History

For most of recorded history the Earth was the center of the universe and never moved. The constellations were named and stories were told about them. The Greek Aristotle wrote in the third century BC that the Earth was a sphere because different stars could be seen as you move north and south and the shadow of the Earth on the moon during an eclipse was curved. A hundred or so years later, Eratosthenes used the length of the shadow cast by the sun to determine the circumference of the Earth. In the second century AD Ptolomy gathered star catalogs and astronomical writings. Astronomers were called astrologers at the time and tried to predict events using the stars. Ptolomy proposed that the solar system was like a huge carousel with the Earth as the center and the planets, stars, sun and moon riding where the horses would be. After about 1400 years Nicolaus Copernicus used mathematics to place the sun in the center of the "carousel" to better allow for how the sun, planets and stars appear to move. Johannes Kepler expanded on the idea using eliptical orbits to predict planetary motion. Soon after the invention of the refracting telescope, Galileo Galilei used one to view craters on the moon and watch the moons of Jupiter circle the planet. This validated the idea that the sun was in the center of the solar system and the Earth orbiting it. In addition, Isaac Newton invented the reflecting telescope that used a mirror instead of a glass lens and proposed the Theory of Gravity which explained how the planets were held in place. At about this time Gian Cassini measured the distances between the planets using a method called parallax shift. This is similar to watching the thumb on your outstretched arm "move" from side to side when you close one eye and then the other. This is, of course, a very brief and narrow view of history but will give you a few clues for further study. There are many contributions by women and non-European cultures that would make a great report project and Internet search practice. See the links below. Here is a list of other contributors to astronomy you may want to research. Hipparchus, Tycho Brahe, Edmond Halley, William and Caroline Herschel, Edwin Hubble, Henrietta Swan Leavitt, Harlow Shapley, Percival Lowell, Vesta Slipher and Albert Einstein.

Telescopes
Telescopes come in different sizes, designs and styles. The usefullness of the power of the instrument is limited by the size of the lens or primary mirror. The table below summarizes the three main typs of optical telescopes. Radio telescopes use the reflecting design, however, they focus radio waves instead of light.

Galileo used the refracting type of telescope to discover the moons of Jupiter. Most large observatories use the reflectors. These are sometimes known as "Newtonian" telescopes named after the inventor Isaac Newton.

Telescope Types
Refracting

The incoming light is focused by the objective lens and directed down the tube to the eyepiece. The focused image is then magnified by the eyepiece.

Reflecting

The incoming light is focused by the primary mirror and directed up the tube to the secondary mirror. The light travels to the eyepiece. The focused image is then magnified by the eyepiece.

Combination

The incoming light is adjusted by the corrector plate before it travels down the tube. Then the light is focused by the primary mirror and directed back up the tube to the secondary mirror. Finally, the light travels back down the tube through a hole in the primary mirror to the eyepiece. The focused image is then magnified by the eyepiece.

Telescopes are attached to various types of mounts. Some are mounted on tripods like a camera and some, called Dobsonian mounts, rest in boxes that move up and down and around like a lazy susan. Equatorial mounts can be aligned with the axis of the Earth to help keep an object centered in the eyepiece. Some newer mounts have built-in electronics and computers to point to any celestial object in the night sky.

From left to right are the Dobsonian, Equatorial and Fork mounts. The diameter of the telescope primary lense or mirror determines how much light is focused in the eyepiece and how much detail you can see. Telescopes as small as 60 mm in diameter with the right lenses can view the craters of the moon, the rings of Saturn, cloud bands on Jupiter, and split binary stars. Most observers, however, prefer 4 inch or more in size. History | Terms | Telescopes | Observing Hints | Top

Observing Hints

There are a number of things you should keep in mind when observing the night sky. First, learn the sky using your eyes and binoculars. Find out where each constellation is located and how to find out what time of year they can be seen. Learn to estimate how big a constellation is in the night sky. Learn the names of the brighter stars. This preparation makes it easier to find objects because when you are looking through a telescope you see only a small part of the sky. Soon you can learn how to read star maps and how to find binary stars, nebulae, galaxies and the planets. Keep a log of your adventure. Dress for cooler temperatures, bring a chair or blanket to sit on and let your eyes adjust to the darkness. Sometimes you can just lay on your back and look for meteors, satellites and the aurora. Bring snacks and beverages and make it a fun family time discovering the cosmos. For more information on observing go to the Astronomical League pages describing their viewing programs. The site below will open up in a new window. Close the window to return to Kid's Cosmos. Click here to go to the Astronomical League.

Terms
Here are some basic terms used in astronomy. Find more astronomical terms in the Glossary. Asterism A named group of stars that is part of a constellation, the Big Dipper is one. Asteroid Small, rocky world. Most asteroids are between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. Astronomical Unit The average distance between Earth and the sun, 1.5 x 108 km. Aurora The glowing light from solar particles interact with Earth's magnetic field. Celestial Equator The imaginary line around the sky directly above the Earth's equator. Celestial Pole Points above the Earth's north and south poles. Celestial Sphere An imaginary sphere surrounding the Earth where the sun, planets and stars are, a 3 dimensional map of the universe. Comet One of the small, icy bodies that orbit the sun that make tails of gas and dust when they get close to the sun. Constellation A pattern of stars usually named after animals or people in stories. Ecliptic

The path the sun seems to follow in the sky. Emission Nebula A cloud of glowing gas. Globular Star Cluster A group of stars that look like a shape of a ball. Light Pollution Wasted light from city and outdoor lights that makes it hard to see the stars at night. Light-year The distance light travels in a year. Meteor Small rocks or sand making a bright trail through the sky as it burns in the atmosphere. Meteorite A meteor that has landed on the Earth. Nebulae A glowing clouds of gas or dust reflecting the light of nearby stars. Open Star Cluster A group of stars that look close together in the sky. Orbit The path an object takes as it moves around another object. Planetary Nebula An expanding ring of gas around a star. Reflecting Telescope A telescope that uses a mirror to focus light. Reflection Nebula Dust and gas reflecting light from stars close by. Refracting Telescope A telescope that uses a lens to focus light by bending it. Rotation An object spinning about its center. SETI The Search for Extra-Terrestrial Intelligence. Solar Eclipse The name of the event when the moon comes between the sun and Earth. Zenith The point in the sky directly overhead.

Equatorial Coordinate System

The Celestial or Equatorial Coordinate System was developed to help astronomers describe where in the sky an object can be found. Imagine the Earth inside a sphere many times larger than Earth with all the stars placed on it. We know that some stars are closer than others but it is a way to make a map of the sky called the Celestial Sphere. A line drawn through the Earth's poles marks the North and South Celestial Poles. The Earth's equator becomes the Equatorial plane of the Celestial Sphere. Objects like stars can be above or

below this imaginary plane by up to 90 degrees with plus degrees indicating above or towards the North and minus degrees indicating to the South. This is called Declination. Imaginary lines can then be drawn around the Celestial Sphere from North to South every 15 degrees around the circle made by the equator. The first line or 0 Hour is drawn through a point where the sun crosses the celestial equator at the vernal equinox in March. It is also known as the Prime Meridian and the First Point of Aries, the Ram constellation. Each line marks one hour called Right Ascension. It is measured in hours because a circle has 360 which when divided by 15 equals 24, the number of hours in a day. Parts of hours are designated by minutes and seconds. Even smaller sections are divided by "arc-seconds" because they measure just a tiny portion on the arc made by the circle of the equator. This system is confusing at first because we are not used to having hours and minutes measuring distance on a circle rather than time. To further complicate things the astronomer has to know where he or she is in relation to 0 Hour. Keeping all this in mind, we can say a star has so many degrees of Declination and so many Hours of Right Ascension and astronomers all around the world can point their telescopes to it when it can be seen from their location on the Earth. For more information on celestial coordinates go to these pages. The sites below will open up in a new window. Close the window to return to Kid's Cosmos. NASA, Celestial Coordinate System Cornell University, Celestial Sphere