MACHINED COMPONENTS
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MACHINED COMPONENTS
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CHAPTER 4.1
FIGURE 4.1.1
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Grinding operations including honing and lapping exhibit the same basic interaction between workpiece and cutter. However, the cutter in such abrasive-machining operations is an abrasive particle, which may be very small. The shape of the abrasive particle also may vary considerably from that of the metal-cutting tool shown in Fig. 4.1.1.
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DESIGNING FOR MACHINING: GENERAL GUIDELINES DESIGNING FOR MACHINING TABLE 4.1.1 Effects of Material Properties Probable effect of decrease in material factor on Material factor Strength/hardness Ductilityc Strain hardenabilityb Coefficient of frictiond Heat conductivitye Heat capacitye Chemical reactivityf Grain size Abrasive insolubles Free-machining additions
a b
4.5
Machinabilitya Improves Improves Improves Improves None None None Improves Improves Decreases
Finishability None Improves Improves Improves None None Improves Improves Improves Decreases
Tool life Improves Improves Improves Improves Reduces Reduces Improves Reduces Improves Decreases
Machinability refers to ease of chip removal. Tensile strength and hardness are the simplest, but not always reliable, guides to machinability. High-temperature alloys, for example, are difficult to machine in spite of their low room-temperature hardness and strengths. High strain hardenability and reactiveness to tool materials are the reasons. c While lower ductility seems to help machining, inadequate ductility (like that of molybdenum and tungsten) can cause spalling at exit cuts or on clamped edges. d Low frictional resistance is desirable; hence the use of cutting fluids is recommended. e Low heat conductivity (especially if combined with low heat capacity, as in titanium) contributes to high tool temperature and local high workpiece temperature. f Chemical reactivity of certain metals (such as titanium) can cause galling, smearing, and welding of machined metal to the tool. Source: Machine Design.
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FIGURE 4.1.2 Avoid tolerances that necessitate machining operations if the as-cast, asforged, or as-formed dimensions and surface finishes would be satisfactory for the parts function.
FIGURE 4.1.3 Use stock dimensions whenever possible, and minimize the amount of machining.
7. Design the part to be rigid enough to withstand the forces of clamping and machining without distortion. The forces exerted by a cutter against a workpiece can be severe, as can the clamping forces necessary to hold the workpiece securely. Parts that may be troublesome in this respect are those with thin walls, thin webs, or deep pockets and deep holes that require machining. Also design the part
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FIGURE 4.1.4 Design the part to be rigid enough so that it will withstand cutting and clamping forces without significant deflection and so that cutting tools and toolholders also do not deflect.
8. 9. 10. 11.
12. 13.
14.
so that a rigid cutter can be employed while still permitting access to the surface. (Figure 4.1.4 illustrates this point. See also Fig. 4.4.8.) Avoid tapers and contours as much as possible in favor of rectangular shapes, which permit simple tooling and setups. Reduce the number and the size of shoulders because they usually require extra operational steps and additional material. Avoid undercuts, if possible, because they usually involve separate operations of specially ground tools. (See Fig. 4.1.5.) Consider the possibility of substituting a stamping for the machined component. If tooling is available, or if quantities are sufficient to amortize the tooling cost, a stamped-sheet-metal part invariably will be lower in cost than one made by machining, provided of course that the dimensional accuracy and surface finish are adequate for the components function. (Figure 4.1.6 illustrates one such example.) Avoid the use of hardened or difficult-to-machine materials unless their special functional properties are essential for the part being machined. For thin, flat pieces that require surface machining, allow sufficient stock for both rough and finish machining. In some cases, stress relieving between rough and finish cuts also may be advisable. Rough and finish machining on both sides is sometimes necessary. Allow about 0.4 mm (0.015 in) stock for finish machining. It is preferable to put machined surfaces in the same plane or, if they are cylindrical, with the same diameter to reduce the number of operations required. When surfaces cannot be in the same plane, they should be located, if possible, so that they all can be machined from one side or from the same setup.
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FIGURE 4.1.5 Avoid undercuts as much as possible because they require extra machining operations, which may be costly.
FIGURE 4.1.6 Stampings are often less costly than machined castings.
15. Provide access room for cutters, bushings, and fixture elements. 16. Design workpieces so that standard cutters can be used instead of cutters that must be ground to a special form. (See Fig. 4.1.7.) 17. Avoid having parting lines or draft surfaces serve as clamping or locating surfaces. Provide alternative clamping and locating surfaces if possible.
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FIGURE 4.1.7
18. Avoid projections, shoulders, etc., which interfere with the overrun of a cutter. Instead, provide clearance space at the end of the cut. The space can be cast or formed to minimize machining. This also can provide a noncritical space for burrs. 19. Burr formation is an inherent result of machining operations. The designer should expect burrs, provide relief space for them, if possible, and furnish means for easy burr removal. (See Chap. 4.23.)
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