Table of Contents

Table of Figures ................................................................................................................................... ii Table of Graphs ................................................................................................................................... ii A. Literature Review ........................................................................................................................ 1 A.1 - Vibration Transducers Detecting & Measuring Vibrations ..................................................... 1 A.1.1 - Velocity Pickups ................................................................................................................ 1 A.1.2 - Acceleration Pickups ......................................................................................................... 2 A.1.3 - Displacement Probes ........................................................................................................ 3 A.2 - Use of Frequency Spectral Analysis & Frequency Response function of a System ..................... 4 A.3 - Vibrations Induced by Rotary Machines ................................................................................... 6 A.3.1 - Force Induced Vibration.................................................................................................... 6 A.3.2 - Structural Vibration ........................................................................................................ 10 A.4 - Distinguishing between Force-Induced and Structural Vibrations .......................................... 11 A.4.1 - Coast-down/ Run-up Test (Internal Excitation) ................................................................ 11 A.4.2 - Bump Test (External Excitation) ...................................................................................... 11 A.4.3 - Shaker Test ..................................................................................................................... 11 A.5 - Cepstrum and Envelope Analyses .......................................................................................... 12 A.5.1 - Cepstrum Analysis (aka Cepstrum Alansys) ..................................................................... 13 B. C. Fault Diagnosis .......................................................................................................................... 14 Theoretical Design ..................................................................................................................... 18 C.1 - Pre-Isolation .......................................................................................................................... 19 C.1.1 - Static Equations .............................................................................................................. 19 C.1.2 - Finding Equivalent Mass of System ................................................................................. 20 C.1.3 - Finding Equivalent Stiffness of Cantilever Beam .............................................................. 20 C.1.4 - Finding Un-damped Natural Frequency of System ........................................................... 22 C.1.5 - Forced Vibrations of a Cantilever Beam due to Unbalance .............................................. 23 C.1.6 - Calculating Maximum Bending Stress .............................................................................. 29 C.2 - Post-Isolation ........................................................................................................................ 30 C.2.1 - Finding Equivalent Stiffness of New Structure ................................................................. 31 C.2.2 - Finding Equivalent Mass of New Structure ...................................................................... 31 C.2.3 - Finding Equivalent Damping Coefficient of New Structure............................................... 32 C.2.4 - Finding Un-Damped Natural Frequency of New Structure ............................................... 32 C.2.5 - Finding Damping Ratio of New Structure......................................................................... 32 C.2.6 - Transmissibility (Vibration Isolation) ............................................................................... 33 C.3 - Natural Frequencies of Unloaded Cantilever Beam ................................................................ 36 C.4 - Natural Frequencies of Loaded Cantilever Beam .................................................................... 40 Group Effort ...................................................................................................................................... 43 References ........................................................................................................................................ 44 i

Table of Figures
Figure 1 - Magnet-in-Coil (left) & Coil-in-Magnet (right) type transducers. [1] ...................................... 1 Figure 2 - Diagram showing a basic setup of a 3-axis accelerometer. [13] ............................................ 2 Figure 3 - General method adopted to obtain the Velocity Spectrum [2] ............................................. 4 Figure 4 - Application of the Fourier transforms [2, p. 178] .................................................................. 5 Figure 5 - The relationship between Time, Frequency and Amplitude [3] ............................................. 5 Figure 6 - Mass eccentricity causing a rotating imbalance [5] ............................................................... 6 Figure 7 - FFT analysis of an unbalance defect [4] ................................................................................ 6 Figure 8 - Types of shaft misalignments [6] .......................................................................................... 8 Figure 9 - FFT analysis for Parallel and Angular shaft misalignment [4] ................................................. 8 Figure 10 - FFT analysis of roller bearing just before failure [4] ............................................................ 9 Figure 11 - FFT analysis of loose journal bearings [4] ........................................................................... 9 Figure 12 - Synchronous or DC motor vibrations due to electrical problems [4] (FL Electrical Line Frequency) ........................................................................................................................................ 10 Figure 13 - Causes and effects of Structural Vibration [7] ................................................................... 10 Figure 14 - Carrier & Envelope Frequency [8]..................................................................................... 12 Figure 15 - Second Modulation; Carrier and Envelope Signal ............................................................. 13 Figure 16 - Schematic of motor-fan mechanical system ..................................................................... 14 Figure 17 - The Frequency spectrum of a gearbox.............................................................................. 15 Figure 18 - Setup used for initial calculation ...................................................................................... 18 Figure 19 - Simplified setup ............................................................................................................... 19 Figure 20 - Illustration of masses ....................................................................................................... 20 Figure 21 - Equivalent kinematic diagram .......................................................................................... 23 Figure 22 - Illustration of rotating imbalance ..................................................................................... 24 Figure 23 - Illustration of the isolated structure ................................................................................. 30 Figure 24 - Kinematic representation of the isolated structure .......................................................... 33 Figure 25 - The deflected cantilever beam, under its own weight ...................................................... 36 Figure 26 - The deflected cantilever beam, under its own weight and those of the edge loads .......... 40

Table of Graphs
Graph 1 - Vibration amplitude frequency spectrum of motor fan system ........................................... 14 Graph 2 - Plot of the frequency response function for different values of ....................................... 28 Graph 3 - Plot of the phase shift against the frequency ratio for different values of ........................ 28 Graph 4 - Magnitude of transmitted vibrations against frequency ratio, for different values of ....... 35 Graph 5 - Magnification factor against excitation frequency for different natural frequencies of the unloaded system ............................................................................................................................... 39 Graph 6 - Plot of the magnification factor against the excitation frequency for different values of the natural frequency of the loaded structure ......................................................................................... 42

ii

A. Literature Review
A.1 - Vibration Transducers Detecting & Measuring Vibrations
A transducer is a device that converts energy from one form to another. In the case of vibration transducers, these convert the kinetic energy from the vibrating object into an electric signal, which can then in turn be processed in order to accurately analyse the nature of the vibrations. There are three main types of vibration transducers, each suited to a different measurement requirement, these being: Velocity Pickups Accelerometers Proximity Sensors

A.1.1 - Velocity Pickups

Velocity pickups work on the principle of electromagnetism, that is, when a conductor is moved inside a magnetic field, a voltage is generated across that conductor. These types of sensors come in two main types, Coil-in-Magnet & Magnet-in-Coil. The difference between the two is in which element is kept stationary and which is allowed to vibrate.

Figure 1 - Magnet-in-Coil (left) & Coil-in-Magnet (right) type transducers. [1]

Due to the fact that the signal is self-generated (meaning that no external power supply is required to operate the sensor), these types of transducers are relatively cheap. They are also very easy to mount onto machinery, however they do have some limitations. As shown in Figure 1, the moving element of the sensor is constrained to move in only one axis, this means that one sensor can measure vibrations in only one axis. Moreover, cross-axis vibrations can also prove to be damaging to these transducers, so care must be taken before installing them on machinery. Velocity pickups are usually used to measure vibrations in the range of between 10 Hz to 1 kHz, and while having a narrow frequency response, they give a relatively strong output within said range. This serves to ameliorate its immunity to electrical noise.

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A.1.2 - Acceleration Pickups

Also known as accelerometers, these transducers work on the phenomenon of piezoelectricity. In essence, the mechanism consists of a small mass encased inside a piezoelectric crystal (Figure 2). When the sensor is subjected to vibrations the mass is given an acceleration, causing it to impinge on the crystal. The force of the mass on the crystal causes deformation of the crystals lattice, leading to the generation of a charge. The charge generated, measured in [Pico Coulombs per g] is proportional to the vibratory force experienced by the accelerometer.

Figure 2 - Diagram showing a basic setup of a 3-axis accelerometer. [13]

The accelerometer is then accompanied by an amplifier, which can be either internal or external, that converts the output charge to a proportional voltage output. As mentioned above, two types of accelerometers exist. Those with an internal amplifier circuit, called Current or Voltage-mode sensors. These types of sensors are limited in that they can be used in a restricted range of temperatures due to the internal circuitry. To cater for this limitation, sensors with external charge amplifiers, called Charge-mode accelerometers, are used. The charge signal is drawn from the accelerometer via two wires and amplified to give the final output signal. Accelerometers may be mounted onto machinery in a variety of ways. However the most ideal way, ideal meaning that it has the most secure attachment and the widest possible frequency response range, is by direct stud-mounting. In this way, the sensor is screwed onto the machine so that vibrations are transmitted directly. Other mounting methods include adhesive mounting, magnetic mounting and handheld probes. Each of these introduces its own disadvantages, but they all tend to narrow down the frequency response range for the sensor. The typical frequency response for an accelerometer that measures machine vibrations will lie in the range of 2 Hz 10 kHz, notably larger than that for a velocity pickup. One pitfall for these piezoelectric sensors is that, although they are not subject to fatigue as they have no moving components, they cannot be recalibrated. This means that if the sensor has suffered damage due to inappropriate operating temperatures or misuse, it cannot be brought back into spec.

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A.1.3 - Displacement Probes

Also known as Eddy current (or inductive) transducers, they are used mainly on rotary machinery. The working principle if this sensor is as follows. The probe emits an electromagnetic field, with a frequency in the range of 2 MHz, which interacts with the shaft surface. This causes eddy currents to be generated on the shafts surface and these same eddy currents are read back via sensing circuitry. Given that the shaft is made of a homogeneous material, its surface is adequately polished and that the input field has a constant frequency and magnitude, the variation of the output signal will describe the vibratory motion of the shaft. The probes are generally mounted at right angles to the shaft in one of three different configurations. i) They can be internally mounted, meaning that the probe is mounted directly inside the journal bearing housing via a special bracket. The advantages are that the probe has an unconstrained view of the shaft surface. However the probe is inaccessible while the machine is in operation. They can be mounted using an external adaptor that fits onto the bearings. The probe itself is still located inside the bearing. This allows for access to the probe while in operation while still keeping an unconstrained view of the shaft. However the probe would have to be lengthened which may give rise to resonance problems. The final configuration is that of an external mounting. This should be only a last resort for when there is absolutely no way of mounting the probe internally. Even though it is the least expensive method, the readings will not be as accurate as it may be influenced by the electrical & mechanical run-out of the shaft itself.

ii)

iii)

For this probe to work, the shaft material needs to be a conductor and moreover, the probe has to be calibrated depending on what type of conductor the shaft is made of, as different materials give different responses to inductive fields. The gap between the probe tip and the shaft surface is set depending upon the operating voltage of the probe itself. However for a 12 V supply, the gap is usually around 1.5mm. [1]

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A.2 - Use of Frequency Spectral Analysis & Frequency Response function of a System
Various methods are available to analyse frequencies and as described above, each method results in different frequency spectra which affects the ease of analysis. The techniques used to collect data vary from one analyst to another depending on the level of detail required by the researcher. One common method is the overall level data in which the summation of the vibration amplitude over a wide range of frequencies is measured; hence a single value for the overall vibration magnitude is obtained. This method is very cheap and easy to do unlike the high frequency diagnostics, such as shock pulse and ultrasonic energy, which are more expensive and complex to carry out. The user is able to detect early signs of bearing wear, however they suffer to detect lower frequency machinery defects such as misalignment. The most commonly used method to analyse the frequency response of a system, is the narrow band technique. The narrow band technique is carried out by researchers to detect the causes of vibrations such as imbalance, misalignment, clearance issues and resonance, so as to eliminate or minimise the effect of these causes as much as possible. In reality, the researchers produce an acceleration signal which is received by an instrument and covert it to a velocity signal. The velocity signal can either be displayed as a velocity wave form (in the time domain), or as velocity spectrum (in the frequency domain). The velocity spectrum is obtained by applying the Fast Fourier Transform method on the velocity waveform. The Fast Fourier Transform technique is a mathematical operation that extracts the frequency information from a time domain signal and converts it to the frequency domain.

Figure 3 - General method adopted to obtain the Velocity Spectrum [2]

For the frequency spectral analysis, the measured vibrations are transformed form the time domain into discrete frequency components after applying the Discrete Fourier transform technique. To change from the frequency domain to the time domain, the inverse Fourier transform is applied. This is further explained in Figure 4.

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Figure 4 - Application of the Fourier transforms [2, p. 178]

All input signals can be represented as a group of cosine waves. Each cosine wave has a certain amplitude and phase shift. In both the frequency domain graph and the time domain graph, the height of the peak represents the amplitude of the signal (Figure 5). In the frequency domain analysis, all running speeds may be analysed whereas in the time domain analysis, only the actual running speed can be analysed.

Figure 5 - The relationship between Time, Frequency and Amplitude [3]

Distortions are observed when converting from one domain to another; hence the researcher reduces noise by using either a low-pass digital filter or by multiplying the signal to a smooth curve, also known as the Hamming window. After multiplying the original signal to the Hamming window, the researcher can easily identify the required data which are the frequency, the amplitude and the phase. Once the signal is changed from the time domain to the frequency domain using FFT, the researcher may interpret the peaks obtained by calculating the shafts rotating speed and the frequencies that are being transmitted to all components in the system. Different types of defects have different harmonic patterns, frequency and amplitude expectations. The last step involves checking how severe the fault is and what can be done to eliminate or minimise the probability of this fault to occur. Once these values are obtained, the system is continuously monitored to make sure that the overall machine is in good condition.

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A.3 - Vibrations Induced by Rotary Machines

Vibrations induced by rotating machinery may be subdivided into two main categories; forceinduced vibrations and structural vibrations. Force-induced vibrations occur in the presence of an excitation source, which is necessary for vibrations to be initiated and sustained. Examples of excitation sources include mass unbalance, shaft misalignment and loose journal bearings. On the other hand, structural vibrations or self-excited vibrations are initiated and sustained without the presence of a forcing phenomenon. Vibration in machines such as electric motors, rotary pumps and compressors, may indicate deterioration of the equipment. Failure-Mode Analysis is generally carried out to define the failure mode present and hence identify which component is degrading. Machine vibration signatures, including both Fast Fourier Transforms (FFT) and time traces, are essential for failure-mode analysis.

A.3.1 - Force Induced Vibration

As previously outlined, these vibrations may be induced by faults within several components such as bearings, gears, shafts and electric motors (Table 1). The most common causes of failure may be identified by obtaining the relationship between the frequencies of induced vibrations to the frequency of the rotating shaft within the machine-train. The table overleaf is a vibration troubleshooting chart that pinpoints some of the most common failure modes. A.3.1.1 - Rotating Unbalance Vibration due to the unbalance of a rotor is the most common fault present in rotary machines, and is also the easiest to detect and amend. The International Standards Organisation (ISO) defines unbalance as: That condition, which exists in a rotor when vibratory, force or motion is imparted to its bearings as a result of centrifugal forces [4]. A rotating unbalance occurs due to the presence of an uneven distribution of mass about the rotating axis of a rotor (Figure 6). This may be caused by manufacturing defects such as machining errors or maintenance issues including corrosion or deformation. The effects of imbalance greatly increase as the rotor speed increases, generating higher amplitude vibrations while severely reducing bearing life.

Figure 6 - Mass eccentricity causing a rotating imbalance [5]

For all types of unbalance, a predominant 1 rpm frequency of vibration will be observed as shown on the FFT spectrum in Figure 7. The vibration amplitude at the 1 rpm frequency is generally always present and varies proportionally to the square of the rotational speed.

Figure 7 - FFT analysis of an unbalance defect [4]

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Table 1 - Vibration Troubleshooting Chart [14]

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A.3.1.2 - Misalignment in Shafts Shaft misalignment may be subdivided into two: angular misalignment and parallel misalignment (Figure 8). Angular misalignment occurs when two shafts meet at an angle whereas parallel misalignment occurs when two parallel shafts are at an offset. The latter is also known as Offset Misalignment. Both misalignments may originate from assembly or develop over time due to thermal expansion or improper reassembly after maintenance. The resulting vibration may be radial, axial or both.
Figure 8 - Types of shaft misalignments [6]

Angular misalignments produce axial vibrations at the 1 rpm frequency while parallel misalignments generate 2 rpm vibrations in the radial direction. Since pure angular or parallel misalignments are rare, there will typically be high axial or radial vibrations at 1, 2 or 3 rpm as shown in Figure 9. Such results may also indicate faults in couplings.

Figure 9 - FFT analysis for Parallel and Angular shaft misalignment [4]

A.3.1.3 - Faults in Bearings Faults in a roller bearing may occur in any of its four separate components namely; inner and outer races, cage and rolling elements. Faults in bearings cause high-frequency vibrations, which amplify the severity of wear. This results in a continuously changing vibration pattern. Faults on rolling elements or raceways are the most evident on an FFT spectrum (Figure 10). When a bearing starts to wear, minute pits are developed on the raceways. As rolling elements pass over these raceways, natural frequencies that predominantly occur in the 30 120 kcpm range are developed. At a later stage the minute pits present continue to grow into larger pits, until they merge together, spalling the passing rolling elements. By this time, the bearing is severely damaged and is vibrating excessively creating a lot of noise. The FFT spectrum of a bearing at this instance is shown in Figure 10. Bearing failure may occur due to inadequate lubrication, installation, age or excessive load caused by misalignment, rotating unbalance or a bent shaft.

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Figure 10 - FFT analysis of roller bearing just before failure [4] (BPFO - Ball-Pass Outer-Race, BPFI - Ball-Pass Inner-Race)

A.3.1.4 - Loose Journal Bearings Loose components such as journal bearings create vibrations which may cause destructive damage, wear and fatigue in equipment mounts and other components. Journal bearings with high clearances usually display a series of running speed harmonics, which can be up to 10 or 20 rpm (Figure 11). Higher vibration amplitudes are generally induced with the presence of unbalance or misalignment.
Figure 11 - FFT analysis of loose journal bearings [4]

A.3.1.5 - Electric Motor Vibration Electrical machines such as motors, generators and alternators may generate mechanically or electrically induced vibrations. Faults present within the electric motor such as a broken rotor bar and open windings of the rotor or stator, induce electrical vibrations. This results from unequal magnetic forces acting on the rotor or the stator. Due to the aforementioned electrical problems, a vibratory response of 1 rpm is produced, which will appear similar to a rotating unbalance. A technique used to differentiate between the two is to keep the analyser capturing the FFT spectrum in the live mode and turning off the power. Different vibratory responses exist for AC and DC motors. Loose stator coils in synchronous motors will generate fairly high vibrations due to the alternating forces present in the stator. These alternating forces are produced by the rotating magnetic field, which is being generated by the stator coils. The electric motor will vibrate at the coil pass frequency (CPF) which will be surrounded by 1 rpm sidebands, as seen on the FFT spectrum in Figure 12. On the other hand, DC motor defects generate high vibration amplitudes at the SCR firing frequency (6FL) and harmonics (Figure 12). Broken field windings, loose connections and bad SCRs may all produce these vibrations.

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Figure 12 - Synchronous or DC motor vibrations due to electrical problems [4] (FL Electrical Line Frequency)

A.3.2 - Structural Vibration

Structural vibration occurring in most machines is undesirable due to unpleasant motions, noise and dynamic stresses as well as reduction in performance resulting from energy losses. The frequency and amplitude of structural vibrations are dependent on the excitation applied and the structures response to that particular excitation. A variance in the applied excitation or the structure characteristics would stimulate different vibrations. External sources such as cross winds, waves, currents, ground vibration and earthquakes are the applied excitation forces, which may be periodic in time or random in nature. The structures response to the applied excitation is dependent on the location of the excitation and on the structures natural frequency, which is directly related to the stiffness and damping coefficient. Structural vibrations may cause impairment of function or failure of the structure, corrosion and environmental noise. Figure 13 outline the various causes and effects of structural vibrations.

Figure 13 - Causes and effects of Structural Vibration [7]

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A.4 - Distinguishing between Force-Induced and Structural Vibrations

A common way to identify resonances empirically is by means of run-up and run-down test. In these tests the machine is operated from standstill to maximum speed, across its range of operating speeds, and back down, while measuring the vibration it exhibits. The natural frequencies that the machine exhibits, either of the machine itself, or the supporting structure, may cause amplitude enhancement of forcing frequencies that can severely reduce component life and adversely affect operating parameters. When testing, if the natural frequencies are reached, discrete peaks will pop-up in the graph which are a clear indication that resonance exists at that point. There are three methods that can be used to understand and examine vibration in a structure or a machine.

A.4.1 - Coast-down/ Run-up Test (Internal Excitation)

This is a real time test as it records and analysis how the vibrations happening inside the machine vary with different operating speeds of the machine. After the test data is recorded, the engineer analysing it will establish critical and resonant speeds of the machine. The results can be presented in a variety of formats (such as: Band RMS v.s. RPM, waterfall plots, colour spectrograms) which enable the user to understand and characterize the critical or resonant speeds. Discrete peaks in the magnitude that are accompanied by a phase shift at the same frequency normally show that a natural frequency exists there. This means that the machine operator should avoid operating the machine at those frequencies or else the dynamics should be modified to adapt the resonance effect.

A.4.2 - Bump Test (External Excitation)

This test produces the same results as the run-up/ run-down tests but in a fairly crude way because it does not provide meaningful amplitude values (relative comparison only) as the input is not measured directly. In this method an external force has to be applied as the machine is switched off during the testing. It requires the engineer to apply a controlled bump or hit to the machine structure. When impacted, the structure produces a frequency band of excitation components and when these frequencies coincide with the structural natural frequencies, resonant conditions are present which result in higher than normal vibration levels. These high vibrations levels should be noted so that the machines normal operating conditions will be well away to avoid resonant responses that can cause very high and destructive vibration levels.

A.4.3 - Shaker Test

This test is accomplished by connecting a testing shaker to the structure. Different types of shakers are used according to the type of frequency. For high frequencies, an electro-dynamic shaker is used and for low frequencies a servo-hydraulic is used. This equipment is driven by a source signal from the analyser, which is used to excite the structure. The excitation is then transmitted to a load cell attached to the structure which provides a measure of the input force. The signal analyser then measures the input and output response simultaneously and plots magnitude and phase versus frequency which identifies the resonance.

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A.5 - Cepstrum and Envelope Analyses

These techniques are usually used in order to help identify faults which occur in rotating machinery. These methods are useful as they help to form a distinction between the oscillatory frequencies which occur during normal operation of the apparatus, and those frequencies which occur when damage is present in the system. In the example of a roller bearing fault, an impact is produced each time the components come into contact with the deformed area. This impact is analogous to an impulse in a vibrating system, and causes a vibration to occur, followed by a series of oscillations of regressing amplitude until the energy from the impulse is dissipated. These impacts superimpose upon the normal vibration signal and an amplitude modulation signal is developed. Envelope analysis consists of tracing the frequency of the crests of the occurring sinusoidal oscillations of the structure and forming an envelope. [8] The Envelope is formed by an amplitude demodulation of the frequency obtained. The demodulation is simply a band pass filtering of the carrier frequency, which reveals the envelope. In Figure 14 the envelope is clearly shown as the red line. [9]

Figure 14 - Carrier & Envelope Frequency [8]

The carrier frequency explains the vibration which is transferred from the faulty part to the frame of the structure being tested. This occurs due to the effect of resonance of some of the fault frequencies, as they reach a factor of the natural frequency of the structure. This carrier acts as the Primary Modulation of the fault signal. There is then the second modulation which forms the envelope. This is the actual aforementioned band pass filtering which forms the envelope frequency. This envelope frequency directly shows the frequency of the fault as it occurs in the machinery. Figure 15 shows the stated fault frequencies defined by the envelope signal; one for a fault in the inner race of a bearing and one for a fault on the outer race. [9]

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Figure 15 - Second Modulation; Carrier and Envelope Signal

A.5.1 - Cepstrum Analysis (aka Cepstrum Alansys)

The development of Cepstrum analysis was done in 1963; the aim being to distinguish between ground vibrations caused by earthquakes and those caused by nuclear explosions. The System was then adapted for audio signal processing, where speech components could be identified and distinguished from all other sounds within a recording [10]. The Cepstrum is preferred over Spectrum because it senses and clearly defines any periodicities in the wave being processed, by displaying an amplified signal at the repeated frequency. Periodicities in mechanical or electromechanical components are usually caused by defects in gears and bearings and thus they can easily be identified. Cepstrum analysis is also beneficial because the periodic signals cannot be cancelled out by any harmonics or sidebands, however in spectrum analysis this may occur. [10] Mathematically, the Cepstrum is defined as the inverse Fourier transform of the logarithm of the Autospectrum, and it is in the (lag) time domain. It can be considered as the Spectrum of the Autospectrum. The logarithm attenuates the lower levels of the Autospectrum, meaning that the Cepstrum would display these lower levels while the Autospectrum would not. Thus a fault which creates a low amplitude of vibration is easier to identify using Cepstrum analysis. In relation to the Autospectrum, the Cepstrum ( ) in the time domain can be equated as: () = 1 [( ())]

Where is the autospectrum in the frequency domain, and 1 is the inverse Fourier transform. To show the references between the terms used in spectral and cepstral analysis and to distinguish them for the different types of analysis, the following terms (Table 2) are used to describe functions of the analysis. [9] [11] Spectrum Frequency Harmonics Low-pass filter High-pass filter Phase Magnitude Cepstrum Quefrency Rahmonics Short-pass Lifter Long-pass Lifter Saphe Gamnitude

Table 2 - Jargon used in Cepstrum analysis

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B. Fault Diagnosis
The task given for this part was to identify the causes of vibrations occurring in the machinery setup shown in Figure 16. The system is described to be a three bladed extractor fan being driven by a 50Hz Ac electric motor. The electric motor runs at 1200rpm, and drives the fan via a 2 gear reduction system, having a 20 tooth gear driving an 80 tooth one. Thus the fan rotates at the speed of the motor, i.e. at 300 rpm. The shafts of the 2 gears rotated on journal bearings, which we assumed to be mounted on pillow-blocks.

Figure 16 - Schematic of motor-fan mechanical system

The vibration frequency spectrum derived from an accelerometer reading is shown in Graph 1 and the peaks to be investigated were marked.

Graph 1 - Vibration amplitude frequency spectrum of motor fan system

Initially we converted all given values to frequency to be able to compare these values with the peaks shown in Figure 2. It was stated that the motor is rotating at 1200 rpm, hence this value was changed to frequency to determine the frequency transmitted to gear 1 using the equation below. = 2

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Our motor rotates at 1200 rpm, i.e. 1200 2 per 60 seconds, which is equal to 20 2 radians/s 20 2 = 2 1 = Hence, the frequency of the rotations of the motor and of the driver gear is 20. Since the reduction is 20 teeth to 80 teeth, the driven gear rotates at 14 the frequency of the driver gear. 2 = 20 4

2 = Hence, the frequency of rotation of the driven gear, the second shaft and the fan is equal to 5 . A three-bladed fan is attached to the second shaft hence; the blade pass frequency was calculated to check whether vibration peaks would occur at this particular frequency. = . = 3 5 = A gearbox experiences ongoing rotation of the gears which causes both normal lowfrequency harmonics and high frequency harmonics to occur due to the gear teeth and bearing impacts. The spectrum of a gear box is as shown in Figure 17.

Figure 17 - The Frequency spectrum of a gearbox

The GMF (gear mesh frequency) is the product of the number of teeth of a pinion or a gear, and its respective running speed. = . = 20 20 = Some common types of defects that are commonly found in gears are gear tooth wear, gear tooth load, gear eccentricity and backlash, gear misalignment, broken or cracked gear tooth and hunting gear tooth problems. In this case, the phase factor was not given hence we couldnt check whether there are going to be any vibration due to the hunting gear tooth problem.

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As explained in detail in A.3 - Vibrations Induced by Rotary Machines, all components in the system may contribute to the occurrence of vibrations. After analysing all the frequency spectra graphs of each component, we used the values calculated above to identify which faults might contribute to the occurrence of the frequency peaks shown in Graph 1. Our deductions are shown in Table 3 overleaf.

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Characteristic/Fault
Mass Unbalance Bent Shaft Motor Eccentric rotor Stator Eccentricity, Shorted Laminations & Loose Iron Eccentric air gap Shorted Rotor / Cracked Rotor bars Phasing Problems Looseness in Winding slots, Iron, End Turns or Connections Mechanical Looseness Internal Assembly Looseness Looseness of system to base plate and bearings Structure Looseness Misalignment Angular Misalignment Driver gear- 20 tooth Gear Tooth load Gear tooth wear Gear Misalignment Cracked or broken gear tooth Gear Eccentricity

Peaks in Hz
5 15 20 Shaft 1

[15] [16] [17]

40

50

100

300

400

800

Shaft 2 Mass Unbalance Bent Shaft Eccentric Fan Overhung load 80 Tooth Gear Tooth load Gear tooth wear Gear Misalignment Cracked or broken gear tooth Gear Eccentricity Mechanical Looseness Internal Assembly Looseness Looseness of system to base plate and bearings Structure Looseness Misalignment Angular Misalignment Three bladed fan Blade pass and vane pass vibrations Flow Turbulence Eccentric Blade
Table 3 - Cause analysis of recorded vibration

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C. Theoretical Design
For continuous system vibration, the forced vibration of a cantilever beam was considered, as shown in Figure 18.

Figure 18 - Setup used for initial calculation

Where is the mass per unit length of the cantilever beam is the applied harmonic force due to unbalance is the length of the cantilever beam is the mass of the motor, which is providing the applied harmonic force is the mass of the accelerometer 1 is the equivalent stiffness of the cantilever beam 1 is the equivalent damping coefficient of the damper

For analysis purposes, the distributed mass of the cantilever beam was replaced by a concentrated load at the edge of the cantilever by using the equation, = 0.2427
Eqn. 1

Where is the mass of the beam as a concentrated load in is the distributed mass of the cantilever beam given in / is the length of the cantilever beam

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Hence the system may now be adapted to the one in Figure 19,

Figure 19 - Simplified setup

C.1 - Pre-Isolation
C.1.1 - Static Equations

: = 0
Eqn. 2

: = 0 = + +
Eqn. 3

: ( + + ) = 0 = ( + + )
Eqn. 4

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C.1.2 - Finding Equivalent Mass of System

Figure 20 - Illustration of masses

1 = + +
Eqn. 5

C.1.3 - Finding Equivalent Stiffness of Cantilever Beam

A static analysis of the structure was done in order to derive the equivalent stiffness of the cantilever beam. Sectioning the cantilever beam,

For 0 < < , : + = 0 Substituting for and from Eqn. 3 and Eqn. 4 yields, = ( + + ) ( + + ) Using Eqn. 5, = ( 1 ) ( 1 ) Given that, = Where is Youngs Modulus of the cantilever beam is the area moment of inertia is the deflection of the cantilever beam is the bending moment

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 = ( 1 ) ( 1 ) = ( 1 ) ( ) 2
1

+ 1
Eqn. 6

( ) 2 1 2

( ) 3 1 6

+ 1 + 2
Eqn. 7

Applying boundary conditions, For = 0, For = 0, = 0 = 0

Substituting boundary conditions into Eqn. 6 and Eqn. 7 and solving for integration constants, 1 = 0 and 2 = 0 Hence Eqn. 7 reduces to, = ( ) 2
1

( ) 3
1

6
Eqn. 8

Solving for maximum deflection, which occurs at = , = = ( ) 3 1 2 ( ) 3

1

( ) 3 1 6

1 = (

3 ) 3
Eqn. 9

Given that, = Then, 1 = 3 3

Eqn. 10

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C.1.4 - Finding Un-damped Natural Frequency of System

1 1 = 1 Substituting for the equivalent stiffness and equivalent mass of the system from Eqn. 5 and Eqn. 10, 3 1 = 3 ( + + )
Eqn. 11

Therefore, the un-damped natural frequency of vibration may be derived from the formula, 1 = 2 Substituting, = 1 3 3 2 ( + + )
Eqn. 12

Page | 22

C.1.5 - Forced Vibrations of a Cantilever Beam due to Unbalance

Figure 21 - Equivalent kinematic diagram

Where is the applied harmonic force due to unbalance is the length of the cantilever beam is the mass of the beam as a concentrated load in is the mass of the motor, which is providing the applied harmonic force is the mass of the accelerometer 1 is the equivalent stiffness of the cantilever beam 1 is the equivalent damping coefficient of the damper 1 is the mass equivalent of the system

Page | 23

From the above diagram, the equation of motion is given by 1 1 = 1

Eqn. 13

The applied harmonic force , is due to a rotating unbalance. As shown in the diagram below, two forces are experienced by the rotating mass; a centripetal force and a tangential force.

Figure 22 - Illustration of rotating imbalance

Where is the unbalanced mass is the eccentricity is the angular acceleration of the unbalanced mass is the angular velocity of the unbalanced mass or motor is the mass of the motor, including the unbalanced mass

However, the unbalance is rotating at constant velocity, 2 = 0 Thus, the applied harmonic force is only due to the centripetal force, = 2 sin()
Eqn. 14

Page | 24

Substituting Eqn. 14 into Eqn. 13, 2 sin() 1 1 = 1 1 + 1 + 1 = 2 sin() 2 1 + ( ) + ( 1 ) = ( ) sin() 1 1 1

Eqn. 15

The equation of motion may also be expressed as, + 1 2 + 21 1 = sin()

Eqn. 16

Comparing Eqn. 16 with Eqn. 15, 1 2 = 1 1

Eqn. 17

Which have been defined previously. 21 1 = 1 =

1

2 1 1
Eqn. 18

Where the damping ratio = 0 for an undamped system. = 2 1

2 = 1 2 1
Eqn. 19

When entering Eqn. 17 into the derived equation.

Given that, sin() =

Eqn. 20

And () = ( ) () = () =
Eqn. 21

Page | 25

Where =
Eqn. 22

Hence from Eqn. 21, () = () = 2 Substituting Eqn. 20, Eqn. 21, Eqn. 23 and Eqn. 24 into Eqn. 16, + 2 + 21 = 2 1 1 (2 + 2 + 21 ) = 1 1 Dividing by 2 throughout, (1 2 21 + )= 2 1 1 2 ( 1 2 )
2

Eqn. 23

Eqn. 24

(1 + 21 ) 1 2 1

Using the conjugate, = ( 1 2 ) (1

2 1 2 1

+ 2 ) (1

(1
2

1 1

2 2

21 )
1 1

21 )

2 ( 1 2 ) (1 1 2 21 1 ) (1
2 1

2 ) + (21 )
1

Eqn. 25

From Eqn. 22, = Therefore, = 2 ( 1 2 ) (1 1 2 21 1 ) (1 2 (21 ) 1 2 ) + 1

2 2

Page | 26

 is found Hence to solve for the dynamic amplitude, , the magnitude of

2 2 [(1 (21 ) ] ( ) ) + 2 2 1 1 1 2 [(1 (21 ) ] 1 2 ) + 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

= =

(1 ) + (21 ) 1 2 1 Substituting Eqn. 19 into Eqn. 26, 2 1

Eqn. 26

=
2

(1 (21 ) 1 2 ) + 1 And the phase angle is given by, = tan

1 [

Eqn. 27

21

2 1 1 2

Eqn. 28

Where = 0 or 180 for an undamped system since the damping ratio, = 0.

Therefore, the magnification factor (M) or amplification ratio is defined as, =

2

1 (1 (21 ) 1 2 ) + 1
2 2

Eqn. 29

The magnification factor and the phase-shift were plotted against the frequency ratio, different values of 1 . (Graph 2, Graph 3)

for

Page | 27

Frequency Response Function

6.000

5.000 0
M - Magnification
4.000 0.1 0.2 3.000

0.3
0.5

2.000

0.75

1
1.000

0.000

0.5

1.5

2.5

3.5

W/Wn - Frequency Ratio

Graph 2 - Plot of the frequency response function for different values of

Phase Difference
200.000 180.000 160.000 140.000 0 0.1

Phase Difference

120.000
100.000 80.000 60.000 40.000 20.000 0.000 0 0.5 1 1.5 W/Wn 2 2.5 3 3.5

0.2
0.3 0.5

0.75
1

Graph 3 - Plot of the phase shift against the frequency ratio for different values of

Page | 28

C.1.6 - Calculating Maximum Bending Stress

Bending stress is given by the equation, = Where is the bending stress is the bending moment, which is the moment about the neutral axis is the perpendicular distance to the neutral axis is the second moment of area about the neutral axis given by, = 3 12
Eqn. 30

is the width of the cantilever beam is the thickness of the cantilever beam

The maximum bending stress occurs at the outer edge of the cantilever beam, = 2
Eqn. 31

And the maximum bending moment acting on the cantilever beam is given by, = ( 1 )
Eqn. 32

Substituting for , and yields the maximum bending stress experienced by the cantilever, = 6 ( )
1 2

Eqn. 33

Therefore for the excited vibration displacements not to exceed the yield strength1 of the system, > > 6 ( )
1 2

Maximum yield strength of A36 alloy steel (mild steel) = 250Mpa [18]

Page | 29

C.2 - Post-Isolation
A static analysis of the structure was done in order to derive the equivalent stiffness, damping coefficient and mass of the new system, displayed hereunder.

Figure 23 - Illustration of the isolated structure

Where is the length of the cantilever beam is the mass of the beam as a concentrated load in is the mass of the motor, which is providing the applied harmonic force is the mass of the accelerometer is the mass of the frame 1 is the equivalent stiffness of the cantilever beam 1 is the equivalent damping coefficient of the damper 1 is the mass equivalent of the pre-isolation system is the damping coefficient of each isolator is the stiffness of each isolator

Page | 30

C.2.1 - Finding Equivalent Stiffness of New Structure

The equivalent stiffness of the new structure is given by, 1 1 1 = + 1 2
Eqn. 34

Where 1 is the equivalent stiffness of the cantilever beam = 33 2 is the equivalent stiffness of all six isolators = 6

Substituting for 1 and 2 into Eqn. 34, 1 1 3 = + 6 3 1 3 + 63 = (6)3 18 = 3 + 63

Eqn. 35

C.2.2 - Finding Equivalent Mass of New Structure

The equivalent mass of the new structure is given by, = 1 + 2
Eqn. 36

Where 1 is the mass equivalent of the pre-isolation system = + + 2 is the added mass in new structure =

Substituting for 1 and 2 into Eqn. 36, = + + +

Eqn. 37

Page | 31

C.2.3 - Finding Equivalent Damping Coefficient of New Structure

For the pre-isolation structure, 21 1 = 1 1

1 = 21 1 1 Where 1 1 = 1 Also, the equivalent damping coefficient of all four isolators is defined as, 2 = 6 Hence, the equivalent damping coefficient of the new structure is given by, 1 1 1 = + 1 2
Eqn. 38

Substituting 1 and 2 into Eqn. 38, 1 1 1 = + 21 1 1 6 121 1 1 = 21 1 1 + 6

Eqn. 39

C.2.4 - Finding Un-Damped Natural Frequency of New Structure

From Eqn. 35 and Eqn. 37, the new natural frequency of the structure is given by, 18 = = ( + + + )(3 + 63 )
Eqn. 40

C.2.5 - Finding Damping Ratio of New Structure

From the equation of motion, it is defined that, = 2 2 =
Eqn. 41

Page | 32

C.2.6 - Transmissibility (Vibration Isolation)

Figure 24 - Kinematic representation of the isolated structure

Where is the mass of the frame is the mass equivalent of the full system 2 is equivalent damping coefficient of all six isolators 2 is the equivalent stiffness of all six isolators is the force transmitted by the vibrating structure to ground

Page | 33

From Eqn. 27, the dynamic amplitude of vibration transmitted is given by, 2 2 (1 2 ) + (2 )
2 2 2

Eqn. 42

And from Eqn. 21 the steady-state solution is defined as, () = ( )

Eqn. 43

() = ( )
Eqn. 44

The force transmitted to ground is given by, = 2 + 2

Eqn. 45

Substituting Eqn. 43 and Eqn. 44 into Eqn. 45 = 2 ( ) + 2 ( ) | | = ( 2 )2 + ( 2 )2 2 | | = 2 1 + ( 2 ) 2 = | | 2 1 + ( 2

2

)
Eqn. 46

Substituting Eqn. 46 into Eqn. 42, 2 ( ) 2 1 + (

2 2

| | =

2 2 )
2

(1 2 ) + (2 )

Eqn. 47

Page | 34

But, 2 2 Substituting into Eqn. 47, 2 1 + (2 )

2 2 2 2

2 = = 2 2

| | =

(1 2 ) + (2 )

Hence the transmissibility, which is the amplitude ratio of the transmitted force to the impressed force, is defined as, | | TR = = 2 1 + (2 )
2 2 2 2

(1 2 ) + (2 )

Eqn. 48

20.000 18.000

Transmissibility

16.000
14.000 12.000 10.000 8.000 6.000 4.000 2.000 0.000 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

0 0.010 0.020

Transmissibility - TR

0.029 0.039 0.057 0.091 0.129

0.163
sqrt2

Frequency Ratio - /
Graph 4 - Magnitude of transmitted vibrations against frequency ratio, for different values of .

Page | 35

C.3 - Natural Frequencies of Unloaded Cantilever Beam

The exact solution for distributed loads was used to determine the multiple harmonics of the unloaded cantilever beam, as shown hereunder.

Figure 25 - The deflected cantilever beam, under its own weight

Where is the mass per unit length of the cantilever beam is the length of the cantilever beam is an arbitrary length section of the cantilever beam is the deflection of a point distant from the origin at a given instant

From beam deflection theory, = Where is Youngs Modulus of the cantilever beam is the area moment of inertia is the bending moment = 2 2
Eqn. 49

Hence the shear force is defined as, = 3 = 3

Eqn. 50

Page | 36

And the rate of loading is given by, = ( ) 4 = 4

Eqn. 51

Given that the inertia loading at the point which is distant x from the origin, = Which acts in the opposite direction to the acceleration. Substituting Eqn. 52 into Eqn. 51, 4 2 = 4 2 4 2 4 +( ) 2 = 0
Eqn. 53

2 2
Eqn. 52

Assuming simple harmonic motion, = ( ) Where is the circular frequency of the natural vibrations of the beam. Considering the beam in the maximum deflected position, Eqn. 53 is reduced to, 4 + 4 = 0 4
Eqn. 54

Where 2 =
Eqn. 55

The solution to Eqn. 54 is defined as, = () + () + () + ()

Eqn. 56

= () () + () + ()
Eqn. 57

= 2 () 2 () + 2 () + 2 ()
Eqn. 58

= 3 () + 3 () + 3 () + 3 ()
Eqn. 59

Page | 37

Applying the boundary conditions, For = 0, For = , = 0, = 0, = 0 = 0

Substituting boundary conditions into Eqn. 56 to Eqn. 59, the solution below is obtained [12], () () = 1
Eqn. 60

Solving this frequency equation for the constant, , for different values of [1,2,3,4] 1 = 1.8751041 2 = 4.6940911 3 = 7.8547574 4 = 10.9955407
Eqn. 61

Therefore, by substituting Eqn. 61 into Eqn. 55 for different values of , the multiple natural frequencies of the cantilever beam are given by, 1 = 1.8752 4 2 = 4.6942 4 3 = 7.8552 4 4 = 10.9962 4
Eqn. 62

Overleaf, Graph 5 shows how the magnification factor varies with the excitation frequency for different values of .

Page | 38

Magnification v.s. Omega for different natural frequencies - Unloaded Beam

6.000

5.000

4.000
Magnification/ M

3.000

1 2 3

2.000

1.000

0.000 0.000

1000.000

2000.000

3000.000

4000.000

5000.000

6000.000

7000.000

Excitation frequency, omega/ rad/s

Graph 5 - Magnification factor against excitation frequency for different natural frequencies of the unloaded system

Page | 39

C.4 - Natural Frequencies of Loaded Cantilever Beam

Figure 26 - The deflected cantilever beam, under its own weight and those of the edge loads

The Durnkerleys empirical method was used to calculate the multiple natural frequencies of the loaded cantilever beam as shown below, 1 1 1 2 = 2 + 2
Eqn. 63

Where is the natural frequency of the loaded cantilever beam

2 =

2 4 2
Eqn. 64

For each natural frequency for = 1 to 4.

is the frequency of vibration of the both concentrated loads acting alone on the beam 2 = 4 2
Eqn. 65

Where = 1 Where = + And from Eqn. 10,

Page | 40

 1 = Therefore,

3 3

3 = 3
Eqn. 66

Substituting for , 2 = 3 4 2 3
Eqn. 67

is a natural frequency of the unloaded cantilever beam. Hence from the exact solution above,
2

2 = 4 2
Eqn. 68

For each natural frequency for = 1 to 4.

Substituting Eqn. 64, Eqn. 67 and Eqn. 68 into Eqn. 63, 4 2 4 2 3 4 2 = + 2 3 2 1 3 1 2 = + 3 2 3 2 + 3 1 2 = 2 3 3 2 2 = 3 2 + 3

Eqn. 69

For each natural frequency for = 1 to 4. Overleaf, Graph 6 shows how the magnification factor varies with the excitation frequency for different values of . It can be seen that once the masses have been added the higher order natural frequencies tend to converge.

Page | 41

Magnification v.s. Omega for different natural frequencies - Loaded Beam

6.000

5.000

4.000

Magnification/ M

1 3.000 2 3 4 2.000

1.000

0.000 0.000

100.000

200.000

300.000 W/ rad/s

400.000

500.000

600.000

Graph 6 - Plot of the magnification factor against the excitation frequency for different values of the natural frequency of the loaded structure

Page | 42

Group Effort
Agius, Maria Kristina (389492M) _______________________________

Borg, Joseph Alexander (487092M)

_______________________________

Buhagiar, Liana (557992M)

_______________________________

Farrugia, Matthew (122190M)

_______________________________

Zammit, Nathan John (9993M)

_______________________________

Page | 43

References
[1] P. G. C. Scheffer, 3. Data Acquisition, in Practical Machinery Vibration Analysis & Predictive Maintenance, Newnes, 2004. [2] C. I. Ltd., How Does the Instrument Work?, in Beginner's Guide to Machine Vibration , Christ church, New Zealand, Commtest Instruments Ltd. , 2006, p. 29. [3] P. corporation, Current Signature Analysis, 2008. [Online]. Available: http://www.pdma.com/pdfs/Articles/Advanced_Spectral_Analysis.pdf. [Accessed 27 April 2013]. [4] S. Mackay, Ed., in Practical Machinery Vibration Analysis and Predictive Maintenance , Newnes, 2004, pp. 90-128. [5] M. Sondalini, Vibration and its Control, Feed Forward Flyer, vol. 154, February 2011. [6] in Root Cause Failure Analysis, ButterworthHeinemann, 1999, p. 147. [7] in Structural Vibration: Analysis and Damping , New York, Arnold, 1996, p. 3. [8] Rotating Machinery Fault Diagnosis Techniques -Envelope and Cepstrum Analyses, SpectraQuest, Inc., 1 10 2006. [Online]. Available: http://spectraquest.com/technote_display/?technote_id=23. [Accessed 20 4 2013]. [9] H. K.-H. a. H. Herlufsen, Sound&Vibration Magazine, 5 2010. [Online]. Available: http://www.sandv.com/downloads/1005hans.pdf. [Accessed 12 4 2013]. [10] J. H. Padovani, Spectral envelope extraction by means of cepstrum analysis and filtering in Pure Data, Unicamp (Arts Institute), Campinas, Brazil. [11] Em.Prof.R.B.Randall, Machine Diagnostics using Advanced signal Processing, School of mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, The University of New South Wales, New South Wales, Sydney, Australia. [12] S. G. Kelly, Table 9.4, in Fundamentals of Mechanical Vibrations, McGraw-Hill, 2000, pp. 481485. [13] A Guide To using IMU (Accelerometer and Gyroscope Devices) in Embedded Applications., 2009. [Online]. Available: http://www.starlino.com/imu_guide.html. [Accessed 25 April 2013]. [14] in Root Cause Failure Analysis, ButterworthHeinemann, 1999, p. 140. [15] P. G. Cornelius Scheffer, Machinery Fault Diagnosis using vibration Analysis, in Machinery Vibration Analysis and Predictive Maintenance, Oxford, IDC Technologies, 2004, pp. 89-133.

Page | 44

[16] D. S. IEng., Machinery Vibration Diagnositics, David Stevens IEng., 2001. [Online]. Available: http://www.vibanalysis.co.uk/vibanalysis/. [Accessed 30 April 2013]. [17] N. Inc., AC Induction Motor Problems, Vibration School, 2009. [Online]. Available: http://www.vibrationschool.com/mans/SpecInter/SpecInter38.htm. [Accessed 30 April 2013]. [18] W. D. Callister, Materials Science and Engineering - An Introduction, John Wiley & Sons, 2007.

Page | 45