Biology - Sample Essays

Respiration
Aerobic Respiration Aerobic respiration requires a continuous supply of oxygen from the air or water surrounding the organism. Oxygen that is taken in is delivered by the blood circulatory system to the body cells. In the cells, glucose molecules are oxidised by oxygen to release energy. Aerobic respiration can be summarised by the following chemical equation: C6H12O6+6O26CO2+6H2O+2898kJ Aerobic respiration involves the oxidation of glucose in the presence of oxygen to carbon dioxide, water and energy. Organisms that respire aerobically are called aerobic organisms. Aerobic respiration releases all the available energy stored within the glucose molecules. he entire process does not only involve a single chemical reaction, but also driven by a sequence of complex biochemical reactions which are catalysed by the respiratory en!ymes. he energy stored within the glucose molecules are released gradually. his is far more useful to the organism than a sudden release of energy. Only a small portion of energy is lost in maintaining the body temperature. A larger portion of the energy is used to synthesise A " from A#" and inorganic phosphate. A " which is an instant source of energy is the main supply for all living cells. $ach A " molecule consists of three phosphate groups and the phosphate bonds can be easily broken down to release energy. Anaerobic Respiration #uring vigorous exercise such as running a race, the muscles initially respire aerobically. %owever, the muscles soon used up all the available oxygen. In spite of the increased breathing rate and heartbeat rate, the blood cannot supply oxygen fast enough to meet their requirements. he rate at which oxygen is used by the muscles exceeds the amount of oxygen supplied by the blood. he muscles are in a state of oxygen deficiency, and an oxygen debt is incurred. As such, the muscles obtain extra energy from anaerobic respiration because oxygen is not available. #uring anaerobic respiration, the glucose molecules break down partially into an immediate substance called lactic acid instead of carbon dioxide and water. &ecause glucose is not completely broken down, the energy released during anaerobic respiration is much less than the energy released during aerobic respiration. In fact, for every molecule of glucose, anaerobic respiration releases only two molecules of A " or '()k* of energy per mole of glucose. In contrast, aerobic respiration generates +, molecules of A " or -,.,k* of energy per mole of glucose. hus, in terms of energy yield, anaerobic respiration is less efficient than aerobic respiration. /uch of the energy is still trapped within the molecules of lactic acid. he accumulation of lactic acid can reach a high level of concentration which can cause muscle cramps and fatigue. his contributes to the exhaustion a person feels during and after a period of intense exercise. he person needs to breathe more deeply and rapidly in order to inhale more oxygen. he excess oxygen is used by the body to oxidise the accumulated lactic acid to carbon dioxide and water.

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Biology - Sample Essays

Oxidation of lactic acid occurs mainly in the liver where a portion of it is oxidised to produce energy while the remaining ones is converted into glycogen for storage in the muscle cells. he oxygen debt is paid off when all the lactic acid is removed. his happens through the increased breathing rate after vigorous exercise. herefore, an oxygen debt is the amount of oxygen needed to remove lactic acid from the muscle cells.

Photosynthesis
Light Reaction #uring the light reaction, chlorophyll captures light energy which excites the electrons of chlorophyll molecules to higher energy levels. In the excited state, the electrons leave the chlorophyll molecules. 0ight energy is also used to split the water molecules into hydrogen ions and hydroxyl ions. his reaction is known as the photolysis of water. 2 H2O 2 H++ 2 OH! "#ight an$ ch#orophy##% he hydrogen ions then combine with the electrons released by the chlorophyll to form hydrogen atoms. 2 H++2 e!2 H he energy from the excited electrons is used to form energy1rich molecules of A ". At the same time, each hydroxyl ion loses an electron to form a hydroxyl group. his electron is then received by the chlorophyll. 2 OH!2 OH+2 e! he hydroxyl groups then combine to form water and gaseous oxygen. 2 OH12H2O+6O2 Oxygen is released into the atmosphere and used for cellular respiration. he A " molecules provide energy while the hydrogen atoms provide reducing power for the dark reaction which takes place in the stroma. &ark Reaction he dark reaction is also known as the 2alvin cycle. It is light independent. #uring the dark reaction, the hydrogen atoms are used to fix carbon dioxide in a series of reactions catalysed by photosynthetic en!ymes. he overall reaction results in the reduction of carbon dioxide into glucose. 6CO2+2 H6"CH2O%+6H2O

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Biology - Sample Essays

32%-O4 is a basic unit of glucose. 5ix units of it combine to form one molecule of glucose. he glucose monomers then undergo condensation to form starch which is temporarily stored as starch grains in the chloroplast. he entire process can be represented by the following equation. 6H2O+6CO2C6H12O6+6O2 66666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666 6

&igestion
R'(inant 7hen a cow feeds on grass, it partially chews the grass. his partially chewed food is swallowed into the rumen, the largest compartment of the stomach. %ere, cellulose is broken down by the cellulose produced by symbiotic microorganisms such as bacteria and proto!oa. "art of the breakdown products are absorbed by the bacteria and proto!oa, the rest by the cow. As the food enters the reticulum, the cellulose undergoes further hydrolysis. he content of the reticulum, called the cud, is then regurgitated bit by bit into the mouth to be thoroughly chewed again. his process helps soften and break down cellulose, making it more accessible to further microbial action in other parts of the stomach. he cud is then re1swallowed and moves into the omasum. %ere, large particles of food are broken down into smaller pieces by peristalsis. 7ater is removed from the cud. he food particles finally move into the abomasums, the true stomach of the cow. %ere, gastric 8uices containing digestive en!ymes complete the digestion of proteins and other food substances. he food then passes through the small intestine to be digested and absorbed in the normal way. Ro$ents In rodents like squirrels, the caecum and appendix are enlarged to store the cellulose1producing bacteria. he breakdown products pass through the alimentary canal twice. he faeces in the first batch are usually produced at night and are soft and watery. hose are eaten again to enable the animals to absorb the products of bacterial breakdown as they pass through the alimentary canal for the second time. he second batch of faeces becomes drier and harder. his adaptation allows squirrels to recover the nutrients initially loss with the faeces.

Co#onisation an$ )'ccession

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Biology - Sample Essays

&e*inition 92olonisation: is the process whereby living organisms move into a newly formed area which is devoid of life. 95uccession: is the gradual process by which one community changed its environment so that it is replaced by another community. +angro,e )-a(p he pioneer species of a mangrove swamp are the 5onneratia sp and Avicennia sp. he presence of these species gradually changes the physical environment of the habitat. he extensive root systems of these plants trap and collect sediments, including organic matters from decaying plant parts. As time passes, the soil becomes more compact and firm. his condition favours the growth of the :hi!ophora sp. ;radually, the :hi!ophora sp replaces the pioneer species. he seeds of the :hi!ophora sp show distinct viviparity. he prop root system of the :hi!ophora sp traps silt and mud, creating a firmer soil structure overtime. he ground becomes higher. As a result, the soil is drier because it is less submerged by sea water. he condition now becomes more suitable for another mangrove species, the &ruguiera sp, which replaces the :hi!ophora sp. he buttress root system of the &ruguiera sp forms loops which extend from the soil to trap more silt and mud. As more sediment is deposited, the shore extends further to the sea. he old shore is now further away from the sea and is like terrestrial ground. Over time, terrestrial plants like the nipah palm and "andanus sp begin to replace the &ruguiera sp. he gradual transition and succession from a mangrove swamp to a terrestrial forest and eventually to a tropical rainforest,which is a climax community, takes a long time. hat is why we need to conserve and preserve our mangrove forest. Pon$ 5uccession in a disused pond begins with the growth of pioneer species such as phytoplankton, algae and submerged plants like the %ydrilla sp, 2abomba sp and $lodea sp. hese plants have special adaptive features which enable them to colonise the pond. heir fibrous roots penetrate deep into the soil to absorb nutrients and bind sand particles together. "lenty of sunlight penetrates through the clear water to allow photosynthesis to take place. 7hen the pioneer species die and decompose, more organic nutrients are released into the pond. he organic matter is converted into humus at the pond base. he humus and soil which erode from the sides of the pond are deposited on the base of the pond, making the pond shallower. he condition becomes more unfavourable for submerged plants but more suitable for floating plants such as duckweeds 30emna sp4, water hyacinths 3$ichornia sp4 and lotus plants 3<elumbium sp4. hese plants float freely on the surface of the water. 5ince these plants receive sunlight directly and can reproduce rapidly by vegetative propagation, they spread to cover a large area of the water surface and prevent sunlight from reaching the submerged plants. As a result, the submerged plants die because they cannot photosynthesise. he decomposed remains of the submerged plants add more organic matter on the base of the pond. At the same time, more erosion occurs at the edge which results in more sediments being deposited on the base of the pond. As a result, the pond becomes more and more shallow which makes it unsuitable for the floating plants. he floating plants are subsequently replaced by emergent 3amphibious4 plants

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Biology - Sample Essays

which can live in water as well as on land, for example, sedges and cattails. he rhi!omes of these plants grow hori!ontally across the habitat. heir extensive roots bind the soil particles together and penetrate deeply to absorb more mineral salts. hese plants spread rapidly and colonise the habitat, changing it. he emergent plants grow from the edge of the pond towards the middle of the pond as the pond becomes shallower. 7hen these plants die, their decomposed remains add to the sediments on the base of the pond. his further reduces the depth of the pond. he condition of the pond now becomes more favourable for land plants like small herbaceous weeds, for example, Ageratum cony!oides, $uphorbia hirta and Oldentandia dichotoma. As time passes, the land becomes drier and the pond dries up. 0and plants such as shrubs, bushes and woody plants become more numerous. A primary forest emerges and eventually turns into a tropical rainforest which is also known as a climax community.
Ce## &i,ision +itosis he two ma8or phases mainly interphase and mitotic cell division also known as the / phase which consists of mitosis and cytokinesis begins and ends according to the cell cycle. /itosis begins with interphase. Interphase is divided into three shorter stages, ;', 5 and ;-. In ;' phase, the cell synthesises protein and new cytoplasmic organelles such as mitochondria and chloroplast. he chromosomes are not condensed and appear as thread1like structures called chromatin. In 5 phase, however, synthesis of #<A occurs. his means that the #<A in the nucleus undergoes replication. $ach duplicated chromosome now consists of two identical sister chromatid which contain identical copies of the chromosomes #<A molecule. he cell continues to grow and remain metabolically active during ;- stage as a preparation for cell division. Interphase is followed by the / phase which contains mitosis and cytokinesis. /itosis can further subdivided into four phases mainly prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase. he mitosis in an animal cell begins with prophase. #uring prophase, the chromosomes in the nucleus condense and become more tightly coiled. he chromosomes appear shorter and thicker. $ach chromosome now consists of a pair of sister chromatids 8oined together at the centromere. In the cytoplasm, spindle fibres begin to form and extend between the centrioles. $ach pair of centrioles then migrates to lie at the opposite poles of the cell. he chromatids are attached to the fibres of the spindle by their centromeres. In most plant cell, the spindle fibre forms without the presence of centrioles. At the end of prophase, the nucleolus disappears and the nuclear membrane disintegrates. /etaphase begins when the centromeres of all the chromosomes are lined up on the metaphase plate, an imaginary plane across the middle of the cell. he mitotic spindles is now fully formed. he two sister chromatids are still attached to one another at the centromere. /etaphase ends when the centromeres divide. #uring anaphase, two sister chromatids of each chromosome separate at the centromere. he sister chromatids are pulled apart to the opposite poles by the shortening of the spindle fibres that connect the centromeres to the poles. Once separated, the chromatids are referred to as daughter chromosomes. &y the end of anaphase, the two poles of the cell have completed and have equivalent sets of chromosomes. elophase begins when the two sets of chromosomes reach the opposite poles of the cell. he chromosomes start to uncoil and revert to their extended state 3chromatin4. he chromosomes become less visible. he spindle fibres disappear and a new nuclear membrane forms around each set of chromosomes. he nucleolus also reforms in each nucleus= the process of mitosis is now completed. 2ytokinesis, the division of the cytoplasm occurs towards the end of telophase. In animal cell, the actin filaments in cytoplasm contracts to pull a cleavage furrow. he cleavage furrow pinches at the equator of the cell and deepens progressively until the cell is separated into two daughter cells. Although plant

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Biology - Sample Essays cells undergo the same stages of mitosis as in animal cells, cytokinesis in plant cells us markedly different. A cleavage furrow does not form. Instead, membrane enclosed vesicles fuse to form a cell plate. he cell plate grows outwards until its edges fuse with the plasma membrane of the parent cell. <ew cell walls and plasma membranes are formed from the contents of the cell plate, which eventually divide the cell into two daughter cells. At the end of cytokineses, cellulose fibres are produces by the cell to strengthen the new cell walls. After cytokinesis, the new cells enter the ;' stage of interphase, thus completing the cell cycle. $ach daughter cell contains diploid number of chromosomes. +eiosis /eiosis only occurs in gametes which are reproductive cells. his is because meiosis is a reduction division of diploid cells to produce haploid sex gametes. /eiosis begins with a single duplication of chromosomes in the parent cells, followed by two cycles of nuclear and cell division mainly meiosis I and meiosis II. In meiosis I, basically, the chromosomes begin to condense. hey become shorter, thicker and clearly visible. >nlike mitosis, the homologous chromosomes come together to form bivalents through a process called synapse. $ach bivalent is visible under the microscope as a four1part structure called a tetrad. A tetrad consists of two homologous chromosomes, each made up of two sister chromatids. <on sister chromatids exchange segments of #<A in a process known as crossing over. 2rossing over results in a new combination of genes on a chromosome. he points at which segments of chromatids cross over are called chiasmata. At the end of prophase I, the nucleolus and the nuclear membrane disappear. he two pairs of centrioles migrate to the opposite poles of the cells. $ach pair of centrioles acts as a central point from which the spindle fibres radiate. In metaphase I, the chromosomes are lined up side by side as tetrads on the metaphase plate. he chromosomes are still in homologous pairs. he chromosome of each pair is attached to the spindle fibres from one pole while its homologue is attached to the fibre from the opposite pole. he centromere does not divide. #uring anaphase I, the spindle fibres pull the homologous chromosomes away from one another and move them to the opposite poles of the cell. $ach chromosome still consists of two sister chromatids which move as a single unit. Although the cell started with four chromosomes, only two chromosomes move towards each pole. <ext will be telophase I. he chromosomes arrive at the poles. $ach pole now has haploid daughter nucleus because it contains only one set of chromosomes. he spindle fibres disappear. he nuclear membrane reappears to surround each set of chromosomes. he nucleolus then reappears in each nucleus. 2ytokinesis usually occurs simultaneously with telophase I, resulting in two haploid daughter cells, and each receiving one chromosome from the homologous pair. %ence, another cell division is required as the chromosomes are still duplicated. /eiosis II follows immediately after cytokinesis, no interphase between them. #<A replication does not occur again and the chromosomes remained in a condensed state. In prophase II, the nuclear membrane of the daughter cells disintegrates again. he spindle fibres reform in each daughter cell. #uring metaphase II, the chromosomes each still make up of sister chromatids, are positioned randomly on the metaphase plate with the sister chromatids of each centromere pointing towards the opposite poles. $ach sister chromatid is attached to the spindle fibres at the centromere. In anaphase II, however, the centromeres of the sister chromatids finally separated and the sister chromatids of each chromosome are now individual chromosomes. he chromosomes move towards the opposite poles of the cell. 0astly in telophase II, the nucleoli and the nuclear membrane reform. he spindle fibres break down. 2ytokinesis follows and four haploid daughter cells are formed, each containing half the number of chromosomes and is genetically different from the parent diploid cell. hese haploid cells will develop into gametes.

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Biology - Sample Essays

.iss'e C'#t're .echni/'e A small piece of a plant?s leaf, shoot, bud, stem or root tissues are cut out. hese cut out plants tissues are called explants. Alternatively, en!ymes are used to digest the cell walls of tissues, for example, the mesophyll tissue from a leaf. his result in naked cells without cell walls called protoplasts. he explants or protoplasts are sterilised and then placed in a glass container which contains a nutrient solution with a fixed chemical composition. A culture medium or growth medium normally consists of a complex mixture of glucose, amino acids, minerals, and other substances required for the growth of the tissues. he culture medium and the apparatus used must be in a sterile condition and free from microorganisms which can contaminate the tissue culture. he p% and the temperature of the culture medium also need to be maintained at optimum levels. he explants or protoplasts begin to divide by mitosis. 2ell division produces aggregates of cells. he aggregates of cells develop into a callus, an undifferentiated mass of tissue. he callus develops into a somatic embryo. he embryo develops into a plantlet which can later be transferred to the soil for growth into an adult plant. All the plantlets produced this way are genetically identical. herefore, all the adult plants that develop from them share the same traits.

Cancer 7hen a cell divides by mitosis repeatedly without control and regulation, it can produce cancer cells. 2ancer is a disease caused by uncontrolled mitosis due to severe disruption to the mechanism that controls the cycle. 2ancer cells divide freely and uncontrollably without heeding the cell cycle control system. 2ancer cells compete with the surrounding normal cells to obtain sufficient nutrients and energy for their own growth. A cancer cell that is not destroyed will divide uncontrollably to form a tumour, an abnormal mass of cells. 2ancer cells can intrude on and spread to other tissues which then lead to the malfunction of the tissues and ultimately death. 2ancer can be caused by many factors such as damage to the #<A, changes in genes 3mutation4 that control cell division, ionising radiation, for example, @rays, ultraviolet rays and gamma rays, certain chemical compounds like tar in tobacco smoke or carcinogenic 3cancer1causing4 compounds such as formaldehyde. Page | 7

Biology - Sample Essays

Repro$'ction +enstr'a# Cyc#e /enstrual cycle is the monthly cycle of ovulation and menstruation. his cycle causes changes in the thickeninig of the endometrium or uterus wall every -, days, beginning puberty until menopause. It is regulated by a few hormones mainly: 0 1o##ic#e sti('#ating Hor(one "1)H% "roduced by: "ituitary gland Aunction: 5timulates the development of follicles in the ovary 0 L'teinising Hor(one "LH% "roduced by: "ituitary gland Aunction: 5timulates ovulation, the development of corpus luteum and promotes the secretion of progesterone 0 Oestrogen "roduced by: Aollicle cells of the ovary Aunction: 5timulates further growth of the follicles, promotes the repair of the endometrium, from about the '-th day of the menstrual cycle, it has a positive feedback action on the secretion of the A5% and 0% 0 Progesterone "roduced by: 2orpus luteum Aunction: 5timulates the endometrium to become thick, folded and highly vascular 3enriched with blood vessels4 for the implantation of embryo= inhibits the secretion of A5% and 0% to prevent the development of the graafian follicle and ovulation /enstrual cycle involves two process mainly the breakdown of the endometrium and the formation of an ovum. On day '1(, A5% stimulates the development of primary follicle to produce a ;raafian follicle. A5% stimulates the follicle cells and ovary tissues to secrete oestrogen to heal and repait the uterus lining. his only takes place in the ovary. On the other hand, menstruation occurs in the uterus where blood is discharged from the vagina. his is when the uterus lining breakdown. On day B1'+, in the ovary, the graafian follicle matures. Oestrogen and progesterone level continue to increase. ill a certain point, the oestrogen will stop the pituitary gland from producing A5% and is stimulated to produce 0%. In the uterus, the endometrium wall is repaired and thickens. On day 'C, 0% causes ovulation and the formation of corpus luteum from the follicle cells. In the uterus, however, the endometrium continues to thickens. On day '(1-C, the corpus luteum develops and releases progesterone which stimulates the thickening of the endometrium. In the uterus, the endometrium becomes thicker and more blood vessels are present. On day -(1-,, if there is no fertilisation, then there will not be any implantation. hus, the corpus luteum degenerates causing the level of progesterone to decrease and halt. In the uterus, the endometrium begins to break down and menstruation occurs. he menstrual cycle continues. %owever, if fertilisation happens, a !ygote will be implanted in the endometrium. he corpus luteum will continue to secrete oestrogen and progesterone until the placenta is formed to replace it. he presence of hormone progesterone inhibits the production of A5% and 0%, this cause the menstrual cycle to stop during pregnancy. 1or(ation o* 2(bryo )ac in the O,'#e he ovule develops from the ovarian tissue. It has a diploid embryo sac mother cell 3-n4. $ach ovule consists of protective outer layers of cells called the integuments. he embryo sac mother cell 3-n4 undergoes meiosis to form a row of four haploid cells called megaspores 3n4. hree of the four megaspores degenerate, leaving one in the ovule. he megaspore continues to grow and enlarges filling up most of the ovule. he nucleus of the three megaspores then Page | 8

Biology - Sample Essays undergoes mitosis three times to form eight haploid nuclei. hree of the eight nuclei migrate to one end of the cell to form antipodal cells. Another two nuclei, called the polar nuclei, move to the centre. One of the three nuclei nearest the opening of the ovule 3micropyle4 develops into an egg cell or female gamete, flanked by two synergid cells. he structure formed is known as the embryo sac. It is where the embryo will develop. he ovule, which eventually becomes a seed, now consists of the embryo sac and the surrounding integuments. 9$ight cells have no cell walls= synergid cells provide nutrient and support to egg cell= integuments form protective layers around embryo sac. 1or(ation o* Po##en .'be3 4ygote an$ .rip#oi$ 5'c#e's "ollination is the process in which mature pollen grains from the anther are transferred to the stigma of a flower. A pollen grain on a stigma initiates the fertilisation process. he secretion of sucrose solution in the stigma stimulates the pollen grain to germinate and form a tube known as the pollen tube. he pollen tube grows through the tissues of the style into the ovule. #uring the growth of pollen tube, the generative nucleus divides by mitosis to form two male gamete nuclei. he male nuclei follow the tube nucleus down the pollen tube. 7hen the pollen tube reaches the ovary, it penetrates the ovule through the micropyle. he tube nucleus disintegrates and the tip of the tube bursts, leaving the passage for the male nuclei to enter the embryo sac. #ouble fertilisation, which is unique for angiosperms, occurs within the ovule. his process involves the union of the two male gametes nuclei with different nuclei of the embryo sac. One male gamete nucleus fuses with the egg nucleus, forming a diploid !ygote 3-n4. he other male gamete nucleus fuses with the two polar nuclei, forming a triploid nucleus 3+n4. he division of the tripod nucleus will give rise to the endosperm, the food1storing tissue of the seed. he synergid cells and the antipodal cell will degenerates. .he Ly(phatic )yste( 1or(ation an$ Co(position o* 6nterstitia# 1#'i$ &lood that enters the arterial end of the capillaries is under high pressure. his is because the blood capillaries have a smaller diameter than the arterioles and arteries. his blood pressure causes fluid to leak continuously from the blood plasma into the spaces between the cells. his fluid is known as interstitial fluid. he interstitial fluid fills the spaces between the cells and constantly bathes the cells. he exchange of substances between the blood capillaries and the body cells occurs in the interstitial fluid. <utrients and oxygen diffuses from the blood through the interstitial fluid into the body cells while carbon dioxide and other waste products diffuse from the body cells through the interstitial fluid into the blood. Interstitial fluid consists of water, dissolved nutrients, hormones, waste products, gases and small proteins from the blood. 0eucocytes oo!e through the openings in the capillary walls. Interstitial fluid does not contain plasma proteins 3albumin, globulin and fibrinogen4, erythrocytes and platelets because these are too large to pass through the capillary walls. About ,(D of the fluid that leaves the blood at the arterial end of the capillary re1enters at the venous end. he interstitial fluid must be returned to the circulatory system to maintain the normal blood volume. About '(D of the fluid that is still remains in the interstitial space is equivalent to about C litres of fluid lost from the blood capillaries each day. he fluid loss is returned to the blood through the lymphatic system. 9 he higher &" at the arterial end forces fluid out of blood capillary= the lower &" Page | 9

Biology - Sample Essays at the venous end allows fluid to re1enter the blood capillaries. &yna(ic 2cosyste( 5itrogen Cyc#e o build proteins, plants need the element nitrogen. he nitrogen gas in the atmosphere is about E,D but plants are not able to utili!e the nitrogen. his is because the nitrogen has to be fixed before it can be absorbed by the plants. <itrogen fixing bacteria 3<ostoc sp, A!otobacter4 which live in the root nodule of leguminous plant can convert nitrogen in the atmosphere into ammonia. <itrosomonas convertsFoxidises ammonia into nitrites. <itrobacter oxidisesFconverts nitrites into nitrates. <itrites and <itrates can be absorbed by the plants as their nitrogen source. he plants protein is transferred to the animals when consumed by the animals. he animals and plants proteins are transferred to human when consumed. 7#oo$ 7#oo$ C#otting +echanis( &lood clotting mechanism involves a complex series of biochemical reactions in the blood to prevent excessive loss of blood after an in8ury. 7hen you get a cut, the blood vessels around the wound immediately constrict to reduce blood loss. $xposed tissues, the collagens interact with the blood coagulation proteins to start the coagulation process. "latelets become activated as it begins to adhere to the wall of the blood vessel at the side of bleeding. hey form a temporary platelet plug. he adhered platelets undergo degranulation and release cytoplasmic granules. he cytoplasmic granules attract more platelets to the area. 7hile the platelets form the temporary plug, other blood proteins congregate on the damaged blood vessels to reinforce the clot. he interaction of the different blood clotting factors such as Aactor GIII and platelets produces prothrombin. "rothrombin acts together with calcium ions and vitamin H to form an active plasma protein called thrombin. hrombin transforms a protein called fibrinogen into fibrin. Aibrin surrounds the platelet plug, creating a fibrin mesh. he fibrin mesh is more stable than the temporary platelet plug. Over the next few days, the fibrin mesh or blood clot strengthens even more, protecting the blood vessels from further damage or blood loss. After the in8ury heals, the body has to remove the fibrin clot. A protein called plasmin is formed to dissolve fibrin. he blood clot is slowly removed with the help of plasmin. 6(paire$ +'sc'#oske#eta# )yste( +'sc#e cra(ps A muscle cramp is a sudden contraction of one or more muscles which result in a sudden, intense pain and an inability to use the affected muscles. A muscle cramp is an involuntary, forcibly contracted muscle that is not able to relax. 7hen the cramp begins, the spinal cord stimulates the muscle to keep contracting. he muscle groups usually affected are the back of the lower leg or the calf, the back of the thigh 3hamstrings4 or the front of the thigh 3the quadriceps4. A cramp can last from a few seconds to '( minutes or more. /uscle cramps are very common among endurance athletes and older people who perform strenuous exercises. >sually, inadequate stretching and muscle fatigue lead to abnormalities in the mechanisms that control muscle contractions.

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Biology - Sample Essays

+'sc'#ar &ystrophy /uscular dystrophy is caused by the progressive degeneration and weakening of the skeletal muscles that control movement. he body muscles gradually become weak as they are replaced by fibrous tissue. his disease is caused by a mutated gene in the @ chromosome and mainly affects boys. At present, there is no cure for muscular dystrophy. Osteoporosis Osteoporosis is a common bone disorder which causes the bones to become thinner, more brittle and more porous. It is a common disease among elderly women. he loss of bone mass normally begins after the age of +) years and accelerates greatly after the age of C( years. It particularly affects women after menopause, when changes in hormone levels 3especially oestrogen level4 reduce bone strength. #uring the course of an individual?s life, the body needs phosphate and calcium to build bones. If the dietary intake of these minerals is not sufficient, or if the body does not absorb enough of these minerals from the diet, bone production and bone tissue will suffer, resulting in brittle and fragile bones. hese bones are easily sub8ected to fracture. he loss of bone mass occurs gradually over an extended period of time. /ost people are not even aware that they have osteoporosis until a bone is fractured because there are no symptoms or early signs of osteoporosis. 5ymptoms that manifest over the years include fractures of the vertebrae, wrists or hips= a reduction in height over time and a stooped posture. Osteoporosis can be prevented by taking adequate amounts of calcium, phosphorus and vitamin #. :egular exercise can also reduce the likelihood of bone fractures and help reduce bone mineral loss. Although there is no cure for osteoporosis, medications can slow down the loss of bone mineral. Arthritis Arthritis refers to a group of skeletal disorders that involve inflammation of the 8oint. he 8oints become swollen, stiff and painful. One form of arthritis is osteoarthritis. Osteoarthritis is part of the ageing process caused by the wear and tear of the cartilage between the bones inside certain 8oints. he ageing process may also result in a decreased production of the synovial fluid in the 8oints. he patient usually suffers from a painful and stiff knee which restricts daily activities like walking and climbing stairs. If treatment fails to relieve pain, a surgeon can replace the damaged 8oints with artificial ones made of plastic or metal.

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Biology - Sample Essays

Respiration 8 Circ'#ation H'(an Respiratory )yste( #uring inhalation, the external intercostals muscles contract while the internal intercostals muscles relax. his action causes the ribcage to move upwards and outwards. At the same time, the diaphragm muscles contract. he diaphragm lowers and flattens. hese two actions cause the volume of the thoracic cavity to increase, and the pressure of the thoracic cavity decreases. %igher atmospheric pressure on the outside forces the air to enter the lungs. #uring exhalation, the external intercostals muscles relax while the internal intercostals muscles contract. his action causes the rib cage to move downwards and inwards. At the same time, the diaphragm muscles relax. he diaphragm curves upwards 3dome1shaped4. hese two actions cause the volume of the thoracic cavity to decrease, and the pressure of the thoracic cavity increases. %igher atmospheric pressure inside the lungs forces the ait out of the lungs. A#,eo#i 8 9aseo's 2:change ;aseous exchange happens between the alveolus and the blood capillaries through diffusion. he oxygen concentration or partial pressure of oxygen, "O- in the alveolus is higher than the blood capillaries. &lood capillaries carry carbon dioxide from body cells to the alveolus. 5o, it has a higher partial pressure of carbon dioxide, "2O- compared to the air in the alveolus. 2arbon dioxide diffuses into the alveolus and then it is breathed out through the nose or mouth. Oxygen diffuses into the blood capillaries from the lungs and combines with haemoglobin to form oxyhaemoglobin. %aemoglobin is the red pigment in :&2. Oxygen in the form of oxyhaemoglobin is carried to the cells and tissues. Oxyhaemoglobin is unstable so it will breakdown into haemoglobin and oxygen when it reaches the cell or tissue with lower "O-. 2arbon dioxide is given out by cell as waste products of cellular respiration. his carbon dioxide is transported out of the cell by a few means. ED of them dissolve in blood plasma, -+D of them binds with haemoglobin to form carbaminohaemoglobin, a type of multiple amino while E)D of them are carried with bicarbonate ions. 2O-I%-OJ%-2O+J%II%2O+1 9with the presence of carbonic anhydrase 3%2O+4&lood plasmaJlungsJnose 3%2O+J2O-I%-O4 .he Reg'#atory +echanis( o* Carbon &io:i$e Content in the 7o$y #uring vigorous exercise, partial pressure of carbon dioxide increases as there is active cellular respiration. 2arbon dioxide reacts with water to form carbonic acid. he higher carbon dioxide concentration level in the blood results in a drop in the p% value of the blood and tissue fluid 3cerebrospinal fluid4 bathing the brain. 2O-I%-OJ%II%2O+1 his drop of p% is detected by the receptors include the central chemoreceptors located in the medulla oblongata and the perisheral chemoreceptors which are sensitive to both the carbon dioxide content and the p% of the blood. he perispheral chemoreceptors are the aortic bodies found within the aortic bodies Page | 12

Biology - Sample Essays found within the aortic arch and the carotid bodies at the carotid arteries. 2entral and perispheral chemoreceptors send nerve impulses to the respiratory centre. he diaphragm and the intercostals muscles are the effectors in this case. 7hen impulse reaches the effectors, the respiratory muscles contract and relax at a faster rate. As a result, the breathing rate and ventilation rate increase. As excess carbon dioxide is eliminated from the body, the carbon dioxide concentration and the p% value of the blood return to the normal level. .he Reg'#atory +echanis( o* O:ygen Content in the 7o$y he oxygen content in the blood usually has little effect on the breathing control centre. he perispheral chemoreceptors in the aortic bodies and the carotid bodies will only be stimulated if the oxygen level is very low, for example at very high altitudes. >sually a rise in the carbon dioxide concentration is a better indication of a drop in the oxygen concentration because both carbon dioxide and oxygen are involved in the same process, that is, cellular respiration. At high altitude, the decrease in concentration of oxygen in blood is detected by perispheral chemoreceptors. <erve impulses are sent to the respiratory centre. his causes the diaphragm and intercostals muscles to contract and relax at a faster rate. hus, breathing rate and ventilation rate increases so that more oxygen is inhale to make the concentration of oxygen in the blood to return to normal. Rate o* Respiration 8 the 9ases content in 7#oo$ 7hen an individual does an activity, the body cells require more energy. his causes the rate of respiration to increase. 7hen "O- decreases while "2Oincreases, the rate and depth of breathing also increases. he breathing rate increases will cause the increase of ventilation rate so that the rate of gaseous exchange between alveoli and blood capillaries increases. 0astly, the heartbeat rate increases causes more blood to be pumped into the circulation so that more oxygen can reach the cell to oxidise glucose for energy and also to remove the carbon dioxide from the cells to the air. Co(pensation Point 2ompensation point is the light intensity at which the rate of carbon dioxide production during respiration is equal to the carbon dioxide consumption during photosynthesis. 9enetics 9enetic +o$i*ication o* 7acteria in the +ass Pro$'ction o* 6ns'#in An en!yme is used to isolate and cut the bacterial plasmid. A plasmid is a circular #<A found in bacteria. he human gene that codes the production of insulin is isolated and inserted into the vector plasmid. An en!yme is used to incorporate the gene into the plasmid. he human gene together with the bacterial plasmid 3called recombinant #<A4 is inserted into the bacterial cell. he bacteria are cultured in a bioreactor. he plasmids are replicated as the bacteria divide asexually 3producing clones4 and make identical copies of themselves, all carrying the new gene that is capable of producing human insulin. he insulin produced in large quantities, purified and separated. his is a cost1effective way of producing sufficient amounts of insulin.

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Biology - Sample Essays

;ariation Co(parison bet-een Contin'o's 8&iscontin'o's ;ariation i< )i(i#arities &oth continuous and discontinuous variation creates varieties in the population of a species. &oth variations are caused by environment factors or genetic factors or both. Gariation that is caused by genetic factors can be inherited. his too can promote a higher survival rate in the formation of new speciesFindividual. ii< &i**erences 2ontinuous variation is a type of variation in which the differences in a character are not distinctive while discontinuous variation is a type of variation in which the differences in a character are distinctive. %eight and weight are continuous variation as while blood group, fingerprint patterns, haemophilia and albinism are discontinuous variation. 2ontinuous variation exhibits a spectrum of phenotypes with intermediate characters while discontinuous variation exhibits a few distinctive phenotypes with no intermediate characters. 2ontinuous variation has characters that are quantitative, they can be measured and graded from one extreme to the other while discontinuous variation has characters that are qualitative, they cannot be measured or graded from one extreme to the other. 2ontinuous variation is represented by a normal distribution while discontinuous variation is represented by a discrete distribution. 2ontinuous variation is influenced by environmental factors while discontinuous variation is not influenced by environmental factors. wo or more genes control the same character for continuous variation while only a single gene determines the differences in the traits of a character. he phenotype of a continuous variation is usually controlled by many pairs of alleles while the phenotype of a discontinuous variation is controlled by a pair of alleles. 9enetic ;ariation in )e:'a# Repro$'ction 5exual reproduction, which involves the production and fertilisation of gametes, resulting in genetic variation in the offspring. here are three sources of genetic variation in sexual reproduction: i< Crossing o,er $'ring (eiosis #uring prophase I of meiosis, when two homologous chromosomes are paired up in a bivalent, crossing over occurs between the chromatids. he exchange of genetic materials between the chromatids results in new, different genetic combinations of genes from the parents. he new genetic combinations result in variation. ii< 6n$epen$ent assort(ent $'ring (eiosis #uring metaphase I of meiosis, homologous chromosomes arrange themselves randomly at the metaphase plate. he random arrangement and separation of each homologous pair is independent of one another. Independent assortment produces various genetic combinations in the gametes. here are two equal possible arrangements of the chromosomes inherited from the parents. hese variations in the arrangement of the Page | 14

Biology - Sample Essays chromosomes produce gamates with four equally possible combinations of the chromosomes. iii< Ran$o( *erti#isation $ach gamete has a unique set of combination of genes. A male gamete can fertilise any of the female gametes. he fertilisation between a male gamete and a female gamete occurs randomly. As a result, each !ygote is unique. 7ith random fertilisation, variations occur in the offspring. Repro$'ction 66 1or(ation o* 6$entica# .-ins Identical twins are formed when the ball of cells from a fertilised ovum splits into two embryos. Only one sperm and one ovum are involved in the process of fertilisation. he two embryos develop into two separate foetuses in the uterus. $ach foetus has its own umbilical cord but shares the same placenta. 5ince the twins originate from one embryo, they are, therefore, identical in every aspect. hey are born the same sex. 1or(ation o* 1raterna# .-ins "5on!i$entica# .-ins% Araternal twins are formed when two ova are released at the same time, one from each ovary. $ach ovum is then fertilised by a sperm. As a result, two !ygotes are formed and develop into two separate embryos. $ach embryo has its own placenta and umbilical cord. hey are genetically un1identical thus having different physique and may or may not varies in sex. )ia(ese .-ins 5iamese twins are identical twins which did not separate completely during embryonic development. <ormally, 5iamese twins are attached at certain parts of the body such as the head, chest, abdomen or hips. hey may also share some common internal organs. 5iamese twins can be separated surgically and have a greater chance of survival if they do not share ma8or internal organs like the heart, brain or lungs. &e,e#op(ent o* a 4ygote 8 1erti#isation #uring copulation, man e8aculates semen containing about C)) million sperms, into the woman?s vagina. he sperms swim up through the cervix into the uterus. After about -C hours, B))) sperms reach the fallopian tube. %alf of the sperms die. After +) hours, a few hundred sperms complete the 8ourney. Ovulation occurs when a ripe eggF matured ovum bursts from the ovary and is collected by the fallopian tube. 5perms surround the egg. Aertilisation occurs when one sperm penetrates the egg. he sperm?s nucleus fuses with the egg?s nucleus. +) hours after fertilisation, the !ygote divides to form two cells. /ore cell division takes place as the !ygote moves along the Aallopian tube. Arom two cells, it slowly divides into four cells and so on to produce a solid ball of cells called morula. About C days after fertilisation, the embryo, now a hollow ball of about '-, cells 3blastocyst4, arrives in the uterus. It absorbs the nourishment which leaks out of the uterus lining. #uring the monthly cycle, oestrogen and progesterone produced by the ovaries cause the uterus lining to grow and thicken, ready to receive and nourish the embryo. >p to three days after its arrival in the uterus, the embryo sticks to the endometrium. Implantation happens. he embryo sinks into the endometrium and becomes buried by it. Arom the .th week of development until birth, the embryo is called a foetus. After nine months of development inside the uterus, the baby is ready to be born. Page | 15

Biology - Sample Essays

1'nction o* P#acenta 8 6ts A$,antages "lacenta takes over the 8ob of corpus luteum to constantly produce oestrogen and progesterone to maintain the thick, blood1enriched endometrium throughout the pregnancy. he placenta is the site of the exchange of nutrients, respiratory gases and wastes between the foetus and its mother. he placenta is connected to the foetus by the umbilical cord. >mbilical cord is a tube with one umbilical vein and two umbilical arteries. he umbilical arteries carry deoxygenated blood from the foetus to the placenta while the umbilical vein carries oxygenated blood from the placenta to the foetus. <utrients, oxygen, antibodies and hormones are transported through the umbilical vein from the maternal arteriole into the foetus. On the other hand, carbon dioxide and nitrogenous waste products are transported through the umbilical arteries from the foetus into the maternal vein. "lacenta has many functions. It helps to synthesise glycogen, cholesterol and fatty acid. It is also a source of nutrients and energy for the developing embryo. "lacenta not only secretes hormones like oestrogen and progesterone but it also secretes relaxin that can soften the cervix and relaxes the pelvic ligaments in childbirth. It also produces protein hormone that is the human placental lactogen. his hormone prepares the breasts for lactation. "lacenta forms a selective blood barrier that prevents the mixing of maternal and foetal blood. he two bloodstreams are separated by a thin membrane called blood barrier. 7irth Contro# &irth control can be done by various methods. here is the statistical method also known as the rhythm method. his control is natural as it estimates the period of fertility. he period is based on the length of past menstrual cycles. Another method called the barrier method is to wear condom 3male K female4 or diaphragm 3female4. his is done to prevent sexually transmitted diseases 35 #s4. 7ithdrawal method is another method where the penis is taken away from the female vagina right before e8aculation. here are drawbacks for this method as the semen might leak before e8aculation. 5terilisation can be done for both male and female for birth control. Gasectomy is done for male, where sperm duct is cut and tied while tubal ligation is done for female, where the fallopian tube is cut and tied. hese methods can be done by surgery but they are irreversible. Intrauterine device 3I>#4 can be used for birth control. I># is inserted into the uterus so that it interrupts the normal uterine environment and prevents the implantation of !ygote in the endometrium. he 1shaped I># is made up of copper and plastics. Another method known as the hormone method can too be used for birth control. his can be done by taking contraceptive pills orally. hese pills contain a combination of oestrogen 3increases weight4 and progesterone. Ovulation is prevented by inhibiting the secretion of A5% and 0%. his is because a high level of oestrogen and progesterone inhibits the pituitary gland from secreting A5% and 0%. 0astly there is the awareness method. his is done by analysing the temperature of the uterus lining by plotting temperature graphs 3also known as the basal body temperature4. 5exual intercourse in the period where the basal Page | 16

Biology - Sample Essays body temperature is high is prevented as high basal body temperature give a sign that the process of ovulation is happening on that particular day. .echno#ogy in ai$ o* 6n*erti#ity Infertility will not be a problem as the technology improves. his is because there are many methods that can aid infertility in both men and women. Artificial Insemination 3Intro1uterine insemination4 can be used for male that has low sperm count. his is done by collecting the man?s sperm over a period of time so that the sperm count will be high enough for fertilisation. he wife can be inseminated with the husband?s sperms or sperms from the sperm bank. he sperms are in8ected directly into the fallopian tube. 5ometimes, the woman is inseminated with sperms obtained from the sperm bank. A sperm bank is a special laboratory that stores sperms in liquid nitrogen at a temperature of 1'.Bo2. 5perms from the donors are collected, fro!en and kept in a sperm bank. he genetic biodata of each donor are kept meticulously, so that a woman wishing to conceive can use the sperm bank to obtain the sperms she wants. In some cases, another woman can be used as a surrogate mother as some females are unable to give birth or even to get pregnant. he sperms and ova are contributed by the parents. he sperms can also be obtained from a sperm bank and the ova from the surrogate mother. $ither sperms or an embryo is transferred to the uterus of the surrogate mother. he surrogate mother then becomes pregnant and the foetus develops in her uterus until birth. In vitro fertilisation, another method of fertilisation that occurs in a controlled environment of a laboratory outside the human body. his method is used when the fallopian tubes are blocked, thus preventing fertilisation by the sperms. A fine laparoscope is used to remove mature ova from the ovary. he ova are then placed in glassware with culture solution to mature. hen, concentrated sperms from the father are added. he sperms and ova fuse and develop into embryos. After two to four days, when the embryos are selected and inserted into the uterus through the cervix for implantation on the uterine wall. If the procedure is successful, the implantation embryos will develop into a healthy baby or healthy babies. &abies conceived in this method are sometimes called test1tube babies. 2ouples can also use ova from donors. )per(atogenesis 5permatogenesis occurs in the germinal epithelium of the seminiferous tubules. he primodial germ cell in the germinal epithelium cells 3-n4 divides by mitosis to produce spermatogonia 3-n4 3spermatogonium sing.4. One spermatogonium 3-n4 grows in si!e to become a primary spermatocyte 3-n4. $ach primary spermatocyte 3-n4 undergoes meiosis I to produce two secondary spermatocytes. $ach secondary spermatocyte 3n4 completes meiosis II to produce spermatids 3n4. In the process of spermiogenesis, each spermatid differentiates 3matures4 into a spermato!oaFsperm 3spermato!oon sing.4. Oogenesis Oogenesis occurs in the germinal epithelium of the ovary before birth and is regulated by hormones. he primodial germ cell in the germinal epithelium cells 3-n4 divide by mitosis to produce oogonia 3-n4 3oogonium sing.4. he oogonium 3-n4 grows in si!e to become a primary oocyte 3-n4. $ach primary oocyte 3-n4 undergoes meiosis but stops at prophase I of meiosis I. /eiosis resumes at puberty to produce a larger secondary oocyte 3n4 and a smaller first Page | 17

Biology - Sample Essays polar body. he secondary oocyte 3n4 undergoes meiosis II and stops at metaphase II. he first polar body completes meiosis II to form two polar bodies 3n4. At this stage, the secondary oocyte, together with the layers of follicle sells around it, is now called a secondary follicle. he secondary oocyte starts to grow in the follicle. he secondary follicle increases in si!e and matures to form the graafian follicle. At intervals of approximately -, days, the graafian follicle merges with the wall of the ovary. he ovarian wall and the graafian follicle then rupture, releasing the secondary oocyte or egg into the fallopian tube. his process is known as ovulation. If the secondary oocyte is fertilised by a sperm, meiosis II will be completed to form two haploid cells of unequal si!e. he larger cell is ovum while the other is a polar body. he nuclei of the sperm cell and the ovum then fuse to form a diploid !ygote 3-n4. his means a primary oocyte ultimately give rise to a single haploid ovum and three haploid polar bodies. All polar bodies will degenerates. After ovulation, the follicle cells left in the ovary form a corpus luteum. If there is no fertilisation, the corpus luteum will degenerates after a few days. he cycle formation of the graafian follicle, ovulation and the corpus luteum is known as the ovarian cycle. Actions ;o#'ntary Actions o* the )ke#eta# +'sc#es Goluntary actions such as walking and talking are under conscious control. Goluntary control of the skeletal muscles is governed by the cerebral cortex of the cerebrum. he pathway of the transmission in voluntary actions is as follows. 7hen the door bell rings, the receptors in the ear pick up the ringing of the doorbell. he receptors trigger nerve impulses in the afferent neurones. he nerve impulses pass from the afferent neurones to the interneurones in the brain. he brain interprets the nerve impulses from many interneurones that the doorbell is ringing. he brain also decides that the door should be opened. Arom the interneurones, nerve impulses are transmitted to the efferent neurones and then to the muscles. he muscles in the arm carry out the response and open the door. 6n,o#'ntary Actions o* the )ke#eta# +'sc#es= .he Re*#e: Arc Involuntary actions that involve skeletal muscles allow an immediate action that does not require conscious effort. In such circumstances when the responses to stimuli are involuntary, they are called reflexes. A sharp pin pierces the skin causing the sensory receptors in the skin to generate impulses. he nerve impulses are transmitted along an afferent neurone towards the spinal cord. In the spinal cord, the nerve impulses are transmitted from the afferent neurone to an interneurone. Arom the interneurone, the nerve impulses are transmitted to an efferent neurone. he efferent neurone carries the nerve impulses from the spinal cord to the effectors 3muscle tissue4 so that the pin can be pulled out from the skin immediately. )pecia# Case= >nee!?erk "pate##ar re*#e:% Hnee18erk only involves the simplest neural circuit because it involves only two kinds of neurones: the afferent neurone and the efferent neurone. he reflex hammer hits a tendon that connects the quadriceps muscle in the thigh to a bone in the lower leg. As the hammer strikes the knee, the force stretches the quadriceps muscles and stimulates the stretch receptors in the muscles, triggering nerve impulses. Afferent neurones transmit the information to the Page | 18

Biology - Sample Essays efferent neurones in the spinal cord. he efferent neurones transmit this information to the quadriceps muscles, and the muscle contracts, 8erking the leg forward. )ynapses he transmission of information is by no means electrical but chemical in nature. 7hen the nerve impulse reaches the end of the presynaptic end of the neurone, it will stimulate the release of chemicals named neurotransmitters in the synaptic vesicles. he synaptic vesicles then fuse with the cell membrane, releasing the neurotransmitters through exocytosis. he neurotransmitters then cross the synapse where they may be accepted by the next neurone at a specialised site called a receptor. he neurotransmitters then fuse with the receptor thus transmitting the nerve impulse to the next neurone. Gesicles containing the neurotransmitters are only in the presynaptic end and the receptors are only on the postsynaptic end, therefore the synapse ensures that the flow of impulses in one direction only. &iseases Re#ate$ to 5er,o's )yste( i< A#@hei(erAs &isease <eurological disease characterised by increasing loss of memory and intellectual ability. It is associated with the shrinkage of brain tissues and lack of neurotransmitters such as acetylcholine. Al!heimer usually affects elderly. "atient with it will show loss of intelligence, loss of memory, mild confusion and poor concentration. his disease can be inherited. ii< ParkinsonAs &isease "arkinson?s disease is a chronic disease of the nervous system. It causes tremors and weakness of the muscles. his is due to the reduced level of neurotransmitters called dopamine in the brain. In some cases, the disease is caused by the hardening of the cerebral arteries. his causes muscles not functioning smoothly and becomes stiff and 8erky in their actions. his disease affects elderly but is not a heredity disease. 0evodopa is administered in the treatment of this disease. Hor(one i(ba#ance$ i< 9ro-th Hor(one Over secretion of the growth hormone during childhood results in gigantism, a condition characterised by an abnormal increase in the length of bones. he person grows to be abnormally tall. Over secretion during adulthood results in acromegaly, a condition in which the bones, hands, feet, cheeks and 8aws thicken, and other tissue enlarges. >nder secretion during growing years retards bone growth, resulting in a condition known as dwarfism. he organs of the person often fail to grow and the si!e of the body is like that of a child. oday, genetically engineered growth hormones can be given to children with the deficiency in growth hormone and successfully induce growth, allowing the children to attain normal height. ii< .hyro:ine Over secretion causes an increase in the metabolic rate of the body. 2ommon symptoms include excessive sweating, heat intolerance, increased bowel movements, nervousness, rapid heart rate and weight loss. 5ometimes, the thyroid gland can grow and enlarges two or three times its normal si!e, a condition known as goitre. One causes of goitre is iodine deficiency. In this situation, the thyroid gland cannot synthesise Page | 19

Biology - Sample Essays and release enough thyroxine 3throxine contains iodine4. As a result, it enlarges in response to excess stimulation from the pituitary gland. >nder secretion during childhood can cause severe mental retardation, a condition known as cretinism. In adulthood, it causes myxedema. A person with myxedema has a slow heart rate, low body temperature, high sensitivity to cold, general lethargy and a tendency to gain weight easily. A lack of iodine in the diet also reduces the production of thyroxine. iii< 6ns'#in Over secretion of insulin can lead to hypoglycaemia, an abnormally low level of glucose in the blood. 5ome of the symptoms of hypoglycaemia are fatigue, insomnia, mental confusion, nervousness, mood swings, fainting spells and headache. 5evere hypoglycaemia can lead to convulsions and unconsciousness. >nder secretion of insulin can lead to diabetes mellitus. #iabetes mellitus is a chronic condition associated with abnormally high levels of sugar 3glucose4 in the blood. "eople with diabetes either do not produce enough insulin or cannot use the insulin that their body produce. As a result, glucose builds up in the bloodstream. A person with diabetes mellitus experiences an increase in frequency of urination, excessive thirst, numbness or burning sensation in the feet, ankles and legs, blurred or poor vision, fatigue, and slow healing of wounds. 0arge quantities of human insulin are now produced by genetically engineered bacteria. "atients are usually in8ected with this commercially prepared insulin. iv. Anti$i'retic hor(one "A&H% Over secretion of A#% can results in high retention of water in the body. >nder secretion of A#% can result in a disorder known as diabetes insipidus. As a result, the person excretes a large amount of urine. "eople with diabetes insipidus are thirsty all the time. hey often want to drink liquids frequently. his is because so much water is lost in the urine= the person may die of dehydration if deprived of water for even a day. >i$ney 8 6ts 1'nction + the 1or(ation o* Brine Hidney is situated in the dorsal wall of the abdomen. It has three main parts that are the outer cortex, inner medulla and the pelvis. $ach kidney consists of numerous tubular units that are called nephrons. Hidney is needed to remove toxic waste products from our body. Hidney involved in the osmoregulation to keep the osmotic concentration of the blood constant by removing excess water and salts. It regulates the p% of the blood by controlling the removal of hydrogen ions. It also controls the blood volume. he formation of urine depends on the nephrones through three processes: i< B#tra *i#tration he afferent arteriole which has a bigger diameter than that of the efferent arteriole sends blood to the glomerulus. he blood is now under relatively high pressure and ultra filtration takes place in the &owman?s capsule. he filtrate which filters into the &owman?s capsule consists of small molecules, water, glucose, amino acids, urea and mineral salts. he filtrate does not contain blood cells or plasma proteins. hese components remain in the glomerular capillaries as they are too large. he filtrate then Page | 20

Biology - Sample Essays goes down the proximal convoluted tubule for reabsorption. ii< Reabsorption :eabsorption takes place in the proximal convoluted tubule, loop of %enle, distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct. At the proximal convoluted tubule, about B(D of the water in the glomerular filtrate 3water, urea, glucose, amino acids and salts such as sodium ions4 is absorbed back into the surrounding blood capillaries by osmosis. All the glucose, amino acids, vitamins and some salts are reabsorbed by active transport. >rea is not reabsorbed. As the filtrate 3water, salt and urea4 passes along the loop of %enle, about -)D of the water and some salts are reabsorbed into the blood capillaries. At the distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct, the amount of water and salts that are reabsorbed into the blood capillaries depends on the content of water and salt in the blood. :eabsorption of water and salts is regulated by the endocrine system. iii< )ecretion 5ecretion takes place in the distal convoluted tubule. Along the tubule, waste products such as urea, uric acid and ammonia are pumped out of the blood capillaries into the distal convoluted tubule by active transport. his process is called secretion. 5ome drugs and toxic substances are secreted by simple diffusion. he final glomerular filtrate which remains in the collecting duct is called urine 3.BD of water, -.(D nitrogenous products such as urea, uric acid, ammonia and cretinine, '.(D salts and other trace elements such as bile pigments4. Arom the collecting ducts, urine is channelled into the pelvis and carried out of the kidney by the ureter to the urinary bladder before it is excreted through the urethra. Ho(eostasis %omeostasis is the regulation of the physical and chemical factors in the internal environment to maintain a constant internal environment. Os(oreg'#ation Osmoregulation is the regulation of salt and water balance in the body to maintain the blood osmotic pressure. It is controlled by two hormones mainly Antidiuretic %ormone 3A#%4 and aldosterone. 7hen the osmotic pressure increases, it is detected by the osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus. <erve impulses are sent to the pituitary gland so that more A#% and less aldosterone is secreted. his causes the distal convoluted tubule to become more permeable to water and impermeable to salt. /ore water and less salt then moves into the distal convoluted tubule through diffusion. he osmotic pressure declines back to normal. 7hen the osmotic pressure decreases, it is detected by the osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus. <erve impulses are sent to the pituitary gland so that more aldosterone and less A#% is secreted. his causes the distal convoluted tubule to become more permeable to salt and impermeable to water. 0ess water and more salt then moves into the distal convoluted tubule through diffusion. he osmotic pressure increases back to normal.

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Biology - Sample Essays

9#'coreg'#ation he normal blood glucose level is .)mg in '))cm+ of blood. 7hen the blood glucose level increases, the change is detected by the L1cells of the Islets of 0ongerhans. his stimulates the pancreas to secrete insulin. ;lucose is converted into glycogen for temporal storage. ;lycogen is converted into lipid to be stored under the adipose tissues. "art of the glucose is used as the respiration of glucose increases. he blood glucose level declines back to normal. 7hen the blood glucose level decreases, the change is detected by the M1cells of the Islets of 0ongerhans. his stimulates the pancreas to secrete glucagon. 0ipid is converted back to glycogen while glycogen is converted back to glucose. he blood glucose level rises back to normal. .her(oreg'#ation hermoregulation is the regulation of body temperature. 7hen the body temperature increases to a value higher than +Eo2, it is detected by the thermoreceptors in the hypothalamus. <erve impulses are sent to the hypothalamus. he hair erector muscles relax to lower the hair so that no air is trap on the surface of the skin. 5weat gland is activated to produce sweat. his is to allow heat loss by means of evaporation. /uscle activities are also reduced to minimise heat production. Gasodilation occurs when smooth muscles of blood capillaries dilate so that more heat can be released through radiation. Adrenal gland secretes less adrenaline while thyroid gland secretes less thyroxine to lower down the rate of metabolism. he body temperature declines back to normal. 7hen the body temperature decreases, it is detected by the thermoreceptors in the hypothalamus. <erve impulses are sent to the hypothalamus. he hair erector muscles contract to raise hair so that more heat is trapped on the skin surface. 5weat gland is inactive to stop sweat so no heat loss via evaporation. Goluntary muscular activity is increased such as rubbing the hands to keep warm while involuntary muscles contract and relax frequently leading to shivering to produce heat. Gasoconstriction occurs when smooth muscles of the blood capillaries constrict to lower down heat loss. Adrenal gland secretes more adrenaline while thyroid gland secretes more thyroxine to increase the rate of metabolism. he body temperature rises back to normal. A':in 8 6ts 2**ects on the 9ro-th o* P#ants "lants hormones are organic compounds that act as messengers that promote or inhibit plant growth and development. 5ome examples of it are auxin, gibberellins, cytokinin, abscisic acid and ethylene 3a gas4. Auxin stimulates cell tropism. Auxins are continuously produced by the meristematic cells of the shoot tip. It is then transported to the shoot via the phloem. herefore, they are highest in concentration in the shoot tip and lowest at the root tip. he concentration of auxins in the shoot tip and the root tip affects growth. %igh concentration of auxin in shoot promotes elongation of cells. %ence the lower side of the shoot with a higher concentration of auxins will grow faster than the upper side. As a result, the shoot curves upwards, showing negative geotropism. A high concentration of auxins inhibits the elongation of cells in the Page | 22

Biology - Sample Essays root. he upper side of the root grows faster than the lower side. he young root curves and grows downwards, showing positive geotropism. Auxins move away from the light, accumulate in the shaded side. Loco(otion Antagonistic +'sc#es Antagonistic muscles are a pair of muscles which work together to allow coordinated movements of the skeletal 8oints. his means that when one muscle contracts, the other relaxes. 7en$ing 8 )traightening o* the Ar( 7hen the biceps contract, the triceps relaxes. he biceps becomes shorter and thicker while the triceps becomes longer and thinner. his exerts a pulling force transmitted to the radius through the tendons. As a result, the radius is pulled upward and the arm is bended. he elastic ligaments that held the radius, ulna and the humerus together enable the radius and ulna to be pulled upward, bending the arms from the elbow. 7hen the triceps contract, the biceps relaxes. <ow, the triceps becomes shorter and thicker while the biceps becomes longer and thinner. he triceps that contracts exert a pulling force on the ulna through its tendon. he ulna and radius, which are 8ointed to the humerus by the elastic ligaments, is pulled together downwards, causing the arm to straighten. Ca#king he calf muscle contracts and raises the heel. In doing so, it exerts a forward thrust by pushing the ball of the foot against the ground. he hamstring muscle contracts to pull the femur back and bends the knee. he leg is raised. As the right foot loses contact with the ground, the weight of the body is now supported by the left leg which is still in contact with the ground. <ext, the quadriceps muscle contracts, pulls the femur forward and extends the leg. 7hen the extension of the leg is completed, the foot then regains contact with the ground with the heel touching the ground first. he weight of the body is now supported on the right leg. he whole sequence is repeated with the left leg. Cor( he movement of earthworm is carried out by a series of contraction and relaxation of both the circular and longitudinal muscles of its body. 7hen the circular muscle at the anterior contracts, the longitudinal muscles relaxes. he body becomes thinner and lengthens. he body fluid is pushed to the posterior part of the body. 7hen the longitudinal muscle at the anterior contracts and the circular muscle relax, the body flatten and shortens. he body fluid will be pushed to the front part by hydrostatic pressure and the posterior will be pulled forward. $ach segment has chaetae which help to anchor the worm during locomotion and pull itself forward. he antagonistic muscles working in opposite directions produce hydrostatic pressure of the body fluid. hus, creating peristalsis wave. 1ish he movement of tail is caused by the contraction and relaxation of the myotome muscles on both side of the body. he contraction of the muscle on the right side will pull the tail to the right whereas the contraction of the muscles on the left side will pull the tail to the left. he continuous movement of the tail from left to the right will create a push for the fish to move forward. he function Page | 23

Biology - Sample Essays of the fins help in controlling the direction as well as the stability of fish in the water. 7ir$ he antagonistic actions of the strong muscles enable the bird to flap its wings up and down. 7hen the pectorial ma8or 3in4 contracts and the pectorial minor 3out4 relax, the wings flapped downwards. 7hen the pectorial minor 3out4 contracts and the pectorial ma8or 3in4 relaxes, the wings goes up. 9rasshopper 8 1rog ;rasshopper has strong muscular hind legs that are the flexor 3in4 and the extensor 3out4 muscle to enable them to 8ump. A flexor muscle controls forward leg movement while the extensor controls the backward movement. &efore 8umping, the hind leg is folded in the shape of alphabet N, the flexor muscle contracts while the extensor relaxes. 7hen the extensor muscle contracts and the flexor muscle relax, the hind leg will straighten quickly resulting in a lift and the grasshopper 8umps forward and upward. o land, the forelegs are extended forward to absorb the landing shock. he hind legs are then folded again. Aor walking, the grasshopper uses three legs to move while the other three labelled @ are used to support the body. Arog has locomotion almost identical to grasshopper. It also has long, big and strong muscular hind legs. he contraction of the femur muscles result in straightening of the leg quickly. he feet push the ground causing the frog to 8ump upward and outward. #uring landing, the front legs are extended first to absorb the landing shock. At the same time, the hind legs are folded again into its N shape. Respiration 66 1ish 7hen a fish inhales, its mouth opens and the buccal cavity is lowered. As this occurs, the operculum closes and the opercular cavity becomes bigger. his resulted into a lower pressure in the buccal cavity. 7ater is then drowned into its mouth along with dissolved oxygen. 7hen a fish exhales, its mouth closes, raising the floor of the buccal cavity. A water flows through the lamellae, respiratory gases are exchanged between blood capillaries and water. As this occurs, the opercular cavity becomes smaller. he high pressure in the buccal cavity forces the operculum to open allowing water to flow out. 9rasshopper Insects inhale and exhale through the rhythmic contraction and expansion of their abdominal muscles. he body movements and the contractions of the abdominal muscles speed up the rate of diffusion of gases from the tracheae into the body cells. 7hen an insect inhales, the abdominal muscles relax and the spiracles open. Air pressure inside the tracheae decreases and air is drawn in. 7hen an insect exhales, the abdominal muscles contract. he increased air pressure forces air out through the spiracles. he spiracle system with its network of small tubes allows oxygen to be absorbed directly from the atmosphere into the body cells. herefore, there is no circulatory system in insects.

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Biology - Sample Essays

1rog 7hen a frog inhales, it breathes in through its nostrils. he bucco1pharyngeal floor is lowered and fresh air is drawn in. At the same time, its glottis closes and stae air remains in the lungs. Afterwards, the glottis will open. Its nostrils are then closed and the bucco1pharyngeal floor is raised. his causes high air pressure which forces air into its lungs thus, expanding them. 7hen a frog exhales, its lung muscles contract, expelling air from its lungs. A frog does this by the abdominal pressure and elasticity of the lungs. 5ome of the 9Ailling in air: nostrils open, glottis closed, floor of the mouth lowers 9Aorce air in: nostrils closed, glottis open, floor of the mouth rises 9$xpiration: nostrils open, glottis open, lung contracts

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