PHYS 2211L

LAB 7

Torque & Equilibrium

Purpose
In this experiment we will use the principle of rotational equilibrium to create a simple mass scale using a meter stick. We will investigate the concept of center of gravity and torque and we will calculate the torques produced by various weights.

Principles
Translational and Rotational Equilibrium In order for a particle to be in static equilibrium (i.e., stationary over time), the sum of the forces on it must be ero!

="

# particle is an ideali ed entity with no si e or shape! a mass point. $eal%world ob&ects (chairs, buildings, people, etc.,) are composed of systems of particles. It is possible for a system of particles to remain in the same place over time, and yet not be stationary! it can rotate in place. 'or a system of particles to be in static equilibrium there are two conditions! it must be in translational equilibrium and it must be in rotational equilibrium. Translational equilibrium means the system is not changing its location. 'or a rigid body (i.e., a solid as opposed to a liquid or gas), translational equilibrium means that at least one point in the body is stationary. Rotational equilibrium means the system is not rotating about any axis. It will be helpful to consider carefully what we mean by a rotation. $efer to (iagram ), which depicts a board nailed to the wall. *uppose the board is free to move about the nail.
rotation +ere, the nail is fixed in place. *ince this one point is fixed in space, the board is in translational equilibrium. If we give the board a spin, each point in the board will travel in a circle about the nail. ,o be more precise, each point travels in a circle about a line through the nail and perpendicular to the wall (perpendicular to the page in the diagram). ,his line is called the axis of rotation.

# rotation, then, is the motion of a rigid body such that at least one point in the body is fixed in place (usually it is a line of points) and the other points travel in a circle around this line.
typical mass point

nail
May 05

path of typical point

--

PHYS 2211L

LAB 7

Torque & Equilibrium

Diagram 1

,o be in translational equilibrium, the sum of the forces on the body must be ero, &ust as for a single particle. ,o be in rotational equilibrium, the turning effect of all the forces must also be ero. We call the turning effect of a force a torque (). 'or a rigid body to be in static equilibrium we must have both! ())

F
i

="

and

="

Torque ,he torque that a force exerts on a rigid body depends on three things! the magnitude of the force, the direction of the force, and where on the body the force is applied. $efer to (iagram ., which depicts an arbitrary two%dimensional ob&ect with a fixed point (a metal plate nailed to the wall, say) being acted upon by a force applied at a particular point in the ob&ect. We define torque as!
= r F

May 05

-/

PHYS 2211L

LAB 7

Torque & Equilibrium

,his is a vector that points in the direction of the axis of rotation. ,he vector r runs from the point about which the torque is to be evaluated to the point of application of the force F. ,orques can be evaluated about any point, but we usually choose a convenient point such as the center of mass or a point on the axis of rotation. In the diagram below, using the axis of rotation as our reference point, the magnitude of the torque can be expressed as (.)
= F

where F is the magnitude of the force and is called the lever arm. ,he lever arm is the perpendicular distance from the axis of rotation to the line of action of the force. 0ote that in the diagram, = r sin , where r is the distance from the axis of rotation to the point of application of the force. ,he angle depends on the direction of the force.

"xis #out of page$

r l F

Diagram 2

,he units of torque are newton-meters. In this experiment we will use a meter stick (essentially a one%dimensional ob&ect) balanced on a support as the rigid body. #t equilibrium, the forces will always be perpendicular to the stick, so that = 0 degrees, and sin = !, depending on whether the force is upward (1) or downward (%), so that except for the sign we can ignore the angular dependence of the torques. (2ut do not ignore it in general.)

May 05

-3

PHYS 2211L

LAB 7

Torque & Equilibrium

4ur set up is indicated in (iagram 5. ,he triangle represents the support6 the axis of rotation is at the tip of the triangle, perpendicular to the page. If we exert forces on the meter stick (F! and F% in the diagram), then the lever arms associated with each force ( ) and . ) are as indicated 7 the distances along the stick from the axis of rotation to the point of application of the force. We can set up a coordinate system along the meter stick, with position coordinate x measured by the stick itself. We can express the lever arm for any force acting on the meter stick as! (5a) (5b)
i = x i x "
i = x " x i

(upward force) (downward force)

where x0 is the position of the axis of rotation and xi is the point where force Fi acts.

FN F1 F2

l1

l2

*upport 8 axis of rotation (out of page) Diagram 3

$otations have directions! they can be clockwise or counterclockwise. It is customary to treat the counterclockwise direction as positive and the clockwise direction as negative. ,orques are also positive or negative, depending on the direction of the rotation they engender. ,hus, two or more torques can sum to ero, resulting in rotational equilibrium.

May 05

/"

PHYS 2211L

LAB 7

Torque & Equilibrium

,he expressions for the lever arm (5a and 5b) take the direction of the torque into account. We see that a downward force exerted at the low end of the stick (xi & x0) results in a positive (counterclockwise) torque and a downward force at the high end (xi ' x0) results in a negative (clockwise) torque. 9pward forces would reverse these directions. #lso note that when the force is applied at the axis of rotation (xi = x0), the lever arm is ero and so is the torque. ,hus the support itself (which exerts an upward force on the stick, indicated by F( in (iagram 5) does not exert a torque. A Meter Stick Mass Scale: t e Met od o! Moments We can use the principle of rotational equilibrium to weigh ob&ects with our meter stick (a triple%beam balance works on &ust this principle). (iagram : illustrates the set%up.

l1

l2

#1

#2

Diagram "

We first place the meter stick on the support stand at the stick;s balance point (this point is called the center of gravity 7 we will discuss this further below). When the stick is balanced (hori ontal and not rotating), it must be in rotational equilibrium! the sum of the torques on it is ero. We place a reference mass m! at a known location on the stick. ,he weight of m! exerts a torque on the stick and makes it rotate away from equilibrium!
) = ))) = m) g)

with ) = x" x) , the position of the support minus the position of m).

May 05

/)

PHYS 2211L

LAB 7

Torque & Equilibrium

We then place our unknown mass (m%) on the other side of the stick and ad&ust its position until the stick balances again. ,he unknown mass exerts a torque in the opposite sense on the stick!
. = ) . g . = m . g .

with . = x" x . , the position of the support minus the position of the unknown mass. When the meter stick returns to equilibrium, we must have!

= m) g) + m. g . = "

so that m. . g = m)) g , or (:)

m. = m)) .

,his, of course, is nothing more than the <seesaw principle= that we encounter at a children;s playground. 0ote that in the above, the factor g appears in each term of the equation and thus cancels out. ,he product m (a mass times a length) is called a moment of force. ,his method of determining mass is called the method of moments. $enter o! %ra&it' In the above example we did not consider the meter stick;s own weight. When we started the above procedure, we placed the support at the stick;s <balance point=. With no other masses hanging off of it, the stick was in equilibrium! the sum of the forces on it was ero and the sum of the torques on it was ero. 0ow the support exerted a force on the stick, which must have been equal and opposite to the stick;s own weight. #s discussed above, the support exerted ero torque on the stick because the lever arm for the support was ero. *ince the sum of the torques was ero, the torque exerted by the stick;s own weight must also have been ero. 0ow the stick is definitely not weightless. ,he only way for its weight to have exerted ero torque was for its lever arm to be ero. ,hat means the weight of the stick also must have acted at the balance point. Intuitively, we might have expected this to be the case. 2ut it would be worthwhile to pause a moment and consider what this means. ,he weight of the meter stick is distributed all along the stick. 'or the purposes of calculating torques, however, all of the

May 05

/.

PHYS 2211L

LAB 7

Torque & Equilibrium

weight of the stick acts as if it were concentrated at the balance point. In fact, we can prove that for any rigid body there is a point at which, for the purposes of calculating torques, all of its weight seems to act. ,his point is called the center of gravity. #eig ing t e meter stick (it t e meter stick ,his will be brought home more clearly in the next procedure. $efer to (iagram >, which depicts a meter stick in equilibrium, supported not at its center of gravity. ,he center of gravity is indicated by the dark spot and has purposely been placed off%center to emphasi e the fact that the center of gravity is not necessarily the center of the stick. (In fact, it is unlikely that the center of gravity for any of the meter sticks we will use will turn out to be in the exact middle of the stick.) ,he axis of rotation is above the triangular support. #t equilibrium, all torques must sum to ero, so!
m)) g + m s s g = "

where ms and s are the mass and lever arm of the stick itself, with s = x " x s , the position of the axis of rotation minus the position of the center of gravity of the stick. We can determine the position of the center of gravity of the stick by first balancing the stick with no extra weight on it. ,hen we can solve the above equation for ms! (>)
ms = m)) s

which is exactly like equation (:) except for a change of subscripts. ,hus the meter stick acts as if it were a mass hanging off itself?

May 05

/5

PHYS 2211L

LAB 7

Torque & Equilibrium

c.g.

m1

#s #1 Diagram )

*redicting an Equilibrium *osition In our third procedure, we will hang two masses from the meter stick and use the equilibrium principle to predict where the support must be placed so that the system will balance. ,he set%up is illustrated in (iagram @.

,1

,-

,s c.g .

,2

#1 #s Diagram +

#2

,his time we will place two specified masses, m! and m%, at fixed positions on the stick. We want to find where the support must be placed (x0) so that the system is in equilibrium. It is left to you to show that

May 05

/:

PHYS 2211L

LAB 7

Torque & Equilibrium

x" = m) x) + m . x . + m s x s m) + m. + m s

(@)

Note! do not assume that x0 will be to the left of the center of gravity, as in the illustration. It depends entirely on the masses and their location and could go either way. ,he position x0 is the center of gravity for the meter stick and two masses. 0ote that it is also the center of mass for the system. ,he center of mass for any system of masses is defined as!

xcm =

m x
i i

where M is the total mass of the system. In our case then, the center of gravity is the same as the center of mass. ,his will be the case whenever the gravitational field is uniform in magnitude and direction, but it is not true in general. 'or instance, the center of mass of the Aarth%Boon system about the *un is not the same as its center of gravity, since the forces on the Aarth and Boon are not parallel.

May 05

/>

Torque & Equilibrium

Lab 7

Experiments
We will use a meter stick balanced on a support to measure the torques exerted by hanging masses. #s described in the ,heory section, a torque can be calculated from
= F

(torque equals force times lever arm.) ,he forces will be the weights of the hanging masses. ,he lever arms should be measured from the point of support to the hanging mass. ,orques can be positive or negative6 see equations 5a 8 5b, above for a useful convention for the sign of the lever arms in this lab. ,orques should be expressed in units of 0ewton%meters. 'or the method of moments, however, the results depend only on the ratio of the masses involved, so one can work in units of grams and centimeters and no unit conversion is necessary. ,he experiments can be outlined as follows! ). 'ind the center of gravity of the meter stick. .. Weigh the unknown mass by the method of moments. 5. Weigh the meter stick by the method of moments. :. Credict the balance point when . masses are hung from the meter stick and calculate the individual torques.

Equipment
Beter stick *upport stand Dnife edge clamps with hanging bail (.) Dnife edge clamp without bail ()) *tring or small mass hangers )"" gram mass >" gram mass 9nknown mass ,riple%beam balance

Procedures
Note! It is important that you measure all positions to the nearest millimeter, as accurately as possible. <2alanced= in the following means that the meter stick is hori ontal and not rocking.

1. Measure t e masses 'or comparison purposes, use the triple%beam balance to find the mass of the meter stick and the unknown mass. $ecord this data.

Torque & Equilibrium

Lab 7

Experiments
'ind the masses of the knife%edge clamps and any mass hangers used in the experiment. $ecord your data.
Note! Deep track of which clamp is which. 0ot all clamps are alike and you must take the mass of the clamps and hangers into account in your calculations.

2. Find t e center o! gra&it' o! t e meter stick. Insert the meter stick into the center clamp (the knife%edge clamp that has no hanging bail) and set the knife%edges of the clamp into the slots in the support stand. ,he tightening screw on the clamp should be on the down side. With the screw loose, shift the meter stick back and forth through the clamp until the stick is balanced. ,ighten the screw. $emove the stick from the stand and read the position of the knife%edges on the clamp. (,he edge of the cut%away sections on either side of the clamp line up with the knife edges and is easier to read.) ,his is the center of gravity of the meter stick. $ecord this. Eeave the clamp tightened so that it stays at the center of gravity.

2. #eig t e unkno(n mass b' t e met od o! moments. Clace the meter stick back in the support stand. $ecord the position of the support stand (the axis of rotation) as x0. Clace a knife%edge clamp (with hanging bail down) at 5"." cm on the stick. +ang a )""%g mass from the clamp using a piece of string or a small mass hanger. $ecord the total mass hanging at this position as m!. $ecord the position as x!. +ang the unknown mass from another knife%edge clamp on the other side of the support stand. Bove the clamp with the unknown mass back and forth until the system balances. $ecord this position as x%.

Anal'sis: (raw a diagram of the meter stick and masses. Indicate the lever arms and the forces for each mass on the diagram. *et up the torque equations for the system at equilibrium ( i = " ) and solve it
i

algebraically for the unknown mass. 9se your equation to calculate the total mass hanging at x%. Falculate the unknown mass by subtracting the mass of the clamp andGor hanger. $ecord your result.

Torque & Equilibrium

Lab 7

Experiments
Falculate the range of error for the unknown mass, based on the uncertainties in m) . *ince we , and the uncertainty in the reference mass, the lever arms, = ! mm. measured the lever arms to the nearest millimeter, we can estimate m) as one gram (or less if you measured it to greater *imilarly, estimate precision). Which uncertainty has the greater effectH 'ind the percent error between your calculated value for the unknown mass and that determined using the triple%beam balance. (oes the measured value fall within your range of errorH

3. Determine t e meter stick mass b' t e met od o! moments. $emove the unknown mass and its hanger. Eeave m! where it is. Eoosen the screw of the center clamp and slide the meter stick back and forth through it until the system balances. ,ighten the screw and read the position of the center clamp. $ecord this as x0, the position of the axis of rotation.

Anal'sis (raw a force diagram of the set%up with the forces and lever arms indicated. $emember that the weight of the meter stick acts at its center of gravity, which you determined in Crocedure ). *et up and solve the torque equation for the mass of the meter stick. Falculate the mass of the stick and record your result. Falculate the range of error in the mass of the stick based on the uncertainties in the reference mass and the lever arms. Falculate the percent error between your calculated value and that determined by the triple%beam balance.

". *redict t e balance /oint !or t(o masses on t e stick. 9se equation (@) to predict the balance point when )"" grams are hung at 5"." cm and >" grams are hung at @>." cm. (,hese masses do not include the masses of the clamps andGor hangers. Iou must include these extra masses in your calculations.) $ecord your prediction. +ang these masses and determine the balance point experimentally. $ecord the experimental result for x0.

Anal'sis (iagram the set%up, indicating all forces and lever arms. Include in the diagram any forces that exert no torques.

Torque & Equilibrium

Lab 7

Experiments
(erive equation (@) using the definitions of torque and lever arm and the fact that the system is in equilibrium ( i = " ).
i

,ake the percent difference between your prediction and the experimental result. $eferring to your diagram, decide which forces create counterclockwise torques and calculate the sum of these torques. $eferring to your diagram, decide which forces create clockwise torques and calculate the sum of these torques. ,ake the percent difference between the absolute values of the clockwise sum and the counterclockwise sum.

*ptional "nalysis 9se your data and your diagram to recalculate the net torque on the system using the end of the meter stick as the point of reference for calculating torques. ,hat is, take the end of the stick as the assumed axis of rotation (x0 = 0) and calculate the lever arms from this point. ,his time you must include the torque created by the upward force of the support. (,he support;s location has not changed 7 only our reference point has changed. Why did we not consider this force beforeH) *how algebraically that if the system is in equilibrium, the net torque will sum to ero about any point. (#fter all, if the system is in equilibrium it is not rotating and there is no <axis of rotation=. We have been using the point of support because it is convenient and because that is the point about which the system rotates when it is not in equilibrium.)

Torque & Equilibrium

Lab 7

ata
Note: +our data should ,e recorded in your la, note,oo-. The following is a guide only.

Preliminar!

ata
$lam/2 anger masses: 1. 111111111111111

0nkno(n mass 111111111111111

Mass o! meter stick: 111111111111111

2. 111111111111111 3. 111111111111111

$enter o! gra&it' 111111111111111 3meter stick4

". 111111111111111 ). 111111111111111 +. 111111111111111

"n#no$n %ass &%et'od o( %oments) m1 111111111111111 ,- 111111111111111 ,1 111111111111111 ,2 111111111111111 m2 111111111111111 5m2 111111111111
) 111111111111111

. 111111111111111

unkno(n mass 111111111111111 6 error 1111111111

Torque & Equilibrium

Lab 7

ata

%eter Stic# %ass &%et'od o( %oments) m1 11111111111111 ,- 111111111111111 ,1 111111111111111 ,s 111111111111111 ms 111111111111111 6 error 1111111111 Balance Point $it' T$o %asses m1 111111111111111 ,1 111111111111111 m2 111111111111111 ,2 111111111111111
) 111111111111111
s 111111111111111

5ms 11111111111111

*redicted ,- 111111111111111

E,/erimental ,- 111111111111111 6 di!!erence 111111111111111111

$lock(ise torques 1111111111

$ounterclock(ise torques 1111111111

6 di!!erence 111111111111 (use absolute values)