Language LearnirgSryles

and Strategies
P..EBECC AO X F O R D L.
In"Language Learning Styles andStrategies," Oxtordsynthesizes research from various partsof the worldon two keyvariables affecting language learning;sty/es, i,e,, general one's approach to learning a language; andstrctegtes, the speci{ic behaviors or thoughts li:arners useto enhance theirlanguage learning,These factors influence the student's ability in a particular instructional frameworl<,

INTRODUCTION
Languagelearning stylesand strategiesare among the main factors that help determine how*and howwell-our students learna second or foreignlanguage. A second language is a language studiedin a setting wherethat language is the mainvehicleof everyday communication and where abundantinput existsin that language. A foreignlanguageis a language studiedin an environment. whereit is not the primaryvehicle for dailyinteractionand whereinput in that language is restr icted.Following the traditionin our field, the term L2 is usedin this chapterto refer to eithera second or a foreignlanguage. The readersof this book will be primarily in the field of English as a secondor foreign language(ESLor EFL), and most of the studies in this chapter were conducted in ESL/EFLsettings. However, some of the studieshere focused on nativeEngliskr speakers learningFrench,German, or other languages foreignto them. " Japanese, Lea,tning styl.es are the generalapproachesfor example,global or analytic,auditory or visual-that students use in acquiring a new langgage or in learningany othersubject. These styles are "the overall patternsthat give general direction to learning behavior" (Cornett 1983, p, 9). Of greatestrelevance to this methodolog,l' "Learning book is this statement: sryleis the bio. logrcally and developmentally imposed setof characteristics that make the sameteachingmethod wonderful for some and terrible for others" (Dunn and Griggs 1988,p. 3). This chapter exolores

sensorypreferences, personalitytypes,desired degreeof generality, and biologicaldifferences. Learningstrategies are defined as "specific actions, behaviors, steps, or techniques*suchas seeking out conversation partners, or givingoneselfencouragement to tacklea difficultlanguage task-used by studentsto enhancetheir own learning" (Scarcella and Oxford 1992,p. 63). When the learnerconsciously chooses s[rategies that fit his or her learning styleand the L2 task at hand, thesestrategies becomea useful toolkit for active,conscious, and purposefulselfregulationof learning.Learning strategies can be classified into six $pes: cognitive,metacognitive, memory-related, compensatoryaffective,and social. Wewill discuss eachof these later. Becausethis chapter contributes to an instructionalmethodology book, it is important to emphasize that individual students' learning styles and strategies can work together with-or conflictwith-a given instructional methodology. (a) the student(in If thereis harmony between terms of sryleand strategy preferences) and (b) the instructional methodologyand materials, then the student is likely to perform wel[, feel confident,and experience low anxiety. If clashes (a) (b), occurbetween and the student often performs poorly,lacls confidence,and experiences significantanxie$ Sometimes lead suchclashes to seriousbreakdownsin teacher-student interaction.TheseConflicts may alsoleadto the dispirited student'soutright rejection of the teaching the teachgr,or the subjectmatter methodology, Now we move to the detaileddiscussion of learn"

LEARNIN.G STYLES.

Hispaniclearners werefrequentlyauditory. Reid discovered thatJapanese werevery nonauditorv. ESLstudents from a variety of culiuresweretac_ tile and kinesthetic in their sensory preferences. Seealso Reid J.l.g,g$-,3p$,Oxford and Anderson

(1ee5).

PersonalityTypes
Learningsryles are not dichotomous (black or white, present or absent), but generally operate on a continuumor on multiple,interseciing continua.For example, a personmight be more extrovertedthan introverted,or more closure_ oriented than open, or equally visualand audi_ tory but lesskinesthetic and tactile.Fewif any peoplecould be classified ashavingall or norh_ ing in anyof these categories (Ehrman19g6). Another styleaspect that is important for LZ edu_ cation is personalitytype,which consists of four strands:extrovertedversusintroverted;intuitive_

work of psychologistCarl J,mg. Ehrman and Oxford (1989,1gg0)found significantrelation_

SensoryPreferences
Sensorypreferences can be broken down into Extroverted versus Introverted By definition, extrovertsgain their greatestenergy from the external world. They want interaction with people and havemany friendships,somedeep and somenot. In contrast, introvertsderivetheir energy from the internalworld, seeking solitude and tending to have just a fewfriendships, which are often very deep. Extrovertsand introverts can learn to work togetherwith the help of the teacher.Enforcing time limits in the LZ classroom can keepextroverts' enthusiasm to a manaqelblg lbvel. Rotating the person in charge of: leading L2 discussions gives introverts in opportunity to participateequally with extroverts. trntuitive:Random versus Sensing-Sequential Intuitiverandom students think in abstract, futuristic, large-scale, and nonsequentialways.They like to createtheoriesand new possibitities, often

the most comfortable. Visualstudents like to read and obtain a grea.t deal from visualstimulation. For them, Iectures,conversations, and ,oral

consistencyThe kev to teachingboth innritiverandomand sensing*equential learyersis to offer

varietv

structurefor sensing-sequential learne$,,and at othertimesmultipleoptionsand enrichrnent activ_ itiesfor intuitive-random stud,ents. Thinking versusFeeling Thinking learnersare oriented toward the stark truth, even if it hurts somepeople'sfeelings. They want to be viewed as competentand do not tend to offer praise easily-even though they might secretly:iesire to be praisedthemselves. Sometimes they seem detached. In comparison, feelinglearners value other people in very personalways.They show gmpathyand compassion through words, not just behaviors, and saywhateveiis needed to srnooth over difficult situations.Thougfr they often wear their hearts on their sleevis,they want to be respected for personalcontributions and hard work. L2 teachers can help thinking learners showgreaterovertcompassion to their feeling classmates and can suggest that feeling learners might tone down their emotional expression whileworkingwith thinking learners. Closureorierrted/Judging vetsusOpen/perceiving Closure-oriented studentswant to reach judg_ mentsor cornpletionquickly and want clarityas soonaspossible. Thesestudents are serious, hard working learners who like to be glven written information and enjoy specifictaskswirh dead_ lines.Sometimes their desirefor closurehampers the. development of fluency(Ehrmanand Oxiord 1989). In contrast, openlearners wantto stay avail_ able for continuously new perceptions and are thefefore sqmetimescalled "perceiving.,'They takp,,L2;Iearning,less seriously, treatingit like a garnq,to be enjoyed rathqr than a setof talksto be conipleted.Open learnersdisliked.eadlines;'they wantto havea good time and seemto soakup L2 infbrmation by osmosis rather than hard effort. Open learnerssometimes do better than closureorientedlearnersin developing fluency (Ehrman Oxfold 19Bg), but they are ata disadvantage .a-n{, in a:traditional classroom setting. Closureoriented and open learnersprovide a good balancefor each,other in the L2 classroom. The former are taskdrivenlearners,and the lattet know how to have fun. Skilled L2 teachers$ometimescgl]: sciouslycreate cooperative groups that ,include both typesof learners, sincetheycanbenefitfrom collaboration with each

Desired Degree of Generatity

This strandcontrasts the learnerwho focuses on the main idea or big picture with the learner who concentrates on details. Globalorholisticsttt dents like sociallyinteractive,communicative eventsin which they can emphasize the main ideaand avoidanalysis of grammatical minutiae, They are comfortableevenwhen not havingall the information,and theyfeelfree to guesg dom the context. Analyticstudentstend to concen_ trate on grammatical details and often avoid more free-flowing communicative activities. Because of their concernfor precision,analytic learnerstypically do not takethe risksnecessarv fJom the conrexrunlessthey are lol.fugssing fairly sure of the accuracy of their grr.rr.r. Th. global student and the analyticsiudent have much to learn from each other. A balance between generality and specificity is very useful for L2learning.

BiologicalDifferences
Differences in L2 learningstyle canalsobe related to biological factors,such as biorhlthms, suste_ nance, and location, Bimhythmsr.o.ui the times,of daywhen students feel good and perform thqir best. Some L2 learners aremorningpeople, whil. others do not want to start learning until the afternoon, and still others are creaturesof the evening,happily "pulling an all-nighter"when necessary. Sustenance refers to the need for food, or drink while learning.euite a number of.LZ learnersfeel very comfortable learning with a candybar,a cup ofcoffee,or a sodain hind, but others are distractedfrom shrdy by food and drink. Locatlioninvolves the natureof ihe environment:temperature,lighting, sound, and eventhe fii-mness of the chairs.L2 studentsdiJfer widelv with regard to theseenvironmental factors.The biologicalaspects of L2learning,styleare often can often make - forgotten, but vigilant teachers accommodations and compromises wtrenneeded.

Beycrrd the Srylistic Comfort Zone

L2 learners clearly need to make the moqt of their sryle preferences.: However,ocCasionaily

preferences. By providing a wide range of classroom activitiesthat cater to different learning styles,teacherscan help L2 students develoi beyondthe comfort zonedictatedby their natural stylepreferences. The keyis sptematically offering a great variery of activitieswithin a learner_ centered, communicative approach.

Yet studentsare not always awareof the powerof consciously usingL2 learningstrategies to make learning quicker and more effective

Assessin g LZ LearningStyle
By far the most commontypeof assessment tool for L2 learningstyles is thewrittensurvey in which students answer questions that revealtheir partic_ ular style preferences. Sryle surveys varyin reliability and validity,trut in the last few decadesthey haveprovideddata from which teachers and students have begun to understandLZ sryles.See Reid (1995) for examples of suchsurueys. Wehavetouchedupon a numberof imporlant dimensions of L2 learningstyle.Now we are ready to turn to learning strategies, which are related to learningstyles but arefarmorespecific.

StrategyUse Often Relates

to Sryle Preferences
!\fhen left to their owndevices, and if not encour_ agedby the teacher or forced by the lesson to use a certain set of sffategies, shrdents use learning strategies that reflect their basic learning srylei (Ehrpan andOxford1989;Oxford 1996a, iOOOny. However, teachers can actively help stucients "stretch"their learningstyles by tryrngsomestrategiesthat are oulsideof their primarystylepreferences. This assistance canhappenthroughstrategy instruction, asdiscussed later in ftis chapter.

LEARNING STRATEGIES
As seen earlier, L2 learningstrategies are specific behaviors or thoughtprocesses that studenBuse to enhance their ownLZ learning. The word s/rafsgy comes from ttre ancientGreekword strategia, which means"steps or actionsgenerals take for the. purpose of winning a war." The warlike meaning of strategia hasfortunatelyfallen away, but the control anCgoal-directedness remain in the modernversionof the word (Oxford I9g0). A grven strategy is neithergoodnor bad;it is neutr:il until the contextof its useis thoroughly considered, What ma.kes a strategF positiveand, helpful for a given learner? A straregy is usefulif the followingconditions are presenu(a) the straregyrelates well to rheL2 taskar hand;(b) the strategy fits the particular student's learning sfyle preferences to one degree or another;and (c) the shrdent ernploys the strategy effectively and linla it with other releyantstrategies. Strategies that fulfill these conditions "make learning :qasier,faster, more enjopble,moreselFdirected, more effective, and more transferable (Oxford to newsituations" 1990, p. B).Learning strategies canalsoenable studentsto becomemoreindepend.ent, autonomous,
lifelonp'learners qqn'

Conscious MovementTowardGoals
Learning strategies are intentionallyused ancl consciously controlledby the learner(pressley with McCormick 1995). In our field,virtuallyall definitions of strategies irnply conscious movement toward a languagegoal (Bialystok1gg0; Oxford 1990,1996a).Le.t us considerDivna, whosegoal is to conductresearch in chemistry with the help of arricles wrirtenin the LZ. Sheis a busyprofessional with no extra time for readingjournals,but sheneedsthe informationthey contain:To meet the need,sheplansa manageable task: finding and readingoneL2 articleper weekon chemistryuntil shedevelops a rapidreading rate and is able to identify and understand publishedresearch findings. Strategies to help Divnaaccomplish thistaskmight includescheduling time eachweekLosearch for an articlein the libraryor on the Internet,or preparing herseHby lookingatarticles on relatedtopics in her ownlanguage. In addition,shecould usestrategies suchas. skimming for the main points, readingcarefully for supportingdetails, keepinga notebookforL2 scientificvocabularyusing the dictionaryto look dfficult.words,guessing the meaningof words |p from the cortext,.2nd making a r,irittenoutline or

To increaseL2 proficiency,some researchers and teachers haveprovidedinstructionto help stucients learn how to use more relevant and Positive Outcomesfrom StrategyUse more powerfullearning srrategies. In ESL/EFL studies,positiveeffectsof strategyinstruction emgrged for proficiencyin ,p.uki.,g (Dadour and Robbins1996;O'Malleyet al. tOSf; ana reading (Park-OhLgg4),althoughresultsfor lis_ werenor significant (O'Milley et al. lg8b). T:i"S Chamotet al. (1gg6),Cohenet al. (lggb), and to science. In light of thisremarkable Cohen andWeaver association (19g8) investigated the effects of strategyinstruction among-native-Engiish_ speaking learners of foreignlangrlages Snd,found somepositive resultsmixed with neutralfindings, in other studies,strategyinstruction led.io increased EFLlearningmotivation (Nunanlgg7) Pons1986). and, among native-English-speaking learners of In the L2 arcna,earlystudiesof so-called foleign languages, greaterstrategy use and selflearners', (Naimanet al. lgTb; efficacy (Chamot Sooalanguage et al. 1gg6) Rubin 1975)determinedthat suchlearners The most effective strategyinstruction con_ sistently usedcertaintlpesof learningstrategies, appears to include demonstrating when a given such as guessing from context. However, strategy might be useful,as well as how to use later studiesfound that there was no single set of and evaluate it, and how to transferit to other ',good stra-tegies always usedby related tasks language and situations. learn_ So far, research has ers."Thgsestudies found that lessablelearners shownthe mostbeneficial strategy instruction.to usedstrategies in a random,unconnected, bp-woven into regular, everyday and LZ teaching, uncontrolled manner (Abraham and Vann although other waysof strategy instruction are 1987; Chamoret al, lgg6), while more effecrive possible (Oxfordand Leaver 19g6). learnersshowedcarefulorchegtration of strate_

strategleq Divna usesmight be called-a strategl chai,n-,-aset of interlocking,related,and mutualTy supportive strategies.

Strategy InstructionResearch

Six Main Categories of LZ Learning Strategies

Six major groupsof LZ learningstrategies have been identified by Oxford (lgg0). Aliernative taxonomies havebeen offeredby O'Malleyand. Chamot(1990)and orhers Cognitiae strategies enable the learner to manipulatethe languagematerialin direct ways, e.g.,throughreasoning, analysis, notetaking, sum_ marizing, rymthesizing, outlining, ouorgirririrrg information to devel op strongersch emas(knowl_ edgestnrctures), practicingin naturalistic settings, antl practicing structuresand soundsfornraliv. sf.rategies were significantly reiated to _Cggnitive L2 proficiencyin studiesby lhto (1g96), Ku (1995), Oxford and Ehrman (lggb), Oxford,

Englishin PuertoRico,more successful students usedstrategies for activeinvolvement more fre_ quentlythan did lesssuccessful learners accord_ ing, to Green and Oxford (lg9b). The same researchers also commentedthat the number

:languag.leatrn Oxford discovered that second ers qeneralf enrployedmore strategies with higher

others. Of these studies, threewerespecifically in EFL settings: Ku (Thiwan),Oxford,Judd, and Giesen(Turkey),and Park (Korea).The other two studiesinvolved the learning of Ihnji by native English speakers(I(ato t0gO) and the learning of variousforeign languages by native English (Oxfordand Ehnnan1g9b). speakers Met aco gnitia est:r ate gie s (e.g., identi$zingone's own learningstylepreferences and needs,planning for an L2 task,gathering and organizing materials, arranging a studyspace anda schedule, monitoringmistakes, evaluating tasksuccess, and evaluatingthe success of any tlpe of learning strateff) areemployed for managing the learnin[ processoverall.Among native Englishspeakeri learning foreign languages, Purpura (tggg) found that metacognitive strategies had "a significant,positive, direct effect on cognitive strategy use,providingclear e."{dence that metacognitive strategy use has an executivefunction over cognitivestrategy use in task completion" (p. 61). Studies of EFLlearners in various countries (e.g., South Africa [Dreyer and Oxford 1996] and Turkey fOxford,Judd, and Giesenlgg8]) uncovered evidence 1.hat metacognitive strategies are oftenstrongpredictors of L2 pro{iciency. Memory-relatud rtratugieshelp learners link one L2 item or concept with another, but do not necessarilyinvolve deep understanding.Various rretrror/ relatedstrategies enablelearners to learn and retrieve information in an orderly string(e.g., acronylns), while other techniques createlearning and retrievalvia sounds (e.g., rhyrning), ('e.g., images a.mental pictureof theword, itselfor the meaning of the word), a combinationof soundsand images(e.g.;the keyr4rord method), body movgment(e.g.,Total Physical Response), mechanical (e.g.,flashcards), meanr; or location (e.g., on a pageor blackboard) (see Oxford 1990 for details and multiple examples).Memoryrelatedstrategies havebeen shownto relateto LZ proficiencyin a coursedevoted to memorizing large numbersof Kanii characters(I(ato 1996) and in L2 coursesdesignedfor native-Englishspeaking learnersof foreign languages (Oxford and Ehrman 1995). However,memory-related strategles do not always positively relateto L2 pro ficiency.In fact, the use of mernorystrategies in
a test-takins

relationship to learners' testperforrnance in grammar and vocabulary (Purpura1gg7). The protr_ ablereason for thisis thatwhilememorystrategies are often used for memorizingvocabulary and structuresin initial stages of language learning, learners needsuchstrategies much iess whentheir arsenalof vocabularyand, structures hasbecome largeranciautomaticresponses areexpected. Com,prnsatory strategiw (e.g., guessingfrorn contextin listeningand reading,usingslnonyms and "talking around" the missingword to aid speaking and writing,and-strictJy for speaking* using gestures or pause words) help the learner make up fbr missingknowledge. Cohen (lgg8) asserts that compensatory strategies that are,used forspeaking andwriting (oftenknownasoneform of communication strategies) are intendedonly for language use and mustnot be considered to be language leaming strategies. I{owever, Little (personalcommunication, 1999) and Oxford J^nuary, (1990, 1999a) haveconrended thatcompensarion strategies of any kind, eventhough theymight be used for languageuse, nevertheless aid in languagelearning aswell.After all, eachinstance of L2 useis an opportunityfor more L2 learning, Oxford and Ehrman (1995) demonstrared that compensatory strategies aresignificantly relatedto L2 proficiencyin their study of native-Englishspeaking learnersof foreignlanguages. Affectiae strategr,es, such as identifying one's mood and anxietylevel,talking aboutfeelings, rewardingoneselffor good performance, and using deep breathingor positiveself-talk, have beenshownto be significantly relatedto LZ proficiency in research by Dreyer and Oxford (1996)amongSouthAfricanESLlearners and by Oxford and Ehrman (1995) amongnarive English speakerslearning foreign languages. However, in other studies, such as that of Mullins (1992)with EFL learners in Thailand, affective strategies showeda negative link with some measures of L2 proficiency.One reason might be that as somestudentsprogress toward proficiency, they haveless needfor affective strategies.Perhaps bgcause learners'use of cognitive, metacognitive, and socialstrategies is relatedto greaterLZ,proficiency and self-efficacy, overtime there might be lessneedfor affective strategies as

stra{egr,,eg (e;g.,askingquestions to get . ^Social verification,askingfor clarificationof a confus_ ing point, askingfor help in doing a language task,talkingwith a native-speaking conversation partner, and exploring cultural and social norms) heip the learnerwork with others and understandthe target culture aswell asthe lan-

Assessing Styles andStrategies in the LZ Classroom

L2 teachers could benefitby assessing the learn_ ing stylesand,the strategy use of their students, because such assessment leadsto greaterunderstanding of stylesand strategies. Teachersalso need to assess their own styles and strategies, so that theywill be aware of their preferences and of possible biases. Usefulmeans existto make these assessments, as mentionedearlier. Tbachers can learn aboutassessment optionsby readingbooks or journals,attendingprofessional, confeiences, or takingrelevantcourses or workshops.

Ehrman'(I99b).

fusessing Learners'IJsecf Strategies

Many assessment tools exist for uncoveringthe strategies used by L2 learners.Self-reporu surveys,observalions, interviews, learnerjclurnals, journals, think-aloudtechniques, dialogue and other measures havebeen used.Each one of thesehasadvantages and disadvantages, as analyzed by Oxford (1990) and Cohen and Scort (1996). The mostwidely usediurvey,rhe Strategy Inaentory Language Learning (an appenclixin for Oxford 1990),has been translated into more than 20 languaggs and used in dozensof publishedstudiesaroundthe world. Variouslearningstrategy instruments have disclosedresearch results beyond those that havebeen alreadymentioned.Theseadditional

Attuning L2 Instruction and Strategy Instruction to Learners'StyleNeedi

The more that teachersknow about their stu_ dents'stylepreferences, the more effective,ly they can orient their L2 instruction, aswell asthe straiegy instruction that can be interwoven into language instruction,matchedto thosestylepreferences. Some leamersmight need instruction

teachers cannotsystematically providethe needed instructional variety.

Remembering ThatNo SingleLz lnstructionalMethodology Fits All Students

Styles and strategies help determinea particular learner'sability and willingness to work within the frameworkof variousinstructionalmethodologies. It is foolhardyto think that a singleLZ methodology could possiblyfit an entire class filled with studentswho havea range of stylistic and strategicpreferences. Insteadoi choosinga specificinstnrctional methodology, L2 teachers would do better to employa broad instructional approach, notabllrthe'bestversion of the communicativeapproachthat contains a combinedfocus on form and fluency.Suchan approach allowsfor deliberate, creative variety to meetthe needsof all

mQjor, beliefs,and:the nature of the L2 task.A number of thesefindingshavebeen summarized in:Oxford(1999a, 1999b).

IMFLICATIONS FOR L2TEACFIING

Preparingfor and Conducting StrategyInstruction

L2 teachers shouldconsider various ways to prepare to conduct strategyinstruction in their classes. Helpful preparatory steps include taking teacherdevelopmentcourses, finding relevant information in print or on the Internet, and makingcbntacts with specialists. Although we do not yer know all we wish to about optimal strategy instruction,there is growing evidence that L2 teachers canand shouldconduct strategy instructionin their classrooms. For someteachers it might be betterto startwith srnall strategy interventions, suchashelping LZ readers learn to analyze words and guess meanings from context,ratherthan with full-scale sirategies-based instructioninvoivinga vastarray of Iearningstrategiesand the four language skills(reading, witing, speaking, and listening).(See Oxford 1990for a table of L2 strategies basedon the six categories cross-indexed by the four language skills.) Other teachers might want to move rapidly into strategiesSased instruction.Strategies-based instruction is not somuch a separate "instructional method" as it is sound strategy instmction interwovenwith the generalcommunicative language teachingapproachnoted above.Chamot and OrMalley(1996)describethe CALLA model, a form of strategy-based instruction for ESLlearners that includesexplicit strategy instruction,content areainstruction,and academic language develop ment.Cohen(1998) presents a differentbut somewhatrelatedversionof strategies-based instruction for native Englishspeakers learning foreign langr+ages. In evaluatingthe success of any strategy instruction,teachers should look for students' progresstowardL2 proficiencyand for signsof increased self-efficacy or motivation.

5. Notetakingis sometimes thought.of as an academicsurvivalskill. !\hat criteria would need to be present to make notetakingan acluallearningstrategy?

SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES
1. Find a publishedlearning styleinstrument and administer it to yourself. Scoreit. \A1rat kind of learnerare you? 2. Write down ways that your learning style affectsyour teaching.Compare your findings with thoseof a colleague or friend.Considir in whatways you canbuildflexibiliry inro your instruction to meetthe needs of yourstudents. 3. Take a strategy survey, responding according to the mostrecentL2 you have learned(or to whichyouhave beenexposed). V/hatareyour patternsof strategy use? Which categories of strategies do you usethe most,and which do you usethe least? Consider whythisis so. 4. Administera styleinstrumentand a strategy instrument to your L2 students. Scorethese two instrumentsand comparethe group,s resultson both. What linkagesdo you see betweenthe students'styles and their strategies? What differences exist? 5. Startweaving strategy instructioninto your I,l teaching. Whateffects do yousee? Whatmight you do next to strengthen strategy instruction?

FURTHER READING
Cohen, A. D. 1998.Strategiu in Lea,ming and Using a Second, Language. Essex, UK Longman. Ehrman,M. 1996.Second Language Leaming Dfficulties : Loohing Beneath theSurface. ThousandOaks,CA: Sage. O'Malley, J. M., and A. U. Chamot.lgg0. Leamins Strateg,u in Second Language Acquisitioi. press. Cambridge: Cambridge University Oxford, R. L. 1990.Language Leo,ming Strategta: Wat Evay Tbachu Shoull, Know. Boston, MA: Heinle & HeinlePublishers. Oxford, R. L. 1996. LanguageLearning Strategies AroundLhe World: Cross-culturat Paspectiux. Manoa: University of HawaiiPress. Reid,J. 1995.Lea,rning Sryks in tfu ESL/EFLClttssroom.

DrscusstoN QUESTTONS
1. What is the diffierence between learningsryIes

4, What do we know,about"optirnal" strategy