PREPARED BY: ENG.

YASSER HAMMAD MOHAMED EGYPTIAN NAVY NDT LEVEL III

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VISUAL AND DIMENSIONAL INSPECTION 1- DEFINITION: Visual testing or inspection can be defined as Evaluation of an Item or Thing for Form, Fit, And Function (FFF). THE PURPOSE OF VT Technique error Inadvertent error Conscious error 2- FUNDAMENTALS:A. Vision: The eye. Vision limitation. Color perception. Vision examination requirements. Good vision is prerequisite to visual and dimensional inspection. Any required corrective aids (prescription glasses or contact lenses) must be used during inspection.

When evaluations are made by an inspector, eye examinations must be done at regular intervals to assure accuracy and sensitivity. These examinations may consist of the following: Near Vision (Jaeger) Far Vision (Snellen) Color Differentiation When using machine vision, different but similar performance checks must be performed

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B. Lighting: Fundamental of light. Lighting measurements. Recommended lighting level. Lighting techniques for inspection. The inspection area must be adequately illuminated for proper evaluation. Effective visual inspection requires adequate lighting. The type of inspection will dictate the lighting requirements. Inspection of components with fine detail and low contrast will require greater illumination than components with large details and high contrast. Light intensity may be measured with a suitable light meter. The unit of measure for white light is foot-candles (fc). A foot-candle is equal to the amount of direct light thrown by one standard candle at a distance of 1 foot. Inspection of components with fine detail and low contrast may require 100 footcandles or more. The directionality of the light is a very important consideration. For some applications, flat, even lighting works well. For other applications, directional lighting is better because it produces shadows that are larger than the actual flaw and easier to detect.

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C. Materials attributes: Cleanliness. Color. Condition. Shape. Size. Temperature. Type. Use any available material that may assist in evaluation such as modeling clay, molding material, metalographic section, acid spot tests, etc. D. Visual perception: What your eye sees. What your mind sees. What others perceive. What the designer, engineer, etc. wants to see. Conditions, which affects ones visual perception, must be considered, such as magnification, direction of lighting, contrasting color, etc. E. Direct and indirect methods: Direct magnified and unmagnified. Indirect borescope, fiberscopes. F. Origination of discontinuities: There are different ways to classify discontinuities; particularly in relation to their origin and description in this learning module the following classifications will be used. Inherent Discontinuities. Primary Processing Discontinuities. Secondary Processing Discontinuities. Service Discontinuities. INHERENT DISCONTINUITIES: Inherent discontinuities are those discontinuities that are associated with the solidification of metal in the metal making process (made during making ok raw material). PRIMARY PROCESSING DISCONTINUITIES: Primary processing discontinuities are those discontinuities that are associated with primary shaping and forming processes such as rolling, drawing, forging and casting.

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 SECONDARY PROCESSING DISCONTINUITIES: Secondary processing discontinuities are those discontinuities that are associated with final finishing operation of the material, such as the various machining operations, thermal treatments, plating, and welding. SERVICE DISCONTINUITIES:Service discontinuities are those discontinuities that are associated with actual service conditions. Fatigue cracking, corrosion, and erosion are the most common types of service discontinuities. - Three types of service induced discontinuities are: Corrosion. General corrosion (large area like rust). Stress (due to corrosive atmosphere). Galvanic corrosion (change in polarity due to contact between two material). Intergranular corrosion (corrosion around grain boundaries. Crevice corrosion (lack of oxygen during overlap). Pitting corrosion. Leaching corrosion ( attacking certain element to material) Erosion. Cracks. G. Environmental and Physiological factors: 1. Atmosphere. 2. Cleanliness. 3. Comfort. 4. Distance. 5. Elevation. 6. Fatigue. 7. Health. 8. Humidity. 9. Mental Attitude. 10. Position. 11. Safety. 12. Temperature. Care must be taken regarding the evaluation environmental .The effect of wind, heat, cold, humidity, etc. must be taken into account for proper evaluation.

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3- Equipment: a. Mirrors and flashlight. b. Magnifiers. c. Borescopes. d. Fiberscope. e. Light sources and special lighting. f. Gages, templates, scales, micrometers, calipers, special tools, etc. 4- Applications: Detection of surface anomalies such as scratches, excess surface roughness, and areas void of paint or plating. Crack, porosity, corrosion or other flaw detection. Dimensional conformance. Precision measurements. Foreign object detection. Component location. a. Components: Surface finish. Dimensions. Clearances. b. Base materials: Material type. Surface finish. Joint design. Marking. c. Welds: Type, socket, fillet, butt, consumable insert, backing ring, weld size. 5- Visual test specific procedure requirements: Activity visual inspection procedure. Acceptance criteria. Reporting

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VISUAL INSPECTION DEFINITIONS Reference: 1. ASME Metals Handbook 2. ASTM Standard E1316, "Standard Terminology for Nondestructive Examinations" DEFINITIONS: 1. Defect: A condition, of whatever kind, that renders a part that renders a part unsuitable for its intended service, indications do not meet specified acceptance criteria. 2. Discontinuity: An interruption, which may be either intentional or unintentional in the physical structure or configuration of a part. 3. Acceptance Standard: Criteria utilized as a basis for acceptance/rejection of an item by comparison of the inspection results with the established criteria for the particular item. 4. Ammonium Persulphate Solution Etch: A chemical technique employed for studying a cross-section of a weld that reveals the pattern made by the weld metal and the heat-affected zone in the base metal. This technique is used to reveal any heat-affected zone remaining after an arc strike removal process. 5. Arc Strike: Any localized heat-affected zone or change in the contour of the surface of the finished weld or adjacent base metal resulting from an arc or heat generated by the passage of electrical energy between the surface of the finished weld or base metal and a current source, such as welding electrodes, magnetic particle inspection prods, etc. 6. Burn-Through: A void or open hole extending into a backing ring or strip, fused root or adjacent base metal. 7. Cold Shut: A portion of the surface of a casting that is separated, in part, from the main body of metal by oxide. 8. Crack or Tear: A linear rupture of metal under stress. 9. Crater Pit: An approximately circular surface condition extending into the weld in an irregular manner, such as from the inside diameter surface of a fused root insert. 10. Craze Crack: Minute checks on the surface of a casting.

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11. Erosion: Destruction of the metals or other materials by abrasive action of moving fluids, usually accelerated by the presence of solid particles or matter in suspension. 12. Evaluation: The comparison of the inspection results with the acceptance standards to determine acceptance/rejection of an item. 13. False Indication: Any patch or pattern of magnetic particles not caused or held in place by a leakage field of any kind. 14. Foot Candles: A measure, with proper instrumentation, of the light intensity at the test surface. 15. Incomplete Insert Melting: Incomplete melting of the consumable insert either with or without fusion and bonding to the base metal along one or both sides of the consumable insert. 16. Incomplete Fusion : Lack of complete fusion of some portion of the metal in a weld joint with adjacent metal. The adjacent metal may be either base metal or previously deposited weld metal. 17. Indication: The visible result of a condition that requires interpretation to determine its significance. 18. Interpretation: The determination of whether indications are relevant or Nonrelevant. 19. Lamination: Discontinuities in plate, sheet or strip caused by pipe, inclusions or blow holes in the original ingot, after rolling, they are usually flat and parallel to the outside surfaces. 20. Lap: A surface discontinuity, appearing as a seam, caused by folding over of hot metal, fins or sharp corners and then rolling forging them into the surface. 21. Line of Fusion: A line parallel to the direction of welding between the base metal and the weld, or between welds beads. 22. Linear Indication: An indication that is greater than 1/16 inch long, whose length is equal to or greater than three times its width. 23. Machining Cracks: Cracks resulting from undue residual stresses during machining.

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24. Melt Through: A convex or concave irregularity on the surface of a backing ring or strip, fused root or adjacent base metal resulting from fusion completely through a localized region but without development of a void or open hole. 25. Nondestructive Testing (NDT): The development and application of technical methods to examine materials or Components in ways that do not impair future usefulness and serviceability in order to detect, locate, measure and evaluate discontinuities, defects, and other imperfections. 26. Nonrelevant Indication: An NDT indication that is caused by a condition or type of discontinuity that is not rejectable. False indications are also Nonrelevant. 27. Overlap (Roll Over): Results from excessive welding heat, particularly on horizontal welds when the molten metal can sag and roll over. 28. Oxidation: A condition resulting from partial or complete lack of inert gas shielding of a surface that is heated during welding allowing the formation of oxide on the surface. This condition may range from a slight oxidation through the formation of tightly adhering black film to the extreme of a rough surface having a crystalline appearance. 29. Peening: A process of stress relieving deposited weld metal with a pneumatic chisel with a blunt, rounded nose. When properly applied peening causes a plastic flow of the deposited metal and subsequently relieves the restraint that causes Residual stress. 30. Pitting: The forming of small sharp cavities in a metal surface by corrosion. 31. Porosity: Gas pockets or voids in a weld or casting. 32. Re-entrant Angle: The angle formed between the base metal and the weld at the weld edge. 33. Relevant Indication: An NDT indication that is caused by a condition or type of discontinuity that requires evaluation. 34. RMS (Root Mean Square): A measurable means to determine surface roughness. 35. Root: The bottom of a weld joint where two base metals are closest together and where the weld will be first deposited.
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36. Root Pass: The first pass of filler metal welded into the root. In the case of a consumable insert, the fused insert is the root pass. 37. Root Surface Concavity: A depression on the root surface of a weld, which may be due to gravity, internal purge or shrinkage. 38. Root Surface Convexity: Reinforcement on the root surface of a weld. 39. Root Surface Centerline Crease or Shrinkage: An intermittent or continuous peripheral centerline concavity formed on the root of the weld. 40. Root Undercut: A groove on the internal surface of a base metal or on a backing ring or strip along the edge of the root weld. 41. Rounded or Non-Linear Indications: Indications whose length is less than three times its width. 42. Seam: Longitudinal surface discontinuity on stock originating from a surface crack or blowhole near the surface of the ingot, which when drawn out during rolling follows the direction of rolling. 43. Slag: Non-metallic solid material entrapped between weld beads or between weld beads and the base metal or in castings. 44. Stringer: Elongated oxide or sulfide inclusion in steel aligned in the direction of working. 45. Undercut: A groove melted into the base metal at the toe of the weld and left unfilled by weld metal. 46. Weld Spatter: Material particles which are deposited on the surface of the weld or adjacent base metal during welding and which do not form part of the weld.

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TYPE OF INHERENT DISCONTINUITIES a. INCLUSION: Inclusion are non-metallic impurities such as slag, oxide, sulphides, etc. Which are present in the original ingot. In the rolling of billets, bar stock and sheet materials these impurities are rolled out lengthwise to form long stringers. In forging, these inclusions in the finished product are generally referred to as non metallic inclusions or stringers. Figure 1 shows how inclusions are formed in the finished material and figure 2 shows inclusions in bar stock.

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b. LAMINATIONS: Laminations are that discontinuities found in plate or strip stock and are a result of gas inclusions or pipe in the original ingot. Laminations are generally an internal discontinuity except when edges of plates are cut or machined in such way to expose the lamination. Laminations will generally be parallel to the plate surface and are intergranular in nature if examined microscopically. Fig 3 shows how laminations are formed.

Lamination

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Plate Lamination c. PIPE: Pipe is similar in rolled plat except pipe is found in rolled bars . This condition is caused by internal shrink or cavities in the center of the ingot formed during solidification which becomes elongated in the rolling operations.

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d. SEAMS: Seams are surface discontinuities found in rolled bars and plate. They are caused by the compressing and elongating of cracks or tears on the surface of the ingot during the rolling operation. Seams are generally long, straight and parallel to the longitudinal axis. These discontinuities are developed in the original forming of the material into its final shape such as rolling, forging, and casting.

Cluster Seams on Surface of Semi-Finished Rolled Product

Deep Seam on Surface of Semi-Finished Rolled Product

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TYPE OF PRIMARY PROCESSING DISCONTINUITIES 1. ROLLING DISCONTINUITIES: A- SEAMS: Improper rolling practices sometimes caused surface cracks or tears that were not present in the ingot. During the rolling operation these surface discontinuities are compressed and elongated in the direction of the rolling. These seams have an appearance similar to those described under inherent discontinuities and are always open to the surface.

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B- LAPS:These are similar to seams and may result from improper rolling practice. In working down the billet into bar, comers may be folded over and form a lap, or similar fines of metal forced out between the rolls may be flattened into the bar forming a lap.

Lap on Surface of Rolled Steel Billet 2. FORGING DISCONTINUITIES: A. Laps B. Burst. C. Flakes. D. Oxide Inclusion. E. Parting line crack. 3. PIERCING (SEAMLESS TUBING): The word seamless means tubing that is made without any welds.

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TYPE OF SECONDARY PROCESSING DISCONTINUITIES 1. MACHINING TEARS.

2. HEAT TREATING CRACKS. During heat treatment operation

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3. QUENCH CRACKS.

4. GRINDING CRACKS.

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5. FORMING CRACKS. Sudden change in thickness in keyway (stress cracks)

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TYPE OF SERVICE DISCONTINUITIES Corrosion. General corrosion (large area like rust). Stress (due to corrosive atmosphere). Galvanic corrosion (change in polarity due to contact between two material). Intergranular corrosion (corrosion around grain boundaries. Crevice corrosion (lack of oxygen during overlap). Pitting corrosion. Leaching corrosion ( attacking certain element to material) Erosion. Cracks.

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WELD DISCONTINUITIES This section will introduce you to the discontinuities commonly found in arc welds. Some discontinuities are common to several weld processes wile other discontinuities may be peculiar to a specific weld process. It must also be noted that although a particular discontinuity may be common to several weld processes. Its size , shape, and appearance may vary with the welding process. DISCONTINUITY CLASSIFICATION:Weld Discontinuities discussed in this module will be classified in 4 general classes each of which may be divided into several sub-divisions as indicated below: 1. Dimensional Discontinuities: a. Weld size. b. Weld profile. c. Distortion/warpage. 2. Structural Discontinuities: a. Cracks. b. Inadequate penetration. c. Incomplete fusion. d. Porosity. e. Slag inclusion. f. Tungsten inclusion. g. Undercut. h. Burn through. i. Weld spatter. j. Arc strike. k. Oxidation. 3. Weld metal properties: a. Chemical properties. b. Mechanical properties. 4. Base metal Discontinuities: a. Laminations. b. Lamellar tears

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1. DIMENSIONAL DISCONTINUITIES Data relating to weld size and finished dimension would normally be included on the drawings or in specifications. Weld size is determined by actual measurement by using gages or by comparison with workmanship standard samples. a. Weld size: 1. GROOVE WELD: The size of the groove weld is measured by the depth of the effective throat. The effective throat is the shortest distance from the root of the weld to the face of the weld, minus any reinforcement. If both members are of the same thickness, then the effective throat is equal to the base metal thickness. If the base members are not the same thickness, then the effective throat is equal to the thickness of the thinnest members. Included angle Angle of Bevel

Included angle

Root Radius

Root Face R oot G a p Single-V Butt R oot G a p Single-U Butt

Root Face

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Bevel angle

Root Face Root gap Typical Dimensions Bevel angle 30 to 35 Root face ~1.5 to ~2.5mm Root gap ~2 to ~4mm 2. Fillet weld: The size of a fillet weld is indicated by the length of the shortest leg. The leg is the distance from the root of the joint to the weld toe. The effective size of a fillet weld is the leg of the largest isosceles right triangle that can be inscribed within the weld. For convex and flat fillet welds the effective size is equal to the leg size, but for convex fillet welds it is less than the actual leg length.

Fillet weld

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b. Grove Weld Profile:The profile of the groove weld relates to the alignment, reinforcement, and contour .Profile discontinuities associated with groove welds include. 1. EXCESSIVE REINFORCEMENT: Excessive face reinforcement is extra weld metal deposited, forming a highly convex contour of deposited in the root and is more common in weld joints designed with root opening. Excessive reinforcement is undesirable because rather than reinforce the weld it tends to stiffen the material section and establish notches that create stress risers.

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2. EXCESSIVE ROOT CONCAVITY:Excessive face reinforcement is extra weld metal deposited, forming a highly convex contour of deposited in the root and is more common in weld joints designed with root opening. Excessive reinforcement is undesirable because rather than reinforce the weld it tends to stiffen the material section and establish notches that create stress risers.

Concave root

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Concave root

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3. INCOMPLETE PENETRATION:Incomplete or inadequate penetration is the failure of the weld metal to completely or adequately penetrate the root.

Lack of root penetration

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4. MISALIGNMENT:Misalignment, or in the case or piping (Hi-LOW) is the condition where the base members are not fit-up evenly. Linear misalignment is measured from the lowest plate to the highest point.

Plate/pipe Linear Misalignment (Hi-Lo)

Angular misalignment is measured in degrees Angular Misalignment

Linear Misalignment

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5. OVERLAP:Overlap or cold lap is the condition where is a protrusion of weld metal beyond the toe, face, centration of stress when the weld is placed under load in service. Toe Overlap

Toe Overlap

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6. UNDERCUT:Undercut is a surface condition where the base metal is melted at the junction of the weld and base metal. Undercut may occur at either the face or root sides of the weld and appears as a groove or as pockets melted into the base metal adjacent to the toe of the weld.

Intermittent Cap Undercut

This condition, if excessive, may seriously affect the fatigue life of the weld.

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Root undercut

Cap undercut

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7. UNDERFILL:Under fill is a depression on either the face or root side of the weld causing the weld surface to be below the surface of the weld metal. This condition may seriously weaken the weld.

Incomplete filled groove

Incomplete filled groove

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C. Fillet Weld Profile:The profile of the fillet weld relates to its contour ,several of the profile discontinuities associated with groove welds are also associated with fillet welds. However the terminology used to describe the discontinuities is different. 1. BRIDGING:Bridging in fillet weld is similar to incomplete penetration in a groove weld .It is failure of weld metal to penetrate into base metal at the root of the fillet weld

2. EXCESSIVE CONCAVITY:Excessive concavity is a condition where insufficient amount of weld metal has caused the actual throat to be less than the required fillet size.

A concave profile is preferred for joints subjected to fatigue loading

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3. EXCESSIVE CONVEXITY:Excessive convexity is extra metal deposited on the face of the weld. This condition produces a notch effect which may seriously weaken the weld.

4. INSUFFICIENT LEG:Insufficient leg is a condition resulting when there is an inadequate amount of weld metal deposited between the fillet root and the weld toe.

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5. INSUFFICIENT THROAT:Insufficient throat is a condition where the face of the weld is depressed, reducing the cross section of the weld. And therefore, weakening the weld.

a = Design Throat Thickness b = Actual Throat Thickness

aR oo t fa ce

bB Be vel an gle

Calculating Throat Thickness from a known Leg Length: Design Throat Thickness = Leg Length x 0.7 Question: The Leg length is 14mm. What is the Design Throat? Answer: 14mm x 0.7 = 10mm Throat Thickness

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6. OVERLAP:Overlap or cold lap is a condition where there is protrusion of weld metal beyond the fusion line at the toe of the weld. Overlap may reduce the effective size of the fillet leg.

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8. DISTORSION/WARPAGE :Distortion and warpage are caused by stresses of high magnitude that build up as a result of nonuniform thermal expansion and contraction of weld and base metal. Distortion may be either angular or lateral.

Angular Distortion

Transverse Distortion

Bowing Distortion

Longitudinal Distortion

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d. STRUCTURAL DISCONTINUITIES:As a result of improper welding technique, failure to follow the weld procedure, or as a result of an inadequate or incorrect welding procedure, discontinuities may be formed in the weld metal or in the adjacent base metal, and may reduce the mechanical properties. These discontinuities are termed structural discontinuities. 1. CRACKS:crack are defined as fracture type discontinuities characterized by a sharp tip and high length and height to- opening ratio .Cracks can be classified as Hot Cracks which occur at high temperature during solidification ; or Cold Cracks which occur after solidification is complete. Both types can be further categorized by their physical location within the weldment. a. Longitudinal Cracks: These cracks are parallel to the axis of the weld and are usually confined to the center of the weld. A longitudinal crack may be extension of a crack that started in the first layer. A crack formed in first layer, if not removed; tend to propagate into the layer above and each subsequent layer until it reaches to the surface. This condition may also be termed a throat crack.

Longitudinal parent metal

Transverse weld metal

Longitudinal weld metal Lamellar tearing

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b. Transverse Cracks: These cracks are perpendicular to the axis of the weld and in some cases intended into the base metal. They are often

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TYPES OF CRACKING

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. Crater Cracks: These cracks occur in the concave area at the termination of the weld bead, where the arc is broken. Crater cracks may be star shaped, longitudinal or transverse. Crater cracks may be the initiation point of another crack and are, therefore, considered serious by most specifications.

Crater cracks (Star cracks)

Causes: Too fast a cooling rate Deoxidization reactions and liquid to solid volume change Contamination

Crater pipe

d. Heat affected zone cracks /underbead cracks: These cracks occur during the cooling of the metal after solidification and normally do not extend to the surface of the metal. They sometimes occur after the weldment has been placed in service because of embitterment of the weld metal and heat affected zone of the base metal.

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2. INADEQUATE PENETRATION:Incomplete or inadequate penetration is the failure of the weld root to penetrate to the required depth. This condition is also referred to as lack of penetration or incomplete penetration.

Lack of Root Penetration

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3. INCOMPLETE FUSION:Incomplete fusion is the failure of the molten weld metal to flow into and fuse together adjacent the base metal or previously deposited weld metal. This condition is also referred to as lack of fusion, inadequate fusion, and cold lap. Incomplete fusion is usually elongated in the direction of welding and may have either smooth or sharp edges.

Lack of Root Fusion

4/23/2007

44 of 691

Lack of sidewall fusion + incomplete filled groove

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4. POROSITY:Porosity is entrapped gas pockets, or voids free of any solid material, in the weld metal. Porosity is generally characterized as smooth edged. Rounded or elongated discontinuity. A pore may also have a sharp tail that could be the initiation point of crack. Five types of porosity that may be presenting weld are:-

Gas pore

Cluster porosity Causes:

Blow hole Herringbone porosity

Loss of gas shield Damp electrodes Contamination Arc length too large Damaged electrode flux Moisture on parent material Welding current too low
Gas pore <1.5mm Blow hole.>1.6mm

Root piping

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Porosity

Root piping
a. Isolated porosity: Isolated porosity is , as the name implies, an individual pore , either rounded or elongated that may be entrapped anyplace in the weld.

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b. Uniform scattered porosity: Uniform scattered porosity is generally rounded in appearance, and as the name implies, scattered rather uniformly throughout the weld.

C. Clustered porosity: Clustered porosity is a group of pores in a small area separated by length of porosity free weld metal.

D. Linear porosity: Linear porosity or aligned porosity when present will generally be found in the root layer and is characterized by a number of round pores which follow a line parallel with the axis of the weld.

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E. Piping porosity Piping porosity or wormhole porosity occur as non spherical pockets along grain boundaries tubular voids which extend through out the weld width or thickness.

Cluster porosity

Herringbone porosity
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5. SLAG INCLUSION: Slag Inclusion is oxides and other nonmetallic solid metals that are trapped in the weld metal. Between the weld metal and the base metal. Or between weld passes. Slag inclusions are generally irregular in shape and may occur any where in the weld. Slag is sometimes trapped along the edges of a convex weld bead and buried under the next weld pass. This condition is referred to as wagons tracks because of its radiographic appearance.

Slag inclusions

Parallel slag lines

Lack of interun fusion + slag

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Interpass slag inclusions

Elongated slag lines

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6. TUNGSTEN INCLUSION: Tungsten Inclusion are associated with the GTAW process and occur when the non consumable tungsten electrode touches the work or the molten weld metal and transfer particles of tungsten into the weld metal. They me be scattered in very fine particles, sometimes referred to as a tungsten cloud, or as a rounded particle that may be of considerable size.

May be caused by Thermal Shock of heating to fast and small fragments break off and enter the weld pool, so a slope up device is normally fitted to prevent this could be caused by touch down also. Most TIG sets these days have slope-up devices that brings the current to the set level over a short period of time so the tungsten is heated more slowly and gently

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7. BURN THROUGH: Burn through is a void or open hole extending through the bottom of the weld joint, caused by localized overheating of the first or second weld pass. when this localized area becomes molten , the metals runs out of the joint leaving a hole in the bottom of the joint. This molten metal may merely slag and form icicles or melt through.

Burn Through

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Melt through (icicle) 8. Arc strike: Causes: Accidental striking of the arc onto the parent material Faulty electrode holder Poor cable insulation Poor return lead clamping

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9. Weld spatter: Causes: Excessive current Damp electrodes Contamination Incorrect wire feed speed when welding with the MAG welding process

Spatter

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10. Oxidation: Causes: Loss or insufficient back purging gas (TIG) Most commonly occurs when welding stainless steels Purging gases include argon, helium and

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CASTING DISCONTINUITIES TYPICAL CASTING DISCONTINUITIES INCLUDE: 1. HOT TEARS. 3. POROSITY OR GAS HOLES. 5. COLD SHUTS. 7. UNFUSED CHILLS. 2. SHRINKAGE. 4. SAND INCLUSIONS. 6. UNFUSED CHAPLETS.

1. HOT TEARS - Since molten metal shrinks when its solidifies, cracks, called hot tears may occur in the transition area between a thick section that is restrained by the mold. This restraint and the uneven cooling rates create stresses that exceed the strength of the partially solidified metal. Another common cause of hot tears is the failure of the core to collapse as the metal solidifies. - Hot tears appears as jagged cracks , or in severe cases , as a branching type crack or a group of cracks.

- Hot tears are surface crack sand can many times be detected visually.

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2. SHRINKAGE - Shrinkage cavities are often found in thicker section and are caused by the inadequate feeding of molten metal to compensate for the volumetric shrinkage (some times as much as 6%) that occurs during metal solidification. The shrinkage can usually be eliminated by proper design and positioning or risers (or feeder heads) to feed molten metal into the area during solidification, and by designing the mold soothe heavy sections are in the uppermost part of the mold. - Shrinkage cavities are subsurface centerline discontinuities and unless the casting has been machined, can only be detected with radiography or ultrasonic test.

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3. POROSITY GAS HOLES BLOW HOLES - porosity gas holes- blow holes are caused by the presence of hydrogen gas which is dissolved in the metal and is precipitated at the grain boundaries as the casting cools. The total amount of gas which forms visible bubbles or pores is dependent upon the amount of gas in solution and the rate of the cooling. The size and shape of the bubbles depend upon the mechanism of solidification of the particular alloy, shrinkage stresses and composition of the melt with respect to the solvability of hydrogen , each contributing to the final form and distribution of the pores. Moisture which may be present in the sand mold will vaporize as the molten metal is poured in the mould. The gas may then blow into the partially solidified metal forming a blow hole . often a small pinhole is visible on the surface which forms into a wormhole type cavity below the surface.

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4. INCLUSION Inclusions are foreign material that becomes trapped in the solidified metal. The inclusions may be slag from the ladle , bits of dirt , dense metal , or other foreign matter included in the furnace charge, or pieces of sand from the mold or core .

5. COLD SHUTS - Cold shuts are caused by a hot stream of metal running into or over metal that has already partially solidified. Cold shuts are often caused by the splashing of metal in the mold during pouring. Drops of molten metal that splash against the side of the mold begin to solidify rapidly and as the molten metal continues to fill the mold cavity it flows over the solidified drops and fails to fuse together. In a subsequent cleaning operation the drops of solidified metal are dislodged from the surface leaving a smooth edged, rounded bottomed depression on the surface.

- Cold shuts may also be caused by a momentary interruption of the metal flow resulting in partial freezing, and subsequently an oxide coating forms on the surface which prevents fusion as the incoming molten metal continues to fill the mold. This type of - Cold shuts will usually appear as a wrinkle on the surface of the casting.
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6. UNFUSED CHAPLETS Unfused chaplets occur when the chaplets used to support the core in the mold fail to melt and do not become part of the casting.

7. UNFUSED CHILLS Chill nails placed at strategic locations in the mold are meant to absorb the heat from the molten metal , thereby increasing the rate of solidification in selected area of the casting. As they absorb the heat they should melt and become an integral part of the casting. When they fail to melt the condition is termed unfused chills.

UNFUSED CHILLS

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WELDING PROCESS Of The Welding Processes available for use, this section will briefly describe the commonly used processes: 1- Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW). 2- Gas metal arc welding (GMAW). 3- Submerged arc welding (SAW). 4- Flux cored arc welding (FCAW). 5- Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW). 6- Oxyacetylene weld. 7- Electro slag welds.

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1- Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW)

Uses a consumable electrode consisting of a filler metal rod coated with chemicals that provide flux and shielding Sometimes called "stick welding" Power supply, connecting cables, and electrode holder available for a few thousand dollars. Composition of filler metal usually close to base metal Coating: powdered cellulose mixed with oxides and carbonates, and held together by a silicate binder Welding stick is clamped in electrode holder connected to power source Disadvantages of stick welding: Sticks must be periodically changed High current levels may melt coating prematurely Shielded metal arc welding (stick welding) performed by a human welder (photo courtesy of Hobart Brothers Co.) SMAW Applications: Used for steels, stainless steels, cast irons, and certain nonferrous alloys Not used or rarely used for aluminum and its alloys, copper alloys, and titanium

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2- Gas metal arc welding (GMAW) .

Uses a consumable bare metal wire as electrode with shielding by flooding arc with a gas Wire is fed continuously and automatically from a spool through the welding gun Shielding gases include argon and helium for aluminum welding, and CO2 for steel welding Bare electrode wire plus shielding gases eliminate slag on weld bead No need for manual grinding and cleaning of slag GMAW Advantages over SMAW: Better arc time because of continuous wire electrode Sticks must be periodically changed in SMAW Better use of electrode filler metal than SMAW End of stick cannot be used in SMAW Higher deposition rates Eliminates problem of slag removal Can be readily automated

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3- Submerged arc welding (SAW)

Uses a continuous, consumable bare wire electrode, with arc shielding by a cover of granular flux Electrode wire is fed automatically from a coil Flux introduced into joint slightly ahead of arc by gravity from a hopper Completely submerges operation, preventing sparks, spatter, and radiation

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4- Flux cored arc welding (FCAW).

Adaptation of shielded metal arc welding, to overcome limitations of stick electrodes two versions Self-shielded FCAW - core includes compounds that produce shielding gases Gas-shielded FCAW - uses externally applied shielding gases Electrode is a continuous consumable tubing (in coils) containing flux and other ingredients (e.g., alloying elements) in its core. Presence or absence of externally supplied shielding gas distinguishes: (1) self-shielded - core provides ingredients for shielding, (2) gas-shielded - uses external shielding gases

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5- Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) .

Uses a nonconsumable tungsten electrode and an inert gas for arc shielding Melting point of tungsten = 3410C (6170F) A.k.a. Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) welding In Europe, called "WIG welding" Used with or without a filler metal When filler metal used, it is added to weld pool from separate rod or wire Applications: aluminum and stainless steel mostly Advantages and Disadvantages of GTAW: Advantages: High quality welds for suitable applications No spatter because no filler metal through arc Little or no post-weld cleaning because no flux Disadvantages: Generally slower and more costly than consumable electrode AW processes

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6- Oxyacetylene weld.

Group of fusion welding operations that burn various fuels mixed with oxygen OFW employs several types of gases, which is the primary distinction among the members of this group Oxyfuel gas is also used in flame cutting torches to cut and separate metal plates and other parts Most important OFW process is oxyacetylene welding Fusion welding performed by a high temperature flame from combustion of acetylene and oxygen Flame is directed by a welding torch Filler metal is sometimes added Composition must be similar to base metal
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 Filler rod often coated with flux to clean surfaces and prevent oxidation Acetylene (C2H2): Most popular fuel among OFW group because it is capable of higher temperatures than any other Up to 3480C (6300F) Two stage reaction of acetylene and oxygen: First stage reaction (inner cone of flame) C2H2 + O2 2CO + H2 + heat Second stage reaction (outer envelope) 2CO + H2 + 1.5O2 2CO2 + H2O + heat Oxyacetylene Torch: Maximum temperature reached at tip of inner cone, while outer envelope spreads out and shields work surface from atmosphere Shown below is neutral flame of oxyacetylene torch indicating temperatures achieve Safety Issue in OAW : Together, acetylene and oxygen are highly flammable C2H2 is colorless and odorless It is therefore processed to have characteristic garlic odor C2H2 is physically unstable at pressures much above 15 lb/in2 (about 1 atm) Storage cylinders are packed with porous filler material saturated with acetone (CH3COCH3) Acetone dissolves about 25 times its own volume of acetylene Different screw threads are standard on C2H2 and O2 cylinders and hoses to avoid accidental connection of wrong gases Alternative Gases for OFW: Methylacetylene-Propadiene (MAPP) Hydrogen Propylene Propane Natural Gas

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7- Electro slag weld.

Electrogas welding using flux-cored electrode wire: (a) front view with molding shoe removed for clarity, and (b) side view showing molding shoes on both sides

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WELDING GAUGES
Visual Inspection Tools : Temperature Measurements Required for: Preheat Interpass temperature limits Post weld heat treatments Typically achieved by: Temperature sensitive crayons Digital pyrometers Temperature-sensitive Crayons:

Digital Contact Pyrometer

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Visual Inspection Tools:

Palmgren gage.

Throat measurement

An automatic weld size gauge provides accurate calibrations of butt-joint and fillet welds

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 Fillet gage

Leg size determination

VWAC gage:

Convexity, undercut depth, reinforcement measurement

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 Machinist scale

One of the most common tools used in visual inspection is the rule or scale. Used to measure linear dimensions, when properly used will measure within 0.015 or 1/64 and smaller. Rules are made in a variety lengths, widths, and thicknesses. They are graduated in common fractions, decimal units, and metric units, or combinations of both. The specific type of rule is typically chosen relative to the application.

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 Caliper:

Sliding calipers are a precision refinement of the common rule, which results in greater accuracy of measurements. They may incorporate either a dial indicator or digital readout. Sliding-type calipers are commonly used to check dimensional tolerances of machined components, wear on components, and fit between components.

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 Micrometers:

One major division on the sleeve is visible, representing one tenth of an inch. Two minor divisions are visible, which each represent an additional 25 thousandths. Line 15 on the thimble coincides with the reading line on the sleeve indicating that fifteen one thousandths of an inch should be added to the measurement. By adding all three values, the micrometer reading is obtained

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 Light meter:

Effective visual inspection requires adequate lighting. The type of inspection will dictate the lighting requirements. Inspection of components with fine detail and low contrast will require greater illumination than components with large details and high contrast. Light intensity may be measured with a suitable light meter. The unit of measure for white light is foot-candles (fc). A foot-candle is equal to the amount of direct light thrown by one standard candle at a distance of 1 foot. Inspection of components with fine detail and low contrast may require 100 footcandles or more. Specification requirements for lighting should be reviewed prior to performing an inspection.

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 Hi-LOW

The weld gauges shown in Fig. are designed for checking internal alignment and for determining weld root spacing.

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 Cam Gauge Bridge

This type of gauge is a unique, versatile instrument for the inspection of welded surfaces and joints It can measure the following: Angle of preparation from 0 to 60 deg Excess weld metal (capping size) Depth of undercut Depth of pitting Fillet weld throat size Fillet leg length Misalignment (high and low) Angle of preparation from 0 to 60 deg Excess weld metal (capping size) Depth of undercut Depth of pitting
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 Fillet weld throat size Fillet leg length Misalignment (high and low)

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 Pipe Internal Alignment Gauge

This type of gauge measures internal alignment of pipe after fitup It can be used to measure internal misalignmentof pipe both before and after tacking. Not only does the gauge measure internal mismatch of pipe wall, but it also measures scribe lines, weld fillet size, and crown height. One side measures in inches, the other side in metric units. Use of this type of gauge helps to reduce the number of radiographic rejects

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The typical visual weld inspection plan per AWS include Before welding: Material (base) : material type , heat number Geometry of joint ( fit up inspection) Assembly and fabrication fixturing. During welding: Heat control. Filler material. Root pass control. Cleanliness. Inter pass control. In process NDT.

After welding: Cleaning. Dimensional inspection. NDT. Proof testing. Destructive testing. Evaluation /disposition. Repairs.

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NDT PERSONNEL QUALIFICATION AND CERTIFICATION PROGRAMS Employer certification: SNT-TC-1A (primary document).

CP 189 (ANSI), NAS 410 (air craft). Central certification: Transportable certificate Belongs to yourself and not terminated when you leave your work. 3rd party certificate. ACCP (American central certification program). CSWIP (certification scheme for weld inspection personnel). PCN (personnel certification for NDT in England). CGSB (Canadian general standard board).

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