Building Technology 1 - MATERIALS IN BUILDING CONSTRUCTION I. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. HISTORICAL TIMELINE OF CONCRETE 12,000,000 BC.

Reactions between limestone and oil shale during spontaneous combustion occurred in Israel to form a natural deposit of cement compounds. The deposits were characterized by Israeli geologists in the 1960's and 70's. Concrete itself is actually a phenomenon of nature. Discovered in Israel, natural deposits of cement compounds were said to have formed due to reactions between limestone and oil shale, employing spontaneous combustion. 5600 BC. The earliest concrete yet discovered in Europe was developed along the Danube River in Yugoslavia. Stone age hunters /fishermen mixed red lime, sand, gravel and water to construct floors for their huts 3000 BC. The Egyptians were using early forms of concrete over 5000 years ago to build pyramids. They mixed mud and straw to form bricks and used gypsum and lime to make mortars. Chinese used cementitious materials to hold bamboo together in their boats and in the Great Wall. The Chinese used concrete in Gansu Province in northwest china. "It was greenish-black in color; it was used for floors and contained cement mixed with sand, broken pottery, bones and water." 800 BC. Greeks, Crete & Cyprus used lime mortars which were much harder than later Roman mortars. The Babylonians and Assyrians used bitumen to bind stone and bricks. This allowed them to combine both large and small stone objects together. 600 BC. In 600 B.C., "The Greeks discovered a natural pozzolan on Santorini Island that developed hydraulic properties when mixed with lime. This made it possible to produce concrete that would harden under water, as well as in the air." 400 BC-200 AD. Petra (Greek, "city of rock"), ancient city of Arabia, is in what is now southwestern Jordan. The stronghold and treasure city of the Nabataeans, an Arab people, Petra is referred to as Sela in the Bible. 300 BC. Babylonians & Assyrians Used bitumen to bind stones and bricks. Romans used slaked lime a volcanic ash called pozzuolana, found near Pozzouli by the bay of Naples. They used lime as a cementitious material. Pliny reported a mortar mixture of 1 part lime to 4 parts sand. Vitruvius reported a 2 parts pozzuolana to 1 part lime. Animal fat, milk, and blood were used as admixtures. 300 BC - 476 AD - Roman Architecture. The ancient Romans used a material that is remarkably close to modern cement to build many of their architectural marvels, such as the Colosseum, and the Pantheon. The Romans also used animal products in their cement as an early form of admixtures. Romans used pozzolona cement from Pozzuoli, Italy near Mt. Vesuvius to build the Appian Way, Roman baths, the Coliseum and Pantheon in Rome, and the Pont du Gard aqueduct in south France. They used lime as a cementitious material. Pliny reported a mortar mixture of 1 part lime to 4 parts sand. Vitruvius reported a 2 parts pozzolona to 1 part lime. Animal fat, milk, and blood were used as admixtures (substances added to cement to increase the properties.) These structures still exist today! 193 BC. Porticus Aemelia is made of bound stones to form concrete. 75 BC. Romans use a pozzolanic, hydraulic cement to build the theater at Pompeii and the Roman baths. The cement was a ground mix of lime and a volcanic ash containing silica and alumina. This volcanic material was discovered near Pozzouli, Italy, hence the name pozzolanic cement. 44 BC. The Palatine Hill (Latin: Palatium) is the centermost of the seven hills of Rome and is one of the most ancient parts of the city of Rome, Italy. It is some 70 meters high and looks down on one side upon the Forum Romanum and on the other side upon the Circus Maximus. 25 BC. An ancient harbor at Caesarea, Israel was commissioned and built by Herod the Great. Built using hydraulic concrete to construct breakwaters. Caesarea is located half way between Tel Aviv and Haifa along the Mediterranean in Israel. 79 AD. Pompeii is a ruined Roman city near modern Naples in the Italian region of Campania, in the territory of the commune of Pompeii. It was destroyed and completely buried during a catastrophic eruption of the volcano Mount Vesuvius on 24 August 79 AD. 80 AD. Roman Army engineers built Aqueducts to serve many of the major cities of the empire. Shown here is a part of the original 56 mile aqueduct between Eiffel and Cologne built by the Romans in 80 AD. The inside measurements of this section are 44 inches high and 30 inches wide, with approximately 15-inch walls. 82 AD. The Colosseum is completed using large amounts of Roman concrete. 128 AD. The Pantheon is completed. This 142 ft. diameter unreinforced concrete dome remained the largest spanning dome until it was surpassed in 1913. It is made of aggregates that vary in density from basalt in the foundations, through brick and volcanic tuff in the upper walls, to the lightest of pumice at the top After 400 AD. The art of concrete was lost after the fall of the Roman Empire. Most concrete construction for next 1300 years used lime based mortars and concretes. 700. Saxons built concrete mixers in the form of shallow bowls cast into bedrock. A beam fixed with paddles rotated about a central post hole that was human or animal powered. 1200 - 1500. The Middle Ages. The quality of cementing materials deteriorated. The use of burning lime and pozzolan (admixture) was lost, but reintroduced in the 1300's. 1678. Joseph Moxon wrote about a hidden fire in heated lime that appears upon the addition of water. 1779. Bry Higgins was issued a patent for hydraulic cement (stucco) for exterior plastering use. 1780. Bry Higgins published "Experiments and Observations Made With the View of Improving the Art of Composing and Applying Calcereous Cements and of Preparing Quicklime."

9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22.

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23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57.

1793. John Smeaton found that the calcinations of limestone containing clay gave a lime which hardened under water (hydraulic lime). He used hydraulic lime to rebuild Eddystone Lighthouse in Cornwall, England which he had been commissioned to build in 1756, but had to first invent a material that would not be affected by water. He wrote a book about his work. 1796. James Parker from England patented a natural hydraulic cement by calcining nodules of impure limestone containing clay, called Parker's Cement or Roman Cement. 1802. In France, a similar Roman Cement process was used. 1810. Edgar Dobbs received a patent for hydraulic mortars, stucco, and plaster, although they were of poor quality due to lack of kiln precautions. 1812 -1813. Louis Vicat of France prepared artificial hydraulic lime by calcining synthetic mixtures of limestone and clay. 1818. Maurice St. Leger was issued patents for hydraulic cement. Natural Cement was produced in the USA. Natural cement is limestone that naturally has the appropriate amounts of clay to make the same type of concrete as John Smeaton discovered. 1820 - 1821. John Tickell and Abraham Chambers were issued more hydraulic cement patents. 1822. James Frost of England prepared artificial hydraulic lime like Vicat's and called it British Cement. 1824. Portland Cement Invented. Joseph Aspdin of England invented portland cement by burning finely ground chalk with finely divided clay in a lime kiln until carbon dioxide was driven off. The sintered product was then ground and he called it portland cement named after the high quality building stones quarried at Portland, England. 1828. I. K. Brunel is credited with the first engineering application of portland cement, which was used to fill a breach in the Thames Tunnel. 1830. The first production of lime and hydraulic cement took place in Canada. 1836. Cement Testing. The first test of tensile and compressive strength took place in Germany. The first systematic tests of tensile and compressive strength took place in Germany. 1843 J. M. Mauder, Son & Co. were licensed to produce patented portland cement. 1845. Isaac Johnson claims to have burned the raw materials of portland cement to clinkering temperatures. 1849. Pettenkofer & Fuches performed the first accurate chemical analysis of portland cement. 1860. The beginning of the era of portland cements of modern composition. 1862. Blake Stonebreaker of England introduced the jaw breakers to crush clinkers. 1867. Joseph Monier of France reinforced William Wand's (USA) flower pots with wire ushering in the idea of iron reinforcing bars (re-bar). 1871. David Saylor was issued the first American patent for portland cement. He showed the importance of true clinkering. 1880. J. Grant of England show the importance of using the hardest and densest portions of the clinker. Key ingredients were being chemically analyzed. 1886. The first rotary kiln was introduced in England to replace the vertical shaft kilns. 1887. Henri Le Chatelier of France established oxide ratios to prepare the proper amount of lime to produce portland cement. He named the components: Alite (tricalcium silicate), Belite (dicalcium silicate), and Celite (tetracalcium aluminoferrite). He proposed that hardening is caused by the formation of crystalline products of the reaction between cement and water. 1889. Alvord Lake Bridge. The first concrete reinforced bridge was built in San Francisco. Alvord Lake Bridge still exists today, over two hundred years after it was built! 1890. The addition of gypsum when grinding clinker to act as a retardant to the setting of concrete was introduced in the USA. Vertical shaft kilns were replaced with rotary kilns and ball mills were used for grinding cement. 1891. Concrete Street. George Bartholomew placed the first concrete street in the USA in Bellefontaine, Ohio. It still exists today!1893 William Michaelis claimed that hydrated metasilicates form a gelatinous mass (gel) that dehydrates over time to harden. This is a modern photo of the historic street. Photo courtesy of 1900. Basic cement tests were standardized. 1903. The Ingalls Building. The first concrete high rise was built in Cincinnati, Ohio. The Ingalls Building has sixteen stories and was a great engineering feat of its time. 1908. Concrete Homes. Thomas Edison designed and built the first concrete homes in Union, New Jersey. These homes still exist today. 1909. Thomas Edison was issued a patent for rotary kilns. 1913. Ready Mix. The first load of ready mix was delivered in Baltimore, Maryland. 1915. Colored Concrete. Lynn Mason Scofield founded L.M. Scofield, the first company to produce color for concrete. Their products included color hardeners, colorwax integral color, sealers, and chemical stains. 1929. Dr. Linus Pauling of the USA formulated a set of principles for the structures of complex silicates. 1930. Air Entraining Agents. Air entraining agents were used for the first time in cement to resist against damage from freezing and thawing (To change from a frozen solid to a liquid by gradual warming). 1930. Air entraining agents were introduced to improve concrete's resistance to freeze/thaw damage. 1936. Hoover Dam. The Hoover Dam was built along the Colorado River, bordering Arizona and Nevada. It was the largest scale concrete project ever completed. Also Grand Coulee Dam was built. The two still exist today! 1938. Concrete Overlay. John Crossfield was the first to receive a patent for a concrete overlay. He adds latex to portland cement, aggregate, and other materials to make a covering for ship decks.

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58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. II. 1.

1950's. Decorative Concrete Developed. Brad Bowman developed the Bomanite process, the original cast-in-place, colored, textured and imprinted architectural concrete paving, in the middle 1950's in Monterey, California. 1967. Concrete Sports Dome. The first concrete domed sports arena, known as the Assembly Hall, was built at the University of Illinois, at Urbana-Champaign 1970's. Fiber Reinforcement. Fiber reinforcement was introduced as a way to strengthen concrete. 1975. CN Tower in Toronto, Canada, the tallest slip-form building, was constructed. Water Tower Place in Chicago, Illinois, the tallest building was constructed. 1980's. Concrete Countertops. Buddy Rhodes, the father of the concrete countertop, cast his first countertop in the mid '80s. Around the same time, Fu-Tung Cheng also cast his first concrete countertop. Superplasticizers were introduced as admixtures. 1985. Silica fume was introduced as a pozzolanic additive. The "highest strength" concrete was used in building the Union Plaza constructed in Seattle, Washington. 1990. Concrete Engraving. Darrel Adamson designed the Engrave-A-Crete System. 1992. Tallest Concrete Building. The tallest reinforced concrete building was built in Chicago, Illinois. The 65-story building is known only by its street address, 311 South Wacker Drive. 1999. Polished Concrete. The first installation of a polished concrete floor in the US was a 40,000-square-foot warehouse floor for the Bellagio in Las Vegas. CONCRETE COMPONENTS OF CONCRETE Concrete is an artificial stone made out from the mixture of cement, sand, gravel and water. This is known as solid mass or plain concrete. Concrete in which reinforcement is embedded in such a manner that the two materials act together in resisting forces is already called reinforced concrete. 1.1. WATER Should be free from oil, acid, alkali, vegetable matter, or other deleterious substances. Should be reasonably clear and clean. The use of sea or brackish water is not allowed. Water combines with the cement to form a paste which coats and surrounds the inert particles of aggregates. Upon hardening, it binds the entire mass together. The strength of the mixture therefore depends directly upon the strength of the paste. If there be an excess of water the paste becomes thin and weak and its holding power is reduced The water-cement ratio is the amount of water used per bag of cement. This usually varies from 5 to 7 gallons, with 6.5 gallons as average for ordinary job conditions. The less water used in mixing, the better the quality of concrete. The ideal mix is one that is plastic and workable. It should not be too dry that it becomes too difficult to place in the forms, nor too wet that separation of the ingredients result. Assumed 28-day Compressive strength (lbs. per sq. inch) 2,000 2,500 3,000 3,750 Designing of concrete mixture is based on the water-cement ratio Less water produce stronger concrete. More water produces lesser strength. WATER CEMENT RATIO Maximum water-cement ratio U.S. gallons of water per sack Cement of 94 lbs. 7.00 6.50 5.75 5.00 Pounds of water per 100 lbs. of cement 62.0 57.5 51.0 44.5

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1.1.

ADMIXTURES (OPTIONAL) 1.1.1. Admixtures may be grouped into three categories: Those for mixing into concrete Those for mixing into mortar Those for surface application or finish. 1.1.2. Admixtures come in powder, paste, and liquid form, and are usually patented and sold under trademark names. 1.1.3. Substances added to cements, mortars, and concrete for the purpose of improving or imparting particular properties, such as: To improve workability of concrete, e.g. hydrated lime To improve durability by entertainment of air To accelerate setting or hardening (accelerators) e.g. calcium chloride To retard setting (retarders) To improve wear resistance To impart water-repellant or water-proofing qualities e.g. hydrated lime, KAOLINE, CELITE To impart water-repellant or waterproofing qualities, e.g., hydrated lime, waterproofing compounds, KAOLINE, CELITE. To impart color, MINERAL OXIDES, COLORCON, METALICHROME. Concrete admixtures include: ACCELERATORS - to speed up setting time, to develop earlier strength, and to reduce length of time for protection. Principal ingredients are calcium chloride. Maximum amount added is 2 lbs. per bag of cement. Disadvantages: they increase the expansion and contraction of concrete, reduce resistance to sulfate attack, and increases efflorescence and corrosion of high tension steels. RETARDERS - to slow down the hydration of the cement during very hot weather. Principal ingredients include zinc oxide, calcium lignosulfonate, derivatives of adipic acid. Disadvantages: may cause some loss of early strength and will therefore require careful control and more frequent slump tests, also reduces the expansion and contraction of concrete. AIR-ENTRAINING AGENTS - introduce minute air bubbles to greatly increase the resistance of concrete to freezing and thawing, increase plasticity and reduce bleeding. Addition of air-entraining admixtures is usually in the proportion of 3 to 6% of the volume of concrete. They are manufactured from such ingredients as rosin, beef tallow, stereates, foaming agents (soap). Disadvantages: These require careful control and more frequent slump tests. They may also cause some loss of strength. INERT, FINELY DIVIDED POWDERS SUCH AS POWDERED GLASS, SILICA SAND, STONE DUST, HYDRATED LIME - are added to improve workability, used as per manufacturers directions. Hydrated lime is usually in the proportion of 10 to 15% of the cement by volume. WATERPROOFING (PERMEABILITY-REDUCING) COMPOUNDS - reduce the capillary attraction of the voids in the concrete or mortar, but while it may decrease water absorption of the concrete or mortar, it does not render concrete waterproof. They are manufactured from stearic acid or its compounds, mainly calcium steareate, and include asphalt emulsions. They are introduced usually in the amounts of 0.1 to 4.0% of the weight of cement. Colored pigments are mainly to used to give color to concrete floors. There are two types: Dry-cast, broadcast or dust-on, for surface coloring. They are dusted on, usually in two coats, after all surface water has disappeared. The surface is then finished with a steel trowel. Integral colors, for body coloring. Integral color pigments are incorporated in the mortar topping. They are mixed dry with the cement and aggregate before water is added. Amount of color pigment required is not more than 10% of the cement by weight, generally 3 to 6 lbs. per bag of cement. Admixtures for mixing into mortar include: Accelerators Plasticizing agents (correctly called water-reducing agents) to lower water cement ratio and make the mix more workable Waterproofing agents Color pigments

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Surface application finishes for concrete consist of: Hardeners Color pigments Special aggregates Sealers Abrasive materials Waterproofing agents, and fillers and patchers 2. PROPORTIONING OF CONCRETE Briefly stated, the principles of proper proportioning are as follows: a) b) c) d) e) Use good quality materials: Portland cement, water, and aggregate. Determine the strength of the concrete using the water-cement ratio. (The strength increases as the water-cement ratio decreases). Determine the consistency of the mix using the slump test using as dry a mix as practicable. Add correct proportions of aggregates to the cement and water as will give a mix of the desired consistency. Make a mix thats workable, not harsh.

The strength of a workable concrete mix depends upon the water-cement ratio. The economy of the mix depends upon the proper proportioning of the fine and coarse aggregates. There are several methods of proportioning concrete: 2.1. Proportioning by arbitrary proportions Proportioning concrete by the arbitrary selection of the proportions is the oldest, the most commonly used, the most convenient and the least scientific method. In this method, the aggregates are measured by loose volume, that is, its volume as it is thrown into a measuring box. One sack of cement is taken as 1 cu.ft. Enough water is used to give the desired consistency. Common mixes expressed in proportions by volumes of cement to fine aggregate to coarse aggregate are as follows: Class AA Class A Class B Class C Class D 1 : 1.5 : 3 1: 2 :4 1 : 2.5 : 5 1: 3 :6 1 : 3.5 : 7 CONCRETE PROPORTIONS For concrete under water, retaining walls For suspended slabs, beams, columns, arches, stairs, walls of 100mm (4) thickness For walls thicker than 100mm (4), footings, steps, reinforced concrete slabs on fill. For concrete plant boxes, and any non-critical concrete structures. For mass concrete works.

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The proportion is to be read: Class A: 1 part cement is to 2 parts sand is to 4 parts gravel. Each part is equivalent to one cubic foot which is the measure of the box constructed to be 1 foot (12 inches) on each of the three sides. Each bag of cement is equivalent to approximately one cubic foot. Sizes of measuring box for: 40 kg. Cement - 300mm. X 300mm. X 300mm. 50 kg. Cement - 320mm. X 320mm. X 330mm. 2.2. Proportioning by the water-ratio and slump test There are two steps to be observed: Select the amount of water to be added to the cement to give the desired strength (see Table) Add just enough mixed aggregate to the water and cement to give a concrete mix the desired consistency. It is customary to specify The cement in sacks The water in gallons per sack of cement and The mixed aggregate in cu.ft. per sack of cement. Proportions of cement to fine aggregate to coarse aggregate may be given if desired. 2.3. Proportioning by water-ratio, slump and fineness modulus This method is the same as the second except that the proportions of the fine and coarse aggregate are determined by the fineness modulus method. For economy, proportion the fine coarse aggregates so that the largest quantity of mixed aggregate may be used with a given amount of cement and water to produce a mix of the desired consistency of slump. Comparatively, the coarse aggregate has a lesser total surface to be covered with cement paste and, therefore, is more economical. However, there must be enough fine aggregate present to fill the voids in the coarse aggregate, or extra cement paste will be needed for this purpose. A well-graded aggregate contains all sizes of fine and coarse particles in such proportions that the voids in the combined aggregate will be a minimum. 3. MIXING OF CONCRETE Reinforced-concrete work should be mixed by machine. Machine-mixed concrete is usually or more uniform quality than that mixed by hand and is generally less expensive when in large volume. The strength of concrete is very largely dependent upon the thoroughness of mixing.

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3.1.

MACHINE MIXING. In machine-mixing, the mixing of each batch should continue not less than one minute after all the materials are in the mixer and whenever practicable, the length of the mixing time should be increased to 1.5 or 2 minutes. The entire contents of the drum should be discharged before recharging the mixer. The mixer should be cleaned at frequent intervals while in use. Concrete mixers may be divided into two general classes: 3.1.1. Batch mixers into which sufficient materials are placed at one time to make a convenient size batch of concrete, the whole amount being discharged in one mass after it is mixed. 3.1.2. Continuous mixers into which the materials are fed constantly and from which the concrete is discharged in a steady stream. Concrete mixers may also be classified as: Drum mixers Trough mixers Gravity mixers, and Pneumatic mixers. The drum mixers are the most common type.

3.2.

HAND MIXING Hand-mixing must be done on a water-tight platform. Cement and fine aggregate shall first be mixed dry until the whole is a uniform color. Water and coarse aggregate shall then be added and the entire mass turned at least three times, or until a homogeneous mixture of the required consistency is obtained. Since initial set of concrete takes place 1 to 3 hours after mixing, a batch may be used anytime before initial set takes place, provided that the mix is plastic. Regaging or retempering of concrete that has been allowed to stand more than hour is not to be permitted.

4.

TRANSPORTING AND PLACING OF CONCRETE Fresh concrete should be transported from the mixer as rapidly as practicable by methods that will permit the placing of the concrete in the forms before initial set occurs and without loss or separation of materials. The delivery of the concrete from the mixer to the forms should be fairly continuous and uninterrupted. The time of transportation should not exceed 30 minutes. The concrete may be transported by means of barrows, buggies, buckets, cableways, hoists, chutes, belts and pipes. When chutes are used, the slope should not be more than 1 vertical to 2 horizontal or less than 1 vertical to 3 horizontal. The delivery end of the chutes shall be as close as possible to the point of deposit. Before placing concrete, the forms shall be cleaned and inspected, surfaces wetted or oiled, and reinforcement properly secured. Concrete should be deposited in approximately horizontal layers in wall, column and footing forms. They should not be piled up in the forms which may result in the separation of the cement mortar from the coarse aggregate. Concrete should never be allowed to drop freely over 5 ft. for unexposed work and over 3 ft. for exposed work. SHRINKAGE OF CONCRETE & TEMPERATURE CHANGES Shrinkage of concrete due to hardening and contraction from temperature changes, causes cracks the size of which depends on the extent of the mass. They cannot be counteracted successfully but they can be minimized by placing reinforcement so that large cracks can be broken up to some extent to smaller ones. In long continuous length of concrete, it is better to place shrinkage or contraction joints. Shrinkage cracks are likely to occur at joints where fresh concrete is joined to concrete which has already set, and hence in placing the concrete, construction joints should be made on horizontal and vertical lines.

5.

- - - NOTHING FOLLOWS - - -

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