PSY 111 Introduction to Psychology I

Biopsychology I: Anatomy of the Nervous System

Structure of the Vertebrate Nervous System

Neuroanatomy is the anatomy of the nervous system. Ana = separate, tenmein = cut open Refers to the study of the various parts of the nervous system and their respective function(s). The nervous system consists of many substructures, each comprised of many neurons.
Each part has specialised functions but work together to produce behaviour. Damage in different parts will result in different types of behavioural deficits.

Structure of the Vertebrate Nervous System

Terms used to describe location when referring to the nervous system include:
Ventral: toward the stomach Dorsal: toward the back Anterior: toward the front end Posterior: toward the back end Lateral: toward the side Medial: toward the midline

Structure of the Vertebrate Nervous System

The Nervous System is comprised of two major subsystems:

1. 2. The Central Nervous System (CNS) The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
Somatic Nervous System axons conveying message from the sense organs to the CNS and from the CNS to the muscles Autonomic Nervous System controls the heart, the intestines, etc.

Structure of the Vertebrate Nervous System

The Central Nervous System consists of:

1. 2. Brain Spinal Cord

Structure of the Vertebrate Nervous System

The spinal cord is the part of the CNS found within the spinal column and communicates with the sense organs and muscles below the level of the head. The Bell-Magendie law states the entering dorsal roots carry sensory information and the exiting ventral roots carry motor information. The cell bodies of the sensory neurons are located in clusters of neurons outside the spinal cord called dorsal root ganglia.

Structure of the Vertebrate Nervous System

The spinal cord is comprised of:

Grey matter - located in the centre of the spinal cord and is densely packed with cell bodies and dendrites White matter composed mostly of myelinated axons that carries information from the grey matter to the brain or other areas of the spinal cord.

Each segment sends sensory information to the brain and receives motor commands.

Photo of a cross-section through the spinal cord

A section of grey matter of the spinal cord and white matter surrounding it

Structure of the Vertebrate Nervous System

The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) is comprised of the:

1. 2. Somatic Nervous System Autonomic Nervous System

Structure of the Vertebrate Nervous System

The Somatic Nervous System consists of nerves that:

Convey sensory information to the CNS. Transmit messages for motor movement from the CNS to the body.

Structure of the Vertebrate Nervous System

The autonomic nervous system sends and receives messages to regulate the automatic behaviours of the body (heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, digestion, etc). Divided into two subsystems:
1. 2. The Sympathetic Nervous System. The Parasympathetic Nervous System.

Structure of the Vertebrate Nervous System

The sympathetic nervous system is a network of nerves that prepares the organs for rigorous activity:
Increases heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, etc. (fight or flight response). Consists of chains of ganglia on the left and right of the spinal cord.
Closely linked, act as a single system in sympathy with one another. Various situations activate some parts more than others.

Structure of the Vertebrate Nervous System

The sympathetic nervous system is a network of nerves that prepares the organs for rigorous activity:
Sweat glands, adrenals glands, muscles that constrict blood vessels, and muscles that erect the hairs of the skin have only SNS and not PNS. Mainly uses norepinephrine as a neurotransmitter at the postganglionic synapses, although a few (e.g., sweat glands) uses acetylecholine.

Structure of the Vertebrate Nervous System

The parasympathetic nervous system facilitates vegetative, nonemergency responses.

A.k.a. craniosacral system consists of cranial nerves and nerves from sacral spinal cord. Acts more independently. Decreases functions increased by the sympathetic nervous system.
Decreases heart rate, increases digestive rate, conserves energy

Structure of the Vertebrate Nervous System

The parasympathetic nervous system facilitates vegetative, nonemergency responses.

Comprised of long preganglion axons extending from the spinal cord and short postganglionic fibres that attach to the organs themselves. Dominant during our relaxed states. Postganglionic axons mostly release acetylcholine as a neurotransmitter.

Structure of the Vertebrate Nervous System

Because the SNS and the PNS use different transmitters, certain drugs excite or inhibit one system or the other.
Example: antimuscarinic agents (cold remedies) e.g. Scopolamine and Atropine block the parasympathetic response by blocking acetylcholine (anticholinergic agents).
Flow of sinus fluid is a parasympathetic response. Side effects: inhibit salivation and digestion and increase heart rate.

Structure of the Vertebrate Nervous System

Three major divisions of the brain include:

1. 2. 3. Hindbrain. Midbrain. Forebrain.

Area
Forebrain

Also Known As
Prosencephalon (forward-brain) Diencephalon (between-brain) Telencephalon (end brain)

Major Structures

Thalamus, hypothalamus

Cerebral cortex, hippocampus, basal ganglia Tectum, tegmentum, superior colliculus, inferior colliculus, substantia nigra

Midbrain

Mesencephalon (middlebrain) Rhombencephalon (parallelogram-brain) Metencephalon (afterbrain) Myencephalon (marrowbrain)

Hindbrain

Structure of the Vertebrate Nervous System

The Hindbrain consists of the:

Medulla. Pons. Cerebellum.

Located at the posterior portion of the brain. Hindbrain structures, the midbrain and other central structures of the brain combine and make up the brain stem.

The Human Brain Stem

Structure of the Vertebrate Nervous System

The medulla:
Located just above the spinal cord and could be regarded as an enlarged extension of the spinal cord. Responsible for vital reflexes such as breathing, heart rate, vomiting, salivation, coughing and sneezing. Damage can be fatal (e.g., large doses of opiates can suppress activity of the medulla).

Structure of the Vertebrate Nervous System

Cranial nerves allow the medulla to control sensations from the head, muscle movements in the head, and many parasympathetic outputs to the organs.
The cranial nerve nuclei (clusters of neurons in the CNS) for nerves V through XII are in the medulla and pons, nerves I through IV are in the midbrain and forebrain.
Cranial nerve I (Olfactory) connects directly to the olfactory bulbs of the forebrain.

Structure of the Vertebrate Nervous System

Each cranial nerve (which originates in a nucleus) integrates sensory information, regulates motor output, or both.
Some include both sensory and motor components.
CN VII (Facial) - taste from the anterior two thirds of the tongue and controls facial expressions, crying, salivation, and dilation of the heads blood vessels.

Others just one or the other.

CN II (Optic) - vision CN III (Oculomotor), IV (Troclear), and VI (Abducens) control eye movement.

Pont dAvignon, France

Structure of the Vertebrate Nervous System

Pons
Lies on each side of the medulla (ventral and anterior). Location where axons from each half of the brain cross to the opposite side of the spinal cord. Along with the medulla, contains the reticular formation and raphe system.
Works in conjunction to increase arousal and readiness of other parts of the brain.

Structure of the Vertebrate Nervous System

The reticular formation:

Descending portion is one of several brain areas that control the motor areas of the spinal cord. Ascending portion sends output to much of the cerebral cortex, selectively increasing arousal and attention (e.g., waking/sleeping, discriminating between relevant and irrelevant background stimuli).

Structure of the Vertebrate Nervous System

The raphe system also sends axons to much of the forebrain, modifying the brains readiness to respond to stimuli.
Release serotonin to rest of brain. Vigilance and levels of alertness. Circadian rhythms in animals.

Structure of the Vertebrate Nervous System

The Cerebellum:
A structure located in the hindbrain with many deep folds. Helps regulate motor movement, balance and coordination. Is also important for shifting attention between auditory and visual stimuli.
Damage: clumsy, lose balance, trouble shifting attention between auditory and visual stimuli, difficulty with timing (e.g., which rhythm is faster).

Structure of the Vertebrate Nervous System

The midbrain is comprised of the following structures:

Tectum roof of the midbrain. Superior colliculus & inferior colliculus located on each side of the tectum and processes sensory information.
Superior colliculus vision Inferior colliculus hearing

Structure of the Vertebrate Nervous System

The midbrain is comprised of the following structures:

Tegmentum the intermediate level of the midbrain containing nuclei for cranial nerves (III & IV), parts of the reticular formation, and extensions of the pathways between the forebrain and the spinal cord or hindbrain. Substantia nigra gives rise to the dopaminecontaining pathway facilitating readiness for movement.

Structure of the Vertebrate Nervous System

The forebrain is the most anterior and prominent part of the mammalian brain and consists of two cerebral hemispheres.
Consists of the outer cortex and subcortical regions. Outer portion is known as the cerebral cortex. Each side receives sensory information and controls motor movement from the opposite (contralateral) side of the body.

A sagittal section through the human brain.

Structure of the Vertebrate Nervous System

Subcortical regions are structures of the brain that lie underneath the cortex. Subcortical structures of the forebrain include:
Thalamus relay station from the sensory organs and main source of input to the cortex.
Exception is olfactory information which progresses from the olfactory receptors to the olfactory bulb and then directly to the cerebral cortex.

Basal Ganglia important for certain aspects of movement.

Structure of the Vertebrate Nervous System

The limbic system consists of a number of other interlinked structures that form a border around the brainstem.
Includes the olfactory bulb, hypothalamus, hippocampus, amygdala, and cingulate gyrus of the cerebral cortex. Associated with motivation, emotion, drives and aggression.

Structure of the Vertebrate Nervous System

Hypothalamus
Small area near the base of the brain. Conveys messages to the pituitary gland to alter the release of hormones. Associated with behaviours such as eating, drinking, sexual behaviour and other motivated behaviours. Thalamus and the hypothalamus together form the diencephalon.

Structure of the Vertebrate Nervous System

Pituitary gland hormone producing gland (endocrine gland) found at the base of the hypothalamus.
Contains neurons, blood vessels and connective tissue. Respond to message from hypothalamus. Synthesises and release hormones into bloodstream, which carries them to other organs.

Structure of the Vertebrate Nervous System

Basal ganglia comprised of the caudate nucleus, the putamen, and the globus pallidus.
Associated with planning of motor movement, and aspects of memory and emotional expression. Have subdivisions that exchange information with different parts of cerebral cortex especially the frontal areas. Deteriorates in patients with Parkinsons disease and Huntingtonss disease leading to impaired movement, depression, deficits in memory, reasoning, and attention.

The Basal Ganglia

Structure of the Vertebrate Nervous System

Basal forebrain is comprised of several structures that lie on the ventral surface of the forebrain. Contains the nucleus basalis:
Receives input from the hypothalamus and basal ganglia. Sends axons that release acetylcholine to the cerebral cortex. Key part of the brains system for arousal, wakefulness, and attention. Deterioration in patients with Parkinsons and Hungtintons have impairments of attention and intellect.

Structure of the Vertebrate Nervous System

Hippocampus is a large structure located between the thalamus and cerebral cortex.
Toward the posterior portion of the forebrain. Critical for storing certain types of memory.

Structure of the Vertebrate Nervous System

The central canal is a fluid-filled channel in the center of the spinal cord. The ventricles are four fluid-filled cavities within the brain containing cerebrospinal fluid. Meninges are membranes that surround the brain and spinal cord.
Swelling of blood vessels in meninges causes migraine headache (meninges has pain receptors althought the brain does not).

Subarachnoid spaces are narrow spaces between brain and meninges.

Structure of the Vertebrate Nervous System

Cerebrospinal fluid is a clear fluid found in the brain and spinal cord:
Produced by choroid plexus. Provides cushioning for the brain. Reservoir of hormones and nutrition for the brain and spinal cord. Obstruction leads to hydrocephalus.

The Cerebral Cortex

The cerebral cortex is the most prominent part of the mammalian brain and consists of the cellular layers on the outer surface of the cerebral hemispheres.
Divided into two halves. Joined by two bundles of axons called the corpus callosum and the anterior commissure. (Commissure: pathways across the midline, place where two things are joined). Cells within certain column share similar properties (e.g., respond to touch on left hand). More highly developed in humans than other species.

Relative sizes of five brain components in insectivores and primates

The Cerebral Cortex

Organisation of the Cerebral Cortex:
Contains up to six distinct laminae (layers) that are parallel to the surface of the cortex.
Laminae vary in thickness and prominence from one part of the cortex to another (e.g. Lamina V is thickest in motor cortex; Lamina IV is prominent in all the sensory motor areas but absent from the motor cortex).

Cells of the cortex are also divided into columns that lie perpendicular to the laminae. Divided into four lobes.

The Cerebral Cortex

The four lobes of the cerebral cortex include the following: 1. Occipital lobe 2. Parietal lobe 3. Temporal lobe 4. Frontal lobe

The Cerebral Cortex

Occipital lobe:
Located at the posterior end of the cortex. Known as the striate cortex or the primary visual cortex. Highly responsible for visual input. Damage can result in cortical blindness.

The Cerebral Cortex

Parietal lobe Contains the postcentral gyrus (aka primary somatosensory cortex) which is the primary target for touch sensations, and information from muscle-stretch receptors and joint receptors. Also responsible for processing and integrating information about eye, head and body positions from information sent from muscles and joints.

The Cerebral Cortex

Temporal Lobe
Located on the lateral portion of each hemisphere near the temples. Target for auditory information and essential for processing spoken language. Also responsible for complex aspects of vision including movement and some emotional and motivational behaviours.

The Cerebral Cortex

Temporal Lobe
Tumour in temporal lobe may give rise to auditory or visual hallucinations while tumour in occipital lobe evokes only flashes of light. Klver-Bucy syndrome associated with temporal lobe damage.
Previously wild and aggressive monkeys fail to display normal fears and anxieties.
Docility, hyperphagia (inappropriate eating), hyperorality (tendency to examine objects by mouth), hypersexuality (heightened sexual drive, seeking sexual stimulation from usual or inappropriate objects).

The Cerebral Cortex

The Frontal lobe:
Contains the prefrontal cortex and the precentral gyrus. Precentral gyrus is also known as the primary motor cortex and is responsible for the control of fine motor movement. Contains the prefrontal cortex the integration centre for all sensory information and other areas of the cortex. (Most anterior portion of the frontal lobe.)

The Cerebral Cortex

The Prefrontal Cortex (contd)
Responsible for higher functions such as abstract thinking, making decisions and planning movements. Responsible for our ability to remember recent events and information (working memory). Allows for regulation of impulsive behaviours and the control of more complex behaviours.

The Cerebral Cortex

Various parts of the cerebral cortex do not work independently of each other. All areas of the brain communicate with each other, but no single central processor exists that puts it all together. The binding problem refers to how the visual, auditory, and other areas of the brain produce a perception of a single object. Perhaps the brain binds activity in different areas when they produce synchronous waves of activity.

Research Methods
Main categories of research methods to study the brain include those that attempt to:
1. 2. 3. 4. Correlate brain anatomy with behaviour. Record brain activity during behaviour. Examine the effects of brain damage. Examine the effects of stimulating particular parts of the brain.

Research Methods
The process of relating skull anatomy to behaviour is known as phrenology.
One of the first ways used to study the brain. Yielded few, if any accurate results.

Research Methods
Correlating brain activity with behaviour can involve the identifying of peculiar behaviours and looking for abnormal brain structures or function. These abnormal brain structures can be identified using: Computerized Axial Tomography (CAT scan). Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI).

Research Methods
Computerized Axial Tomography (CAT scan) involves the injection of a dye into the blood and a passage of x-rays through the head.
Scanner is rotated slowly until a measurement has been taken at each angle and a computer constructs the image. CT scan - Imaging in medicine (3 13).flv

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) involves the application of a powerful magnetic field to image the brain.
MRI - Imaging in medicine (6 13).flv

Research Methods
Recording brain activity involves using a variety of noninvasive methods including:
Electroencephalograph (EEG) - records electrical activity produced by various brain regions.
EEG Demo Video.flv

Research Methods
Recording brain activity involves using a variety of noninvasive methods including:
Positron-emission tomography (PET) - records emission of radioactivity from injected radioactive chemicals to produce a high-resolution image.
PET Scan - Language Processing in the Brain.flv SPECT imaging technique - Imaging in medicine (11 13).flv

Research Methods
Regional Cerebral Blood Flow (rCBF)
Inert radioactive chemicals are dissolved in the blood where a PET scanner is used to trace their distribution and indicate high levels of brain activity.

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging uses oxygen consumption in the brain to provide a moving and detailed picture.
Magnetoencephalography (MEG) at Cook Children's.mp4

Subtraction for a Brain Scan Procedure

Research Methods
Examining the effects of damage to the brain is done using laboratory animals and includes:
Lesion techniques: purposely damaging parts of the brain. Ablation techniques: removal of specific parts of the brain.

Research Methods
Researchers use a stereotaxic instrument to damage structure in the interior of the brain.

Research Methods
Other research methods used to inhibit particular brain structures include:
Gene-knockout approach: use of various biochemicals to inactivate parts of the brain by causing gene mutations critical to their development or functioning. Transcranial magnetic stimulation: the application of intense magnetic fields to temporarily inactivate neurons.

Research Methods
Brain Stimulation techniques assume stimulation of certain areas should increase activity.
Researchers observe the corresponding change in behaviour as a particular region is stimulated. Example: transcranial magnetic stimulation. Limitation is that many interconnected structures are responsible for certain behaviours.
Michael Mosley has areas of his brain turned off - The Brain A Secret History - BBC Four.flv

Research Methods
Research has not supported that a larger brain is correlated with higher intelligence. Brain-to-body ratio research has some limited validity. Moderate correlation exists between IQ and brain size (.3). Amount of grey and white matter may also play a role. IQ is correlated with amount of grey matter.

Research Methods
Greater resemblance among twins for both brain size and IQ. For monozygotic twins, the size of one twins brain correlates significantly with the other twins IQ. Therefore, whatever genes that control brain also relate to IQ.

Cortical areas whose size correlated with IQ The top row shows the left hemisphere; the bottom row shows the right. UNM and UCI columns show the results for two universities (University of New Mexico and University of California at Irvine). Areas who size was significantly associated with IQ are shown in red; areas with the strongest relationship are shown in yellow.

Research Methods
Men have larger brains than women but IQ is the same. Various differences in specific brain structures exist between men and women
Left/right cortex, hippocampus and amygdala

Explanations in differences in cognitive abilities can perhaps be better explained by interest than abilities.