Introduction to Laser Doppler Velocimetry

Ken Kiger Burgers Program For Fluid Dynamics Turbulence School College Park, Maryland, May 24-27

Laser Doppler Anemometry (LDA) Single-point optical velocimetry method

Study of the flow between rotating impeller blades of a pump

3-D LDA Measurements on a 1:5 Mercedes-Benz E-class model car in wind tunnel

Phase Doppler Anemometry (PDA) Single point particle sizing/velocimetry method

Droplet Size Distributions Drop Size and Velocity Measured in a Kerosene measurements in an atomized Stream of Moleten Metal Spray Produced by a Fuel Injector

Laser Doppler Anemometry

LDA
A high resolution - single point technique for velocity measurements in turbulent flows
A Back Scatter LDA System for One Velocity Component Measurement (Dantec Dynamics)

Basics
Seed flow with small tracer particles Illuminate flow with one or more coherent, polarized laser beams to form a MV Receive scattered light from particles passing through MV and interfere with additional light sources Measurement of the resultant light intensity frequency is related to particle velocity

LDA in a nutshell Benefits

Essentially non-intrusive Hostile environments Very accurate No calibration High data rates Good spatial & temporal resolution

Limitations
Expensive equipment Flow must be seeded with particles if none naturally exist Single point measurement technique Can be difficult to collect data very near walls

Review of Wave Characteristics

A
x

General wave propagation

x, t
A k x t

A cos 2

x, t

Re Ae i kx

= Amplitude = wavenumber = spatial coordinate = time = angular frequency = phase

2 c

2 c

Electromagnetic waves: coherence Light is emitted in wavetrains

Short duration, t Corresponding phase shift, (t); where may vary on scale t> t

E E o exp i kx

Light is coherent when the phase remains constant for a sufficiently long time
Typical duration ( tc) and equivalent propagation length ( lc) over which some sources remain coherent are:

Source White light Mercury Arc Kr86 discharge lamp Stabilized He-Ne laser

nom

(nm)

lc
8 m 0.3 mm 0.3 m 400 m

550 546 606 633

Interferometry is only practical with coherent light sources

Electromagnetic waves: irradiance Instantaneous power density given by Poynting vector

Units of Energy/(Area-Time)

S c 2 oE B

S c oE 2

More useful: average over times longer than light freq.

Frequency Range
6.10 x 1014

1 2 f t dt T t T2

5.20 x 1014

I
3.80 x 1014

2 T

c o E E 2

c o 2 E0 2

LDA: Doppler effect frequency shift Overall Doppler shift due two separate changes
The particle sees a shift in incident light frequency due to particle motion Scattered light from particle to stationary detector is shifted due to particle motion

b e

k k

s e

LDA: Doppler shift, effect I Frequency Observed by Particle

The first shift can itself be split into two effects
(a) the number of wavefronts the particle passes in a time t, as though the waves were stationary

u
b e k k

u eb t

Number of wavefronts particle passes during t due to particle velocity:

b t u e

LDA: Doppler shift, effect I Frequency Observed by Particle

The first shift can itself be split into two effects
(b) the number of wavefronts passing a stationary particle position over the same duration, t

b e

k k

c t
Number of wavefronts that pass a stationary particle during t due to the wavefront velocity:

c t

LDA: Doppler shift, effect I The net effect due to a moving observer w/ a stationary source is then the difference:

Number of wavefronts that pass a moving particle during t due to combined velocity (same as using relative velocity in particle frame):

c t

b t u e

Net frequency observed by moving particle

fp

# of wavefront s t b u e c 1 c b u e f0 1 c

LDA: Doppler shift, effect II

An additional shift happens when the light gets scattered by the particle and is observed by the detector
This is the case of a moving source and stationary u detector (classic train whistle problem)

u es t

es
c t

receiver lens

Distance a scattered wave front would travel during t in the direction of detector, if u were 0: Due to source motion, the distance is changed by an amount:

c t

s t u e
s t c t u e f p t s c u e fp

Therefore, the effective scattered wavelength is: net distance traveled by wave
s

number of waves emitted

LDA: Doppler shift, I & II combined

Combining the two effects gives:
f obs c
s

cf p s c u e

fp s u e 1 c

1 f0

b u e c s u e 1 c

For u << c, we can approximate

f obs b u e f0 1 c s u e 1 c
1

b s u e u e f0 1 1 c c f0 1 f0 1 s e b u e c f0 s e b u e c

s u e c

LDA: problem with single source/detector Single beam frequency shift depends on:
velocity magnitude Velocity direction observation angle

f obs

f0

f0 s e b u e c

Additionally, base frequency is quite high

O[1014] Hz, making direct detection quite difficult

Solution?
Optical heterodyne
Use interference of two beams or two detectors to create a beating effect, like two slightly out of tune guitar strings, e.g. 1
cos
1

t cos

cos

cos

Need to repeat for optical waves E1 Eo1 cos k1 r 1t

E2

Eo 2 cos k 2 r

Optical Heterodyne
Repeat, but allow for different frequencies
I I c o E1 E2 2 c o 2 E o1 2
2 Eo 2

E1 E01 exp i k1x

E1 E2

t
2

E01 exp i
2

1 2

E2
1

E02 exp i k2 x
2

E02 exp i
2

E 01 exp i

E 02 exp i
1 2

E 01 exp i

E 02 exp i

I
I

c o 2 E o1 2
c o 2 E o1 2

2 Eo 2 E 01E 02 2

exp i

exp i 2

2 Eo 2 E 01E 02 cos 2

c o 2 2 E o1 E o 2 E o1 E o2 cos k1 k 2 r 2 2 1 Io1 Io2 2 Io1Io 2 cos k1 k 2 r 2

I PED

t
1

I AC

How do you get different scatter frequencies?

For a single beam

fs f0 f0 s e b u e c

Frequency depends on directions of es and eb

Three common methods have been used

Reference beam mode (single scatter and single beam) Single-beam, dual scatter (two observation angles) Dual beam (two incident beams, single observation location)

Dual beam method

Real MV formed by two beams Beam crossing angle Scattering angle

Forward Scatter Configuration

Dual beam method (cont)

f s ,1 f s,2 f

f0 f0

f0 s ,1 e b ,1 u e c f0 s,2 e b, 2 u e c

Note that so:

b,1 e b,2 ) (e

g 2sin( / 2) x

u xg

2 sin

fD

f0 b, 2 e b,1 u e c

g direction Measure the component of u in the x

It

1 I o1 I o 2 2 I o1 I o 2 cos k 1 k 2 r 2

4 sin

u xg t

Fringe Interference description Interference fringes seen as standing waves

Particles passing through fringes scatter light in regions of constructive interference

2 sin

u xs f 2

Adequate explanation for particles smaller than individual fringes

Gaussian beam effects

A single laser beam profile

-Power distribution in MV will be Gaussian shaped -In the MV, true plane waves occur only at the focal point -Even for a perfect particle trajectory the strength of the Doppler burst will vary with position
Figures from Albrecht et. al., 2003

Non-uniform beam effects

Particle Trajectory Centered Off Center DC

AC

DC+AC

- Off-center trajectory results in weakened signal visibility -Pedestal (DC part of signal) is removed by a high pass filter after photomultiplier Figures from Albrecht et. al., 2003

Multi-component dual beam

^ xg

^ xb

Three independent directions

Two Component Probe Looking Toward the Transmitter

Sign ambiguity Change in sign of velocity has no effect on frequency

I 2I o 2 I o cos k1 k 2 r 2 f Dt
1 2

u xs

2 sin

fD

Xg beam 2

uxg> 0

beam 1 uxg< 0

Velocity Ambiguity Equal frequency beams

No difference with velocity direction cannot detect reversed flow

Solution: Introduce a frequency shift into 1 of the two beams

Bragg Cell
fb = 5.8 e14

fb2 = fbragg + fb

Xg

fb1 = fb

f s ,1 f s ,2 fD

fb s ,1 e b ,1 ) u (e c f s ,2 e b ,2 ) ( fb fbragg ) b u (e c fb b ,1 e b ,2 ) fbragg fbragg u (e c fb

New Signal
I
fD0
2 2 E01 cos( 2 { f D 0

f bragg }t )

If fD < fbragg then u < 0

Hypothetical shift Without Bragg Cell

Frequency shift: Fringe description Different frequency causes an apparent velocity in fringes
Effect result of interference of two traveling waves as slightly different frequency

Directional ambiguity (cont)

fbragg

fD s-1

uxg (m/s)
uxg ( fD0 fbragg ) 2sin( / 2)

nm, fbragg = 40 MHz and = 20 Upper limit on positive velocity limited only by time response of detector

Velocity bias sampling effects

LDA samples the flow based on
Rate at which particles pass through the detection volume Inherently a flux-weighted measurement Simple number weighted means are biased for unsteady flows and need to be corrected

Consider:
Uniform seeding density (# particles/volume) Flow moves at steady speed of 5 units/sec for 4 seconds (giving 20 samples) would measure:

5 * 20 5 20

Flow that moves at 8 units/sec for 2 sec (giving 16 samples), then 2 units/sec for 2 second (giving 4 samples) would give

16 * 8 4 * 2 20

6.8

Laser Doppler Anemometry

Velocity Measurement Bias

U x ,i Ux
i 1

i N i i 1

n x

U x ,i U x
i 1

n i N i i 1

Mean Velocity

nth moment

Bias Compensation Formulas

- The sampling rate of a volume of fluid containing particles increases with the velocity of that volume - Introduces a bias towards sampling higher velocity particles

Phase Doppler Anemometry

The overall phase difference is proportional to particle diameter

2 ni D

, , , n p , ni

Multiple Detector Implementation

The geometric factor, - Has closed form solution for p = 0 and 1 only - Absolute value increases with elevation angle relative to 0) - Is independent of np for reflection
Figures from Dantec