a fi e'step proble"'sol ing "odel: Identifying critical beha iors De eloping baseline data Identifying beha ior conse4uences De eloping and i"ple"enting an inter ention strategy ) aluating perfor"ance i"pro e"ent

!. $ritical beha iors "ake a significant i"pact on the e"ployee/s 1ob perfor"ance0 these are those #G1@ percent of beha iors that "ay account for up to (@ or M@ percent of each e"ployee/s perfor"ance. #. De eloping baseline data deter"ines the nu"ber of ti"es the identified beha ior is occurring under present conditions. %. Identifying beha ioral conse4uences tells the "anager the antecedent cues that e"it the beha ior and the conse4uences that are currently "aintaining it. (. De eloping and i"ple"enting an inter ention strategy will entail changing so"e ele"ents of the perfor"ance'reward linkage'structure, processes, technology, groups, or the task,with the goal of "aking high'le el perfor"ance "ore rewarding. M. ) aluating perfor"ance i"pro e"ent is i"portant to de"onstrate that a change took place as a result of the inter ention strategy. L. 7- 8od has been used by a nu"ber of organi5ations to i"pro e e"ployee producti ity and to reduce errors, absenteeis", tardiness, accident rates, and i"pro e friendliness toward custo"ers. Inst#$cto# Not"% At this point in the lecture you "ay want to introduce the )+>I$A< DI<)88A: *s OB .od a #or( of .anipulationB as a class discussion.

37

Robbins: Organizational Behavior 6 7pecific Organizational Applications Notes:

Chapter Two

1. =sing lotteries to reduce absenteeis" In the opening case study $ontinental Airlines has created a lottery that rewards its !@,@@@ e"ployees for attendance. +wice a year, $ontinental holds a raffle and gi es away eight new sport utility ehicles. 7nly e"ployees who ha e not "issed a day of work during the pre ious si* "onths are eligible. +his lottery follows a ariable'ratio schedule. 8anage"ent credits the lottery with significantly reducing the co"pany/s absence rate. 7rgani5ations with paid sick lea e progra"s e*perience al"ost twice the absenteeis" of organi5ations without such progra"s. 7ne 8idwest organi5ation i"ple"ented a well'pay progra". It paid a bonus to e"ployees who had no absence for any gi en four'week period and then paid for sick lea e only after the first eight hours of absence a. +he well'pay progra" produced increased sa ings to the organi5ation, reduced absenteeis", increased producti ity, and i"pro ed e"ployee satisfaction. b. 3orbes "aga5ine used the sa"e approach to cut its health care costs. It rewarded e"ployees who stayed healthy and did not file "edical clai"s by paying the" the difference between N#@@ and their "edical clai"s, then doubling the a"ount. 3orbes cut its "a1or "edical and dental clai"s by o er 3@ percent. ) ery "anager will, at so"e ti"e, ha e to deal with proble" beha iors. 8anagers will respond with disciplinary actions such as oral repri"ands, written warnings, and te"porary suspensions. +he use of discipline carries costs. It "ay pro ide only a short'ter" solution and result in serious side effects. Disciplining e"ployees for undesirable beha iors tells the" only what not to do. It does not tell the" what alternati e beha iors are preferred. Discipline does ha e a place in organi5ations. In practice, it tends to be popular because of its ability to produce fast results in the short run. 8ost organi5ations ha e so"e type of syste"atic training progra". In one recent year, =.S. corporations with 1@@ or "ore e"ployees spent in e*cess of N#M billion on for"al training for !(.3 "illion workers. 7ffer a "odel to grab the trainee/s attention. &ro ide "oti ational properties. >elp the trainee to file away what he or she has learned for later use and pro ide opportunities to practice new beha iors. 7ffer positi e rewards for acco"plish"ents. If the training has taken place off the 1ob, allow the trainee so"e opportunity to transfer what heOshe learned to the 1ob. 38

2. 6ell pay s. sick pay

3. )"ployee discipline

!. De eloping training progra"s

#. Social'learning theory suggests that training should:

Robbins: Organizational Behavior 6 %. 7pecific Organizational Applications 4cont 5 Notes:

Chapter Two

Self'"anage"ent 7rgani5ational applications of learning concepts can also be used to allow indi iduals to "anage their own beha ior. Self'"anage"ent re4uires an indi idual to deliberately "anipulate sti"uli, internal processes, and responses to achie e personal beha ioral outco"es. +he basic processes in ol e obser ing one/s own beha ior, co"paring the beha ior with a standard, and rewarding oneself if the beha ior "eets the standard.

Inst#$cto# Not"% At this point in the lecture you "ay want to introduce the class e*ercise 3?78 $7C$)&+S +7 SDI<<S: $ffective 8iscipline 7)ills found below. HAllow !@'!# "inutes for the e*erciseI. 7r you "ay choose to conduct the +)A8 )J)?$IS): 9ositive Reinforce(ent vs 9unish(ent found at the end of this chapter. FRO& CONCEPTS TO S*ILLS G $ffective 8iscipline 7)ills +he essence of effecti e disciplining can be su""ari5ed by the following eight beha iors: 1. 2. 3. !. ?espond i""ediately &ro ide a warning State the proble" specifically Allow the e"ployee to e*plain his or her position #. %. (. M. Deep discussion i"personal -e consistent +ake progressi e action 7btain agree"ent on change

+his is a "oderate risk acti ity but really brings ho"e the learning about the difficulty of e"ployee discipline. Class E)"#cis"% 1. Set up two chairs facing each other in the front of the roo". )*plain that one will be for a "anager and one for the e"ployee. 2. Ask for two student olunteers. )*plain that they will be the 9disciplined: people in a brief role'play. 3. >a e the olunteers step out of the roo". +ell the" they "ay ha e to wait up to 1@ "inutes. !. 7ffer the class the following situation. As a "anager, they ha e an e"ployee who repeatedly co"es to work late. +he co"pany policy is that after three ti"es of being "ore than !# "inutes late Hcu"ulati eI the "anager "ust put the e"ployee on progressi e discipline. >a e the class brainstor" how they would handle the discipline inter iew. Ask for two olunteers to be the "anagers. EIf your class has a history of being reluctant to olunteer, discuss the e*ercise with at least two students separately, and ask the" to be prepared to olunteer if no one does so.F Select your "anagers. >a e one take the "anager/s chair, the other 1ust stand ne*t to the chair for the "o"ent. #. Step out into the hall and e*plain to the two olunteers that they will ha e a discipline "eeting with their 9"anager.: Kolunteer nu"ber one is to ad"it to the proble", offer a relati ely la"e e*cuse, and accept whate er discipline is gi en. Kolunteer nu"ber two is to offer a story about being a single parent, ha ing child care proble"s, ha ing a "other who needs che"otherapy weekly and ha ing to dri e her in the "orning, etc., etc. &ile it on. %. >a e olunteer nu"ber one enter the class and take the 9e"ployee: seat. Ask the standing "anager to step into the hall. )*plain to both the "anager and the e"ployee in the hall they are not to discuss the e*ercise while they are waiting. (. ?eturn to the classroo"0 ask the class to note what happens in the inter iew and be prepared to discuss it. +hen ha e "anager nu"ber one begin the discipline inter iew, telling hi"Oher that heOshe has only 1@ "inutes. At the end of the inter iew, ha e the students take their seats. M. -ring in the second pair of e"ployee and "anager. ?epeat your instructions, and let the" role'play. >a e the" take their seats when done. L. Discuss and record on the board how the inter iews were conducted, what was done well, and what could ha e been done better. Start by letting the "anagers self'report0 "ake sure they talk first about what they did well. +hen discuss as a class.

39

Robbins: Organizational Behavior Chapter Two 1@. Cote if the difference in circu"stances resulted in a different outco"e. Ask each "anager how heOshe felt disciplining hisOher particular e"ployee. =se the discussion to point out the need for consistency and the difficulty of the discipline inter iew process for "anager and e"ployee.

40

Robbins: Organizational Behavior +UESTIONS FOR REVIEW /

Chapter Two

Chich biographical characteristics best predict productivityB Absenteeis(B TurnoverB 7atisfactionB Ans,"# G 3inding and analy5ing the ariables that ha e an i"pact on e"ployee producti ity, absence, turno er, and satisfaction is often co"plicated. A " - +he relationship between age and 1ob perfor"ance is increasing in i"portance. Also, the older you get, the less likely you are to 4uit your 1ob. +he age'absence relationship is partially a function of whether the absence is a oidable or una oidable. In general, older e"ployees ha e lower rates of a oidable absence. ?e iews of the research find that age and 1ob perfor"ance are unrelated. 8ost studies indicate a positi e association between age and satisfaction, at least up to age %@. 7ther studies, howe er, ha e found a =' shaped relationship. 6hen the two types, professional and nonprofessional e"ployees, are separated, satisfaction tends to continually increase a"ong professionals as they age, whereas it falls a"ong nonprofessionals during "iddle age and then rises again in the later years. G"nd"# - +he e idence suggests that there are few, if any, i"portant differences between "en and wo"en that will affect their 1ob perfor"ance. +here are no consistent "ale'fe"ale differences in proble"'sol ing ability, analytical skills, co"petiti e dri e, "oti ation, sociability, or learning ability. +here is a difference in ter"s of preference for work schedules. So"e studies ha e found that wo"en ha e higher turno er rates0 others ha e found no difference. +here does not appear to be enough infor"ation fro" which to draw "eaningful conclusions. +he research on absence consistently indicates that wo"en ha e higher rates of absenteeis" than "en do. &a#ital Stat$s - +here are not enough studies to draw any conclusions about the effect of "arital status on producti ity. ?esearch consistently indicates that "arried e"ployees ha e fewer absences, undergo less turno er, and are "ore satisfied with their 1obs than are their un"arried coworkers. T"n$#" - Studies consistently de"onstrate seniority to be negati ely related to absenteeis". +enure is also a potent ariable in e*plaining turno er. 9+enure has consistently been found to be negati ely related to turno er and has been suggested as one of the single best predictors of turno er.: +he e idence indicates that tenure and satisfaction are positi ely related. Assess the validity of using intelligence scores for selecting new e(ployees Ans,"# G IA tests are designed to ascertain one/s general intellectual abilities. +he se en "ost fre4uently cited di"ensions "aking up intellectual abilities are nu"ber aptitude, erbal co"prehension, perceptual speed, inducti e reasoning, deducti e reasoning, spatial isuali5ation, and "e"ory. Bobs differ in the de"ands they place on incu"bents to use their intellectual abilities. +he "ore infor"ation'processing de"ands that e*ist in a 1ob, the "ore general intelligence and erbal abilities will be necessary to perfor" the 1ob successfully. A careful re iew of the e idence de"onstrates that tests that assess erbal, nu"erical, spatial, and perceptual abilities are alid predictors of 1ob proficiency at all le els of 1obs. +he "a1or dile""a faced by e"ployers who use "ental ability tests is that they "ay ha e a negati e i"pact on racial and ethnic groups. 8escribe the specific steps you would ta)e to ensure that an individual has the appropriate abilities to satisfactorily do a given "ob Ans,"# G 8anagers should conduct a careful 1ob assess"ent so that they can identify key abilities, and then screen applicants for their fit to those 1ob'related needs. +he ability'1ob fit is critically i"portant to e"ployee satisfaction and longe ity. $%plain classical conditioning Ans,"# - $lassical conditioning grew out of e*peri"ents conducted at the turn of the century by a ?ussian physiologist, I an &a lo , to teach dogs to sali ate in response to the ringing of a bell. <earning a conditioned response in ol es building up an association between a conditioned sti"ulus and an unconditioned sti"ulus. $lassical conditioning is passi e,so"ething happens and we react in a specific way. It is elicited in response to a specific, identifiable e ent. Contrast classical conditioning1 operant conditioning1 and social learning Ans,"# - $lassical conditioning grew out of e*peri"ents conducted at the turn of the century by a ?ussian physiologist, I an &a lo , to teach dogs to sali ate in response to the ringing of a bell. Dey concepts are unconditioned sti"ulus0 conditioned sti"ulus0 and conditioned response. <earning a conditioned response in ol es building up an association between a conditioned sti"ulus and an unconditioned sti"ulus. $lassical conditioning is passi e. So"ething happens, and we react in a specific way. It is elicited in response to a specific, identifiable e ent. 41

Robbins: Organizational Behavior +UESTIONS FOR REVIEW 4cont 5

Chapter Two

7perant conditioning argues that beha ior is a function of its conse4uences. &eople learn to beha e to get so"ething they want or to a oid so"ething they do not want. +he tendency to repeat such beha ior is influenced by reinforce"ent or lack of reinforce"ent. >ar ard psychologist -.3. Skinner/s research on operant conditioning e*tensi ely e*panded our knowledge. Any situation in which it is either e*plicitly stated or i"plicitly suggested that reinforce"ents are contingent on so"e action on your part in ol es the use of operant learning. Social learning indi iduals can also learn by obser ing what happens to other people, by being told about so"ething, as well as by direct e*periences. It is an e*tension of operant conditioning, it also acknowledges the e*istence of obser ational learning and the i"portance of perception in learning. &eople respond to how they percei e and define conse4uences, not to the ob1ecti e conse4uences the"sel es. +he influence of "odels is central. +here are four processes: attentional processes, retention processes, "otor reproduction processes, and reinforce"ent processes. E !ow (ight e(ployees actually learn unethical behavior on their "obsB Ans,"# G &robably the biggest issue is that of the role "odel set by "anagers and e*ecuti es. &lus, e"ployees see people all around the" engaging in unethical practices. +hey hear these people, when caught, gi ing e*cuses such as 9e eryone does it,: or 9you ha e to sei5e e ery ad antage nowadays,: or 9I ne er thought I/d get caught.: 8escribe the four types of inter(ittent reinforcers Ans,"# - In an inter"ittent schedule, not e ery instance of the desirable beha ior is reinforced, but reinforce"ent is gi en often enough to "ake the beha ior worth repeating. +he inter"ittent payoffs occur 1ust often enough to reinforce beha ior. Inter"ittent techni4ues be placed into four categories, as shown in )*hibit 2'!. 1I In a fi*ed'inter al reinforce"ent schedule, rewards are spaced at unifor" ti"e inter als. 2I In a ariable'inter al reinforce"ent, rewards are distributed in ti"e so that reinforce"ents are unpredictable. 3I In a fi*ed'ratio schedule, after a fi*ed or constant nu"ber of responses is gi en, a reward is initiated. !I In a ariable'ratio schedule, when the reward aries relati e to the beha ior of the indi idual, he or she is said to be reinforced. Chat are the five steps in behavior (odificationB Ans,"# - +he typical 7- 8od progra" follows a fi e'step proble"'sol ing "odel: Identifying critical beha iors De eloping baseline data Identifying beha ioral conse4uences De eloping and i"ple"enting an inter ention strategy ) aluating perfor"ance i"pro e"ent. *f you had to ta)e disciplinary action against an e(ployee1 how1 specifically1 would you do itB Ans,"# - ) ery "anager will, at so"e ti"e, ha e to deal with proble" beha iors. Disciplining e"ployees for undesirable beha iors tells the" only what not to do. It does not tell the" what alternati e beha iors are preferred. Appropriate discipline is clear on what is desired as well as ha ing ele"ents of positi e reinforce"ent for doing what is desired. Discipline needs to balance strategies to e*tinguish undesired beha ior with strategies to encourage desired beha ior.

>

/- 8escribe the four processes in successful social learning Ans,"# - Social learning in ol es learning by obser ing what happens to other people, by being told about so"ething, as well as by direct e*periences. 3our processes deter"ine the influence that a "odel will ha e on an indi idual. Attentional processes &eople learn fro" a "odel only when they recogni5e and pay attention to its critical features. ?etention processes A "odel/s influence will depend on how well the indi idual re"e"bers the "odel/s action after the "odel is no longer readily a ailable. 8otor reproduction processes After a person has seen a new beha ior by obser ing the "odel, the watching "ust be con erted to doing. ?einforce"ent processes. Indi iduals will be "oti ated to e*hibit the "odeled beha ior if positi e incenti es or rewards are pro ided. 42

Robbins: Organizational Behavior +UESTIONS FOR CRITICAL THIN*ING /

Chapter Two

?All organizations would benefit fro( hiring the s(artest people they can get @ 8o you agree or disagree with this state(entB 7upport your answer Ans,"# G +his is clearly the philosophy of 8icrosoft, and it see"s to be working. 8ost other organi5ations focus on e*perience. 8icrosoft gi es e*traordinary attention to one single factor,intelligenceP +his has resulted in greater di ersity as well. 8icrosoft belie es its greatest asset is the collecti e intellectual resources of its e"ployees. Chat do you thin) is (ore li)ely to lead to success on a "ob3a good ability'"ob fit or personality'organization fitB $%plain Ans,"# G ?esearch see"s to indicate the personality'organi5ation fit is critical for "anagers and e*ecuti es to be successful. +he key to ability'1ob fit is knowing how people differ in abilities and using that knowledge to increase the likelihood that an e"ployee will perfor" his or her 1ob well. +he answer is not really eitherOor but bothOand. Besides past wor) history and an e(ployee&s "ob perfor(ance1 what other (itigating factors do you thin) a (anager should use in applying disciplineB And doesn&t the (ere atte(pt to use (itigating circu(stances turn disciplinary action into a political processB Ans,"# G +his is an i"portant 4uestion because of the issues of fairness and the legal re4uire"ent of i"partiality. 7n one hand, it is i"portant that discipline is ad"inistered fairly and e4uitably and that discipline is consistent across indi iduals for si"ilar offenses. At the sa"e ti"e, e en our court syste" recogni5es that there are "itigating circu"stances that so"eti"es need to be considered. 8anagers need to use a consistent process,all e"ployees go through the entire process that does include consideration of "itigating circu"stances. >a ing senior "anagers re iew any e"ployee discipline case also pro ides for confir"ation or ad1usting of the "anager/s original decision. 8any large co"panies re4uire certain le els of re iew of any e"ployee discipline issue depending on the seriousness of the iolation and conse4uence of the discipline. 3inally, as we will see in later chapters, al"ost anything, al"ost any decision within an organi5ation can be "ade a political decision. =nifor" processes and training help "ini"i5e that e entuality. Chat abilities do you thin) are especially i(portant for success in senior'level (anage(ent positionsB Ans,"# G Student/s answers will ary. So"e ideas they "ay ha e regarding abilities should include: leadership, proble" sol ing, critical thinking skills, e*cellent co""unication skills, decision "aking, etc. +hey "ay want to specify le el of education and training as well, such as an 8-A, etc. Chat have you learned about ?learning@ that could help you to e%plain the behavior of students in a classroo( if 4a5 the instructor gives only one test3a final e%a(ination at the end of the courseB 4b5 the instructor gives four e%a(s during the ter(1 all of which are announced on the first day of classB 4c5 the student&s grade is based on the results of nu(erous e%a(s1 none of which are announced by the instructor ahead of ti(eB Ans,"# G +he instructors are using different schedules of reinforce"ent which "ay cause the students to react according to the type of reinforce"ent pro ided. In HaI the instructor is using fi*ed'inter al, but only once at the end of the course. -ecause the students are not getting any reinforce"ent throughout the ter", they "ay not be learning the "aterial as the class progresses. So"e students "ay beco"e an*ious and 9want to know how they are doing,: and others "ay si"ply wait to the end of the ter" to study since it 9doesn/t "ake any difference anyway.: In HbI the instructor is using continuous reinforce"ent at fi*ed inter als. +his pro ides students with fre4uent feedback on perfor"ance in the class. Students can ad1ust their inputs Hstudying, class attendance, etc.I based on the feedback the tests pro ide. In HcI the instructor is using ariable'inter al type of reinforce"ent. -ecause the course perfor"ance "easure"ents are unpredictable, students would need to stay on top of the "aterial to be ready for a test or 4ui5.

43

Robbins: Organizational Behavior POINT.COUNTERPOINT - All !u(an Behavior *s ;earned POINT

Chapter Two

>u"an beings are essentially blank slates that are shaped by their en iron"ent. -.3. Skinner, in fact, su""ari5ed his belief in the power of the en iron"ent to shape beha ior when he said, 9.i e "e a child at birth and I can "ake hi" into anything you want.: 6e ha e a nu"ber of societal "echanis"s that e*ist because of this belief in the power of learned beha ior. <et "e identify so"e of the": Role of parenting: 6e place a great deal of i"portance on the role of "others and fathers in the raising of children. 6e belie e, for instance, that children raised without fathers will be hindered by their lack of a "ale role "odel. &arents who ha e continual run'ins with the law risk ha ing go ern"ent authorities take their children fro" the". +he latter action is typically taken because society belie es that irresponsible parents do not pro ide the proper learning en iron"ent for their children. *(portance of education: 8ost ad anced societies in est hea ily in the education of their young. +hey typically pro ide ten or "ore years of free education. In countries like the =nited States, going on to college after finishing high school has beco"e the nor" rather then the e*ception. +his in est"ent in education is undertaken because it is seen as a way for young people to learn knowledge and skills. :ob training: 3or those indi iduals who do not go onto college, "ost will pursue 1ob training progra"s to de elop specific work'related skills. +hey will take courses to beco"e proficient as auto "echanics, "edical assistants, and the like. Si"ilarly, people who seek to beco"e skilled trades workers will pursue apprenticeships as carpenters, electricians, or pipe fitters. In addition, business fir"s in est billions of dollars each year in training and education to keep current e"ployee skills up'to'date. .anipulating of rewards: $o"ple* co"pensation progra"s are designed by organi5ations to fairly reward e"ployees for their work perfor"ance, but these progra"s are also designed with the intention to "oti ate e"ployees. +hey are designed to encourage e"ployees to engage in beha iors that "anage desires and to e*tinguish beha iors that "anage"ent wants to discourage. Salary le els, for instance, typically reward e"ployee loyalty, encourage the learning of new skills, and "oti ate indi iduals to assu"e great responsibilities in the organi5ation. +he abo e "echanis"s all e*ist and flourish because organi5ations and society belie e that people can learn and change their beha ior. COUNTER POINT 1. Discuss with students how and why they choose courses within their "a1or. H$aution students at the beginning not to na"e professors teaching the arious sections.I 2. >a e students create their own indi idual lists of criteria. .i e the" fi e "inutes to create their lists. 3. Ask for olunteers to record their reasons on the board. !. Discuss the reasons, creating a co"posite list that supports &oint and one that supports $ounter &oint. #. 6hich position is "ore thoroughly supported by students/ e*periences with choosing classes2 %. Do they think their class'choosing e*perience would be paralleled in the real work world2 6hy or why not2
ESo"e points in this argu"ent are based on -.8. Staw, 9Dressing =p <ike an 7rgani5ation: 6hen &sychological Actions $an )*plain 7rgani5ational Action,: :ournal of .anage(ent1 Dece"ber 1LL1, pp. M@#'1L. Also fro" B. &feifer, 97rgani5ation +heory and Structural &erspecti es on 8anage"ent,: :ournal of .anage(ent1 Dece"ber 1LL1, pp. (ML'M@3.F

44

Robbins: Organizational Behavior TEA& EXERCISE - 9ositive and Negative Reinforce(ent P$#!os" G +o de"onstrate the power of power and negati e reinforce"ent. Ti/" #"0$i#"d G Appro*i"ately 2@ "inutes Pa#tici!ant #ol"s - Select two olunteers. T1" Tas2

Chapter Two

1. +he two olunteers are selected to recei e reinforce"ent fro" the class while perfor"ing a particular task. +he olunteers lea e the roo". 2. Identify an ob1ect for the student olunteers to locate when they return to the roo". H+he ob1ect should be unobtrusi e but clearly isible to the class.I )*a"ples that ha e worked well include a s"all triangular piece of paper that was left behind when a notice was torn off a classroo" bulletin board, a s"udge on the chalkboard, and a chip in the plaster of a classroo" wall. 3. +he instructor specifies the reinforce"ent contingencies that will be in effect when the olunteers return to the roo". 3or negati e reinforce"ent, students should hiss or boo when the first olunteer is "o ing away fro" the ob1ect. 3or positi e reinforce"ent, they should cheer and applaud when the second olunteer is getting closer to the ob1ect. !. +he instructor should assign a student to keep a record of the ti"e it takes each of the olunteers to locate the ob1ect. #. Kolunteer 1 is brought back into the roo" and told, 9;our task is to locate and touch a particular ob1ect in the roo", and the class has agreed to help you. ;ou cannot use words or ask 4uestions. -egin.: Kolunteer 1 continues to look for the ob1ect until it is found, while the class assists by gi ing negati e reinforce"ent. %. Kolunteer 2 is brought back into the roo" and told, 9;our task is to locate and touch a particular ob1ect in the roo", and the class has agreed to help you. ;ou cannot use words or ask 4uestions. -egin.: Kolunteer 2 continues to look for the ob1ect until it is found, while the class assists by gi ing positi e reinforce"ent. (. $onduct a class discussion. >a e the ti"ekeeper present the results on how long it took each olunteer to find the ob1ect. M. +hen discuss: 6hat was the difference in beha ior of the two olunteers2 6hat are the i"plications of this e*ercise to reinforce"ent schedules in organi5ations2 T"ac1in Not"s% 1. In the discussion of the results, raise the issue of the ethicality of shaping beha ior with negati e and positi e reinforce"ent. 9Is it right for a "anager to use these techni4ues to direct the beha ior of an e"ployee2: 2. Students "ay need help "aking the "ental transition fro" being indi idual contributors Hthey are responsible only for the"sel es and their own goals as studentsI to the position of a "anager Hresponsible for others and getting things done through othersI. 6hat they see as "anipulation as students "ay be perfectly legiti"ate as so"eone who works through others. 3. Discuss specific conte*ts where negati e reinforce"ent would be best and situations where positi e would be best. Students "ay well feel that only positi e reinforce"ent should be used, particularly if they co"e out of a public school syste" with a hea y e"phasis on self'estee".
ESource: Adapted fro" an e*ercise de eloped by <arry 8ichaelson of the =ni ersity of 7klaho"a. 6ith per"ission.F

45

Robbins: Organizational Behavior ETHICAL DILE&&A - *s OB .od a #or( of .anipulationB

Chapter Two

+wo 4uestions: Is 7- 8od a for" of "anipulation2 If it is, is it unethical for a "anager to "anipulate the beha ior of a e"ployee2 $ritics of 7- 8od say that it "anipulates e"ployees. +hey argue that when "anagers purposely select conse4uences to control e"ployee beha ior, they rob workers of their indi iduality and freedo" of choice. 3or instance, an auto parts plant in Dentucky reinforces safe working conditions through a ga"e called safety bingo. ) ery day that the plant has no accidents, e"ployees can draw a nu"ber of their bingo card. +he first e"ployee to fill a bingo card wins a tele ision set. +his progra", critics "ight argue, pressures e"ployees to beha e in ways they "ight no other wise engage in. It "ake these hu"an beings little different fro" the seal in the circus who, e ery ti"e it does its assigned trick, is gi en a fish by its trainer. 7nly instead of getting a fish, so"e e"ployee walks off with a tele ision. 7n the sa"e 4uestion regarding the ethics of "anipulation, the answer typically surrounds what the ter" 9"anipulation: "eans to you. So"e people belie e the ter" has a negati e connotation. +o "anipulate is to be de ious or conni ing. 7thers, howe er, would argue that "anipulation is "erely the thoughtful effort to control outco"es. In fact, one can say that "anage"ent is "anipulation because it is concerned with planned efforts to get people to do what "anages wants the" to do. 6hat do you think2 Inst#$cto# Not"% +hese 4uestions can be used as a group A Q A in class, or in con1unction with the $ase )*ercise G Bonne Bell #actory $(ployees Average Age >- found below. Another idea would be to assign the following 4uestions as a 1ournal entry or short ho"ework assign"ent. Auestions: 1. 2. 3. !. Do 7- 8od inter entions rob workers of their freedo" of choice2 6hat is "anage"ent/s responsibility to its workers2 6hat does the ter" "anipulation "ean to you2 If using 7- 8od inter entions "ake it a better place for workers, is that ok in your opinion2 If they are only used for producti ity increases, is that ok2 Is one reason different than the other in your "ind2 6hy or why not2 CASE EXERCISE - Bonne Bell #actory $(ployees Average Age >+he "orning shift at the -onne -ell plant in <akewood, 7hio,co"posed of M% asse"bly line workers,packed and bo*ed 1@,M@@ tubes of lip stick. Anything o er 1@,@@@ is considered good. In addition to "eeting their production goals, what/s uni4ue on this asse"bly line is that the a erage age of these workers is (@. +he oldest 1ust turned L@. +his seniors'only production depart"ent was launched in 1LL(, not as so"e grand social e*peri"ent, but as a practical business decision. +he co"pany needed workers, labor "arkets were tight, and seniors were a ailable. +he co"pany/s president, who hi"self was (%, suggested the idea. >is e*ecuti es in charge of "anufacturing and packaging were skeptical. +hey thought older workers would be too slow and costly or be "isfits in a high' tech world. +hey worried that seniors would co"plain they could not do the work or that they needed breaks or were not felling well. +he co"pany/s president refused to accept these stereotypes. Although he did not know of another co"pany that had a senior depart"ent, she said, 9<et/s try it an see if it works.: 6ork it did. ?etirees now account for close to 2@ percent of -onnie -ell/s work force of #@@. +he group handles work that once was outsourced, sa ing the co"pany "ore than N1 "illion in its first four years and effecti ely silencing the skeptics. Ship"ent goals are set and "et. +urno er is al"ost nil, and the co"pany has a si5eable waiting list of seniors who are interested in taking 1obs when future ones beco"e a ailable. Seniors ha e pro en to be an ideal source for new e"ployees. 4cont 5 46

Robbins: Organizational Behavior

Chapter Two

Cot only ha e seniors pro en to be producti e and loyal, they also help keep costs down. Since "ost recei e Social Security, they do not rely on their 1obs to fully support the"sel es. +hey do not need N1# or N2@ an hour 1obs to "ake ends "eet. +hey see" "ore than happy to accept pay rates that start at N(.#@ an hours and "o e to NM after a year. Additionally, the co"pany sa es by pro iding these e"ployees with no health benefits. 8ost of these workers are co ered by a spouse/s "edical plan or 8edicare and say they do not need e*tra co erage. +$"stions Not" to Inst#$cto#% Student answers will ary, but could include the ele"ents bulleted below each 4uestion. 1. >ow do the facts in this case align with research on age in the chapter2 7lder workers are the fastest seg"ent of the workforce,it 1ust "akes sense to include the". +he workers ha e a high degree of producti ity. +here is low absenteeis" and low turno er,both are supported by the research on older workers. Is this factory engaging in re erse age'discri"ination2 7nly if they are recei ing different treat"ent based solely on age. If they are prohibited fro" working elsewhere in the co"pany, are denied pro"otions or other opportunities based on age, are paid at a lower rate, then yes, they are being discri"inated against. 6orking on a special tea" does not necessarily "ean they are being discri"inated against.

2.

3. Do you think these older workers would perfor" as well if they were integrated into a depart"ent with younger workers2 Support your position. +hey probably ha e "any years of labor force participation where they ha e de eloped their co""unication skills, and other perfor"ance related beha iors. >owe er, so"eti"es discri"ination can be powerful and "ay inhibit older workers precluding the" fro" doing their best. !. Do you think that success that -onne -ell has had with hiring older workers is transferable to other co"panies2 6hy or why not2 ;es, howe er, they would need to rethink their assu"ptions of older workers and look closely at their work processes. Additionally, there would need to be a pool of potential older workers to draw fro". +he cost sa ings that -onnie -ell e*perienced "akes it worth the ti"e e*ploring the issue.

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Robbins: Organizational Behavior

Chapter Two

E)!lo#in OB To!ics on t1" Wo#ld Wid" W"3

Search )ngines are our na igational tool to e*plore the 666. So"e co""only used search engines are: www.e*cite.co" www.google.co" www.yahoo.co" www.lycos.co" www.hotbot.co" www.looks"art.co" 1. Do a 666 search on age discri"ination. $hoose three sites that each deal with a different aspect of age discri"ination. 3or e*a"ple: discri"ination in >igh +ech industries, pre enting discri"ination, AA?&/s in ol e"ent with the issue, etc. 6rite a one page paper outlining the key points of the infor"ation obtained and how it confir"s or disconfir"s what we learned about older workers in this chapter. 2. 3ind a current article of an organi5ation that has been in ol ed in an age discri"ination suit. 6hat were the specific issues in ol ed2 If resol ed, what was the outco"e2 -ring a copy of the web page to class and be prepared to discuss it. In addition to searching, here are so"e places to start digging: www.aarp.co" www.bi51ournals.co" Hthere is a free registration process for this siteI www.hrlawinde*.co" Hthere is a free registration process for this siteI 3. Shaping as a tool for changing beha ior and outco"e is used in a wide ariety of ways. &erfor" a search on 9shaping beha ior: or si"ilar other key words and analy5e the results. 6rite a list of all the ways this strategy is used,and who is using it Hbusinesses, occupations, etc.I. -ring your list to class to discuss.
4.

Kisit http:OOsun.science.wayne.eduORwpoffOcorO"e"Ooperschd.ht"l to learn "ore about the 9Skinner -o*: and schedules of reinforce"ent. 6hile there click on the other links to learn "ore about reinforcers, operant conditioning, and a definition of beha ior. +hen isit http:OOwww.pigeon.psy.tufts.eduOea"Oea"2.ht" for "ore infor"ation on schedules of reinforce"ent and how it applies to hu"ans and ani"als.

#. +op e*ecuti es and tough 1obs. <earn "ore about the skills and abilities "anagers need, like intelligence, leadership, "oti ation, etc., to be successful. Kisit the About.co" site and learn "ore. &rint and bring an article to class for discussion. +ry these pages or do your own search on About.co". -e sure to select links that look interesting found in the left fra"e. www.learning.about.co" www.psychology.about.co" %. +here is lots of ad ice about controlling absenteeis" in the workplace. ?ead the ad ice gi en at the four sites below. =se what you ha e learned fro" the chapter and these sites and write a short description of the "ethod you would use as a "anager for controlling absenteeis". http:OOwww.e"ployer'e"ployee.co"Oabsent.ht"l http:OOwww.applesforhealth.co"Oabsentee1.ht"l http:OOwww.benefits.orgOinterfaceOcostOabsent2.ht" http:OOwww.careerknowhow.co"Oabsenteeis".ht"
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Robbins: Organizational Behavior

Chapter Two

(. +ake this 4ui5: Do you like to be reinforced to learn "ore about perfor"ance "anage"ent2 http:OOwww.p'"anage"ent.co"O4uestionO4uesante.ht"

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