Strength of Material

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Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1 Types of Load
(i)
Static Load: Load acting on a body in equilibrium is called static load.
(ii)
Dynamic Load: The load acting on a body in motion is called dynamic load. Its
effect depends on time.
(iii) Dead Load: It includes the wf of all permanent components of the structure such
as beams, columns, floors, slabs, etc and any other immovable loads that are
constant in magnitude and permanently attached to the structure.
(iv)
Live Load: It includes any external loads imposed on the structure during
its service such as the wf. Of the stored material, furniture and people.
Dynamic Load: Wind load, earthquake, hydrostatic load, uplift pressure, snow and rain
load.
1.2 Supports
(i) Roller support:
Fx = 0
Fy = acted
m=0
Example : 3/SF] BLNT
(ii) Hinge
support: Fx
= acted Fy =
acted m = 0
M
Fx
(iii) Fixed support:

Fx , Fy , and m are acted.
Fy
(iv) Ball and socket support:

- Fx , Fy and Fz are acted
- m=0
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Rx
Rz
Ry

-
This is example of hinge support in 3-D.
R , Ry & Rz
x
m ,m & m
(v) Fixed support:
Fixed Support
# j 6}5 .
# j 6}5 .
Hinge Support
Determinant and Indeterminant Structure:
Fig - 1
Fig - 2
Determinate Structure:
If number of unknown = number of equilibrium equation then the structure is called
determinate structure.
Indeterminate Structure:
If number of unknown is not equal to the number of equilibrium equation then the
structure is called indeterminate.
Number of Indeterminacy:
Let,
R = no. of unknown reaction
r = no. of equilibrium
equation Degree of indeterminacy,
E = R r Here,
no. of unknown reaction, (R) = 7
no. of equilibrium equation, (r) = 3
so,
Degree of indeterminacy, E = R r = 7 3 = 4
Also,
no. of unknown reaction, R = 5
no. of equilibrium equation, r = 3
then,
Degree of indeterminacy, E = R r = 5 3 = 2

Conditions:
When, E = 0 = R r = 0
(structure is determinate)
E > 0 = indeterminate and stable
E < 0 = Indeterminate and un-stable
Here,
no. of unknown, R = 4
no. of equilibrium equation , r =
3 Now,
E=Rr=43=1
Hence,
E>0
So, it is indeterminate and stable.
Here,
no. of unknown = 2 = R
no. of equilibrium equation = 3 =1
Now,
E = R r =2 3 =
1 Hence,
E>0
So, it is determinatre.
Direct stress and strain:

Stress:
When a body is subjected to any external load then there is a deformation of a body.
During a deformation the percicles of a body exerts resisting force and the deformation stops
when the resisting force becomes equal to the applied external load. This resisting force per
unit area is called stresses.
= Resistivity Force = F
i.e. Stress
Area
Strain:
Change in length per unit length when applying a force on a obdy.
i.e. Strain =
L
L
Normal stress:
When the force acts normal to he surface of a body is called normal stress.
P
Compressive Stress
P
Tangential Stress

Tangential Stress (Shear Stress):
When the force acts (transverse) i.e. tangentially the surface of the body then the
resulting stress is called shear stress (RF}8F KL6act X'Gforce)]
Longitudinally (T/JF KL6) act X'Gforce] NFO{axial force ELGG5 / beam tail X'BFlongitudinal DF
W /} SD X'G5 transverse/ DF HOFBF tail X'G5 .
Hooks Law:
It states that stress is directly proportional to strain within elastic limit.
So,
Stress ( ) Strain (e)
= e.E
where, E = permittivity constant and is called Yongs modulus of elasticity.
Since,
= e.E
P =
AL
E
PL
L =
Yong's modulus or modulus of elasticity, E =
AE
Stress
Strain
Modulus of rigidity (c):

It is ratio shear stress and shear strain.
= Stress Stress
So,
Shear Strain
c=
Shear Strain
Bulk Modulus (K):

It is the ratio of volumetric stress to the volumetric strain.
So, K =
eV
Rasabolic
(Strain hardening)
region
Stress given by all six (6) directions normally.
B
L
C
Stress and strain diagram of mild steel:

Strain
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Max Limit
U
Mild steel 250 M Pa (N/mm )

Tor Steel 495 M Pa
TMT (Thermo Mechanical Treated) 500 M Pa
Dutility for earth quake = 16% - 25% desisable.
AB = SD load (stress) DF KLG Strain A9]SF]
A = elastic limit
B = Yield point (upper) = YUS

C = Lower end point
= YL (stress dropped on const strain) (load
GLBPKLG OF]action X'G5)
UL = pure plastic state (stress const and strain increase)

U = ultimate stress
U = Stress GA9]KLGstrain A9\5 meening/ X'B} X'G5 .
Working load = OA region = elastic limit

Max capacity = ultimate load
Ultimate Stress:
Maximum load per unit original cross-sectional area is called ultimate stress.
Working Stress (or safe load):

It is a safe load within elastic limit.
working stress
= Ultimate load
factor of safely
OR
working stress =
Yield stress
factor of safety
Factor of Safety: F:
F=
Yield stress
ultimate stress
or
working stress
working stress
Factor of safety for,

R.C.C. work = 3
Timer
= 4 to 6
Steel
= 1.85
Principle of Superposition:
It states that when the no. of loads are acting
on a body then the resulting strain will be the
algebraic sum of strains caused by the individual
loads.
L1
L2
L3
Prob Sol :
10KN
3KN B
9KN
2KN
2m
3m
4m
Cross-sectional area of the all body i.e. A, B & C are same.

Now,
10KN
A
10-3=7KN
(3-2+9)=10KN
9-2=7 10+2-3=9KN
B
9KN
C
Now, for a body A:

LA = PL = 10 2 = 20
AE
AE
AE
For body, B:
LB = PL = 7 3 = 24
AE
AE
AE
For body, C:
L = PL = 9 4 = 36
C
AE
AE
AE
Now,
total elongating
L = L + L + L = 20 + 24 + 36 = 77
A
B
C
AE
AE
Bar of Varying Cross-Section:

P
A2
L
L1
A3
Let, a force P is acting on a body of varying cross-section as shown in figure.
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PL1
A1
E
Extension of bar (I) 1 =
Extension of bar (II) 2 =
PL2
A2 E
Extension of bavr (III) 3 =
PL3
A3 E
Net extension = 1 + 2 + 3 = PL1 + PL2 + PL3

A1 E A2 E A3 E
P L
L2 L
1
E A1 A2
If no. bars are these then,
P
L1
A
3
L2 + L3 + ................... + Ln
A2
A3
Tapered Section:
d
A
d
d1
p
A
d2
1
B
Suppose a uniformly tapered section from diameter d1 to d2 of length L. Consider a

|
strip of length dx at a distance x from face AA
s
(from similar relation)
dx = d1 + d 2 d1 x
L
Extension of x length of a stress
PL
=
AE
x E
4
4P x
P x
d 2 d1
where,
(d1 + kx) t
Hence, total elongalation,
2
d 2 d1 = k
(let )
=
O

4Px
(d1 + kx)2 E
4P
= E
2 2
(d1 + kx ) x
(d1 + kx 2 )2+1
= 4P
E
( 2 +1)K
4P
Ek
d1 + kx O
4P
Ek
=
=
d
1
+ kL
4PL
E ( d 2 d 1 ) d1 + d 2 d1
4PL d1 d 2
E(d 2 d1 )
d
1
d1 d 2
(d 2
4PL
= E(d 2 d1 )
4PL
d1 )
d1 d 2
= E d1d 2
Check if it is rectangular section then, (solid cylindrical
X')BF
d1 = d 2 = d
= 4PL =
E d 2
PL = PL
d 2 AE
4
PL
AE
Q. A specimen of steel 25 mm diameter with gauge length of 200 m is tested to destruction. It

has an extension of 0.16 mm under a load of 80 KN and the load at elastic limit is 160 KN.
The maximum load is 180 KN.
The total extension at fracture is 56 mm and diameter at neck is 180 mm. Find
(i)
The stress at elastic limit
(ii)
Percentage elongation
(iii) Yongs modulus of elasticity
180 xN
(iv)
(v)
Percentage reduction in area

Ultimate tensile stress.
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160xN

n
So| :
A = d = (25)
2
= 490.874 mm 2
load at elastic limit

original cross - sectional area
(i) The stress at elastic limit
460 103 N
2
2 = 325.949 N / mm
490.874 mm
= Final extension 100

original length
(ii) Percentage elongation
56
100
200
= 28%
= Stress
(iii) Yongs modulus of elasticity (within elastic limit only)
Strain
PL
AE
Since, =
E = PL =
A
= 80 200 10 N
2
(25) 0.16 490.874 0.16
4
80 200
= 2.03 105 N / mm 2
= Initial area - Final area
(iv) Percentage reduction in area
100%
Initial area
2
25 2 18
4
4 100%
25
4
= 48.16%
= Maximum load or ultimate load
(v) Ultimate stress
Original cross - sectional area
180 103
2
490.874
= 366.693N / mm
= 366.693 M Pa
5
[here, E = 2 10 N/mm = 200 KN/mm always]

In 28 days,
M15 = 15 M Pa
M20 = 20 M Pa
53 grade = quick section
7 days 66% strength 28 days

53 grade cement = characteristics strength of
cement i.e. 57% EGBF SD sample N] DFQ TOF]
strength GB]VFPBGTest fulfill X'G5100 J6F
sample with c/s ratio 1:13.
53v M Pa load up to 95 sample N] LBG' K5{ .

43 grade = less quick than 53 grade
Q. A steel bar of 25 mm diameter is acted upon by forceless shown in figure. Determine the
focal elongation of the bar if, (i.e. take)

60 xN
E = 200 KN/m
20 xN
20 xN
50 xN
2
1
1.0 m
2.0 m
So| :
1.5 m
60 xN
For body (i):

1 =
P1 L1
60 1.54
d 2 200
4
1 = 0.917mm
For body (ii):
AE
600 1.5 1000 1000
1.5 m
490.9 2 105
60 + 10 = 70
2 = P2 L2 = 70 1000 11000
AE
490.9 2 105
2 = 0.713mm
For body (iii):
3 =
50 + 20 - 10 = 60 xN
20 + 50 = 70 xN
Im
3
P3 L3 50 10 2 1000
=
5
AE
490.9 20 10
3 = 1.019mm
Total elongation
() = 1
+ 2 + 3 = (0.917 + 0.713 + 1.019)mm
= 2.649 mm
Elongation due to self f :
(Bar of uniform section):
Let a bar of length L hanging freely. Suppose a strip of
dx
length dx, its extension , is given by,
= Wx dx
AE
Where, Wx = wf. of portion belone the strip
= Ax
Now,
= Ax dx = x dx
AE
E
= x. dx
E
Total elongation of the bar,

L
=
L
= x dx
L
EO
x dx =
E 2O
E 2
= L = gL
2E
2E
If w be the total wf of the bar,
w=AL
= w
stress = P = w
L A
AL
wL2
2EAL
= wL = PL
2aE 2E
wL
(in terms of area)
2 AE
wf = wf. of the bar [in Newton (N) or Kilo Newton (KN)]
Elongation of bar of tapered shape due to self f :
Let a tapering bar as shown in figure. Consider an

elementary area of length dx. Let, Ax be the area of cross
section at face x.y.
Total elongation of the strip,
wx ax
= Ax E
Where, wx = wf of the position below the strip
Wx = (x Ax) 1/3
dx
Note:
Vol(V) + Vol(VV) + Vol(Vvv) = whole Vol of rectangle
Tapered bar Volume =
Now,
1
=
of rectangle
volume 3
Ax x dx
Ax E
= x dx
3E
Total elongation,
L
x dx = x dx
3E O
3E
O
2L
= x
3E 2
O
y
L
L2
3E 2
= L = gL
2
6E 6E
Let, w = total wf. of the bar
w = 1 d L
3 4
12w
=
2
d L
2
2
Here, = 12w L = 2wL =
2
2
d L 6E
d E
wL
d 2
2 4 E
wL
2 AE
Temperature Stress:
When the temperature of the body is raised oe lowered and the body not allowed to
expand or contract freely, the stress are setup in the body. This stress is known as
temperature stress.
Single Bar:
Suppose a bar of length L is placed between two rigid
suppose and temperature is raised through tC then the
extension of the bar,
= L t
Where, = coefficient linear expansion
Also,
=
P2
AE
Since,
P
A
Where, = Temp. Stress

Now,
= L
tE
=tE
Let, the case when the end fields by an amount a, then the stress will be due
to extension of a ,
= ( a)t
L
(since Stress = e E)
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= ( L t a )
E
L
e = Actual expansion
Actual length
But strain,
( a)
e=
=a
L
e E = ( a )E
L
L
& =
L
Composite Bar:
t
p
Ds Ds
Steel, s
As
Copper, c, Ac
x
Dc
D
Dc
Consider two bar of length L of different mater ials suppose steel and copper as
shown in figure, are composite. Let the composite bar subjected to a temperature. As a result
due to different capacity of expansion of each bar, there is setup opposite kinds of stresses
i.e. (Tensile and compressive in the bar). Then,
Ps = Pc = P
i.e. Tensile force in steel = Compressive force in steel = P
Also, S = C =
From figure,
t
S = S +
C =
t
C
S
P
C
Where, S = C = = final extension

t
S = free extension of steel due to temperature
t
C = free extension of copper due to temperature

P
= Expansion of steel due to temperature stress
= Compression of copper due to temperature stress.
Since,
S = C
tS + PS = tC PC
P
or,
=C S
= LC t L S t

= Lt(C S )
Where, c = coefiicient of linear expansion of copper
s = coefficientr of linear expansion of steel
Composite section:
Now, PS + PC = tC tS = Lt(C S )
(From above proff)
PL = Lt( )
C
S
AS ES AC EC
1
1
= Lt(C S )
or, PP
+
PL
AE
S
1
AS ES
A E
AC EC
S)
= t( C
t(C S )
1
1
+
AS
AC
ES
EC
P=
(i)
(ii)
Also we know,
S = P
&
AS
From equation (i), we get,
S
ES
C = P
AC
= t(C S )
(iii)
EC
eS + eC = t(C S )
(iv)
[From formula]
Equations (ii), (iii), and (iv) are required expression for composite section for
temperature stress.
2.5 compound Bars subjected to axial tension compression:
Consider two bars of different material having
equal lengths are rigidly fixed at one unit and let P is
applied as shown in figure, then the load P which equal
to sum of the loads carried by each material.
P = P1 + P2
Also, the extension of each bar is same i.e. B1 = B2
So,
PL
1
A1
A2
PL
2
A1 E1 A2 E2
A1 E1
P1 = P2 A E
2 2
(i)

So, from (i),
A1 E1
P = P2
=P 1
+ P2
AE
AE
A2 E2
P
P2 =
A E
1+ 1 1
A2 E2
Similarly,
P1 = P2
P
P2 =
A E
1+ 2 2
A1 E1
Poissons Ratio:
It is the ratio of lateral strain to the longitudinal strain.
lateral strain
i.e. =
longitudinal strain
Suppose a solid circular bar of length L and
diameter D. Due to stress, the length increases by
and diameter reduces by ( d )

Lateral Strain =
Longitudinal Strain =
BL
L
If the strain in the direction of load is /E then in other two direction is,
&
Q. A rod as shown in figure is subjected to poll of 500 KN on the ends. Take E = 2.0510
2
N/mm . Find extension of rod.
120
200
80
100
100
250
80
150
100
250
80
150
350
So| :
=
P L
1
E A1
L
2
A2
L
3
(i)
A3
120
20 0

Now, A =
1
A2 =
A3 =
d 2
4
= 120
802
= 11310
=
5027 4
1002
=
7854 4
Then, equation (i) written as,
800
200 + 200 100 +150 + 150 250 + 250 + 200
=
+
+
2.05 10 5
11310
5027
7854
= 0.796mm
Relation between modulus of elasticity(E), modulus of rigidity(C) and bulk modulus(K):
Relation between E and C:
B
B1
C1
C
| |
Consider a square element ABCD deformed to ADC B

due to stress.
Due to pure shear, there is tensile stress along the

diagonal BD and compressive stress at right angle to the
diagonal.
q
q
Strain of diagonal BD =
E
E
q (1 + )
E
(i)
FB
FB
=
BD AB 2
Since, the deformation is very small so we can take,
Strain in diagonal BD =
BB| F 45 then,
|
|
FB = B BCos45 -------- (a)
|
From equation (a), putting the value of FB in equation (i),
|
|
Strain in diagonal BD = FB = BB Cos 45
AB 2
AB 2
1
|
2 = BB
=
2 AB
AB 2
BB |
= 1 BB
2 AB
=1
2
(since is very small)
F
z
z
Since,
Shear Sress (q)
= C(modulus of rigidity)
Shear Strain ()
q
So,
Strain in diagonal BD =
(ii)
2C
Since, equation (i) and (ii) are same,
c
So,
q = q (1 + )
2C E
(iii)
E = 2C(1 + )
Which is required relation between E and C.
Relation between E and K:

Consider a cube subjected to three mutually
perpendicular tensile stress along X,Y,Z directions.
eX =
eY =
( 1 2 )
(1 2 )
eZ =
( 1 2 )
Now,
eV = eX + eY + eZ =
E
=
(1 2)+
(1 2)+
(1 2)
( 1 2 )
E
Since,
K = Volumetric Stress =
Volumetric Strain
3 (1 2 )
E
E
K = 3(1 2)
E = 3K (1 2 )
(iv)
Which is required relation between E and K.
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Putting the value of from equation (iii) to equation (iv) then,
E
E = 3K 1 2
2C
E =1E +2
3K
C
E =3E
C
3K
E = 9K 3EK
C
E + 3EK = 9K
C
3K
or,
E1 +
= 9K
9K
E = C + 3K
C
(KC
C + 3K
Which is required relation between E, C, and K.
E=
Q. A copper rod 25 mm in diameter is inclosed in steel 30 mm internal diameter and 35

mm external diameter. The ends are rigidly attached. The composite bar is 500 mm long
and is subjected to an axial pull of 300 KN. Find the stresses induced in the rod and the
5
tube. Take E for steel 210 N/mm and E for copper as 110 N/mm .
30 KN
25
30
35
30 KN
So| :
AC = Area of copper in cross-section = (25) /4

2
AC = 490.9 mm
2
2
AS = cross section area of steel = {(35) /4} {(30) /4}
AS = 255.25
2
mm Now, PC + PS = P
C AC + S AS = 30 103
(i)
Elongation in steel = Elongation in copper


or, S t
ES
or, S
ES
t
C
EC
EC
2 105
ES
=C
1105
EC
or, S = C
S = 26c.
From equations (i),
C 490.9 + 26c 255.25 = 30 103

3
2
or, C = 30 10 = 29.95 N / mm
1001.4
2
C = 29.95 N / mm
And, S = 26c = 2 29.95 = 59.91

2
S = 59.91 N / mm
Principal stresses:
The planes having no shear stresses are known as principal planes. The normal stresses
acting on a principal plane are known as principal stress.
CASE-I: Stress acting on a plane inclined to the direction of a applied forces:
E
Consider a rectangular member of unit thickness and of uniform cross-sectional area.

Let, P = Axial force acting on the member
A = Area of cross-section, which is perpendicular to the line of a action of the force P
Here, the area of section EF which is perpendicular to the line action of force, P is,
A = EF 1
Now, let us consider an oblique plane FG inclined at an angle with the section EF.
The area of section FG = FG 1
EF
A
EF 1
1 =
=
Cos
Cos
Cos
A Sec
Stresses on the section FG,
=
P
i.e.
A
=
Section of FG
P
A Sec
= Cos
Since, this stress is not normal to the FG, it is parallel to the axis of the member. So, it
has normal and tangential components on the sections FG.
PX = P Cos
Pt = P Sin
Hence, normal stress ( n) on the plane FG,
normal force P Cos
Cos
=
=
=
area of FG
Sec
A Sec
P
Since,
= Cos
2
n = Cos 2
Tangential Stress ( t) on the plane FG,
t = Tangential Force = P Sin = Sin Cos = 2Sin Cos = Sin2

A Sec
area of FG
2
2
t =
Sin2
2
The normal stress which be maximum when Cos = 1 i.e. = 0
Maximum normal stress =
Also, the tangential stress which be maximum when Sin2 = 1
or, Sin2 = Sin 90
or Sin270
or, = 45 or 155
Hence, maximum tangential stress = 1 /2
= /2
For principal plane, t = 0
Sin2 = 0
= 0
LEFT A LOT OF PAGES

Case:III:
(Left A Lot Of Lines)

= Q2 Sin Q1Cos
FC 1
= 2 FB Sin 2 BC Cos
FC
FB
BC
Sin q
Cos
FC
FC
= 2Sin Sin 2Cos Cos
=2
= 2(Cos 2 Sin 2 )
t = qCos2
Case-IV:
A member subjected to direct stresses in two mutually perpendicular directions
accompanied by a simple shear stress.
D
2
Q1 Cos
P1 Sin
B1 =
q x BC x 1
P1 =
1 x BC 1
P2 Cos
q x BC Sin
Q2 Sin
1
A
B
Q2 = Q x BC x Z
P1 Cos +P2 Sin
P2 = 2 x FB x 1
Q1 Cos
Consider a rectangular plate ABCD of unit thickness which is subjected to tensile

stresses 1 and 2 and shear stresses 1 at their faces as shown in figure.
Suppose oblique plane FC inclined at an angle .
Let, P1 = tensile force on face BC due to stresses 1
= 1BC1
P2 = tensile force on face BF due to stresses
2 = 2BF1
Q1 = shear force on face BC due to shear stress
q = qBC1
Q2 = shear force on face BF due to shear stress
q = qBF1
Hence, resolving all forces total normal force on oblique plane FC;
= P1Cos + P2 Sin + Q1 Sin + Q2 Cos
= 1 BD Cos + 2 BF Sin + q BC Sin + q BF Cos
And, total tangential force on oblique plane FC;
= P1 Sin P2 Cos + Q2 Sin Q1Cos
= 1 BC Sin 2 BF Cos + q BF Sin q BC Cos
Hence, total normal stress ( n) on oblique plane FC;
n = 1 BC Cos + 2 F Sin + q BC Sin + q BF Cos

FC 1
= 1 BC Cos + 2 BF Sin + q BC Sin + q BF Cos
FC
FC
FC
FC
= 1Cos Cos + 2 Sin Sin + qSin Cos + qSin Cos
=
(1 + Cos2 )+
2
n
(1 Cos2 )+ 2qSin Cos
+
1
1 2
Cos2 + 2Sin2
2
2
And, Tangential stress across FC;
= 1 BC Sin 2 FB Cos + q BF Sin q BC Cos
FC 1
= 1 BC Sin 2 FB Cos + q BF Sin q BC Cos
FC
FC
FC
FC
= 1Cos Sin 2 Sin Cos + qSin Sin qCos Cos
Sin2 2Cos2
Major and minor principle stress:

For principle plane;
=0
1 2 Sin2 2Cos2 = 0
2
1 2 Sin2 = qCos2
2
Sin2
2q
=
Cos2 1 2
tan 2 =
2q
1 2
p
b
Hence, diagonal of right angle triangle,

=
(1 2 ) 2 + (2q)2
either
(1 2 ) 2 + (2q)2
or
(1 2 ) 2 + (2q)2
Let,
diagonal =
( 1 2 ) 2
+ 4q
2
q
Sin2 = (1 2 ) + 4q
For major principle stress:
2

2 Cos2 + qSin2
+ 1
2
2
+
1 2
+q
= 1 2+ 1 2
(1 2 )2 + 4q 2 (1
2
2
+
2
2
= 1 2 + (1 2 ) + 4q
+
1
=
=
+
1
2
1+ 2
(1 2 )2
( 1
2 ) + 4q
2
+ 4q
2 ) + 4q
2
2q
+q
Minor principle stress:
(1 2 )2 + 4q 2
Let,diagonal =
1 2
Cos2 =
(1
2 ) + 4q
2q
Sin2 =
(1
2 ) + 4q
Minor principle stress =
+
1
=
=
+
1
2
1 + 2
2
Cos2 + qSin2
(1
(1
1 + 2 1 2
2
2 ) + 4q
2
+q
2
2q
(1 2 ) + 4q
2
2
(1 2 ) + 4q
2
2
2 (1 2 ) + 4q
( 1 2 )2
+ 4q
+q
For maximum and minimum shear stress:

The shear stress will be maximum or minimum when,
d ( )
t
d
d
d
=0
1
Sin2 2 Cos2
=0
or, 1 2 2Cos2 ( q2Sin2 ) = 0

2
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or,
(1
2 )Cos2 + 2qSin2 = 0
or, 2qSin2 = (1 2)Cos2

or, TTa2 = (1 2 )
2q
=+
also
2q
2 1
( 2 1 )2
Sin2 =
+ 4q
2q
Cos2 = ( 2 1 ) + 4q
Hence, maximum or minimum shear stress is,
2
1 2 Sin2 qCos2
2

2 1
= 1 2
2
( 2
( 2 1 )2
2
1 )
( 2 1 )2 + 4q 2
( 2 1 )2 + 4q 2
=
2
2
2 ( 2 1 ) + 4q
=2
( 2
=1
2
=
1 ) + 4q
1
2
+q
Hence, major shear stress =
2q
( 2
+ 4q 2
2q
1 )2 + 4q 2
( 2 1 ) 2
+ 4q
And, minor shear stress =
1
2
+q2
+q2
Left a page
Mohr Circle method:
It is a graphical method of determination of normal tangential and resultant stress. It can
be used for the following cases:
(A) A body subjected to two mutually perpendicular principle tensile stress of unequal
intensities.
(B) A body subjected to two mutually perpendicular principal stress which are unequal
and unlike (i.e. one is tensile and other is compressive).

(C) A body is subjected to two mutually perpendicular tensile stresses accompanied by
simple shear stress.
2
Case (A):
Let, 1 = major tensile stress
2 = minor tensile stress
= angle made by oblique plane with minor stress
Proof:
CO = OB = OE =
Now, AD = AC + CO + OD = 2
2
2 + 2
2
+
1
1 2
2
=2+
ED = OE Sin2 =
2
2
1
y
2
+ OECos2
Cos2
Cos2
Cos2 = n
oD
i.e. normal stress
1 2
2
Sin2 = t
y
i.e. tangential stress

Now, AD = normal stress on oblique plane
DE = tangential stress on oblique plane
AE = resultant stress
N
Case (B):
x
A
B
1
1 = major tensile stress

2 = minor compressive stress
= angle made by oblique plane with minor B
stress
AD = Normal stress on oblique plane
DE = Tangential stress on oblique plane
AE = Resultant stress on oblique plane
Case (C):
1 = major tensile stress
2 = minor tensile stress
q = shear stress
= angle made by oblique plane with minor stress
now, AD = normal stress on oblique plane
1 = - ve
2 = + ve
A = origin

DE = tangential stress on oblique plane
AE = resultant stress on oblique plane
C.G. whole wf
Centroid whole area
Moment of inertia (M.I.):
Centre of gravity (C.G.) = The point where the whole wf of the body is concentrated.
Centroid = The point where the whole area of the body is concentrated
Centroid of plane lamina:
x1
x2
x
x
4
x5
x6
x7
x8
o
A X = a1 x1 + a2 x2 + a3 x3 + ............... + an xn
X = a1 x1 + a2 x2
+ a3 x3 + ............... + an xn
a1 + a2 + a3 + .......... + an
ax
i
i=1
n
i =1
x da
da
Integration = summation of area
Derivative = slope or any inter vol of time
Similarly,
Downloaded from
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n
Y =
ay
i
i =1
n
y da
da
i=1
For line element;

n
X=
Lx
i
i =1
n
x dL
dL
i =1
n
And, Y =
Ly
i =1
n
y dL
dL
i =1
Moment of Inertia (M.I.):

x
A
y
The moment of this plane lamina about Y-axis = Ax

The moment of this plane lamina about X-axis = Ay
2
The moment of moment of this plane lamina about Y-axis = Ax x = Ax

2
and, The moment of moment of this plane lamina about X-axis = Ay y = Ay
so, moment of moment of an area is called moment of inertia. It is represented by I. It is
nd
also called 2 moment of an area.

[XFDLN] O;subject study UG{] M;A.}I. for area XF] . OFmass] DF KLG LGSFNF ;LSG5 T/ XFDL OXF+area SF]
AF/]DF DFQ K9\B]5F} .
Parallel axis Theorem:
I LM = IGG + Ak
IGG
A
h
L
M
Statement and Proof:

It states that the moment of inertia of a plane
lamina about any axis in the plane of lamina is equal
to the sum of the moment of inertia of that lamina
about centroidal axis and the product of the area and
dA
G
A
h

square of perpendicular distance between the two
axis. Proof:
Let a lamina of area A. Let the centroidal axis GG about which moment of inertia is
known i.e. IGG. Let axis LM parallel to axis GG about which M.I. is to be found out.
The distance between these two axis be h. Suppose an elementary area dA which is at a
distance y from centroidal axis GG.
M.I. of elementary area about axis
LM, dI LM = dA(x + y)2
or, dI LM = dA(x 2 + 2xy + y 2 )

Now, M.I. of whole area about axis LM;
I = dI
2
2
= dA(x + 2xy + y )
2
2
= x dA + 2x y dA + y dA
LM
LM
= x A + 2x 0 + y A
snce, zy.dA = M.I. of dA about GG i.e.GG = 0
I LM = Ax
+ Ay
= Ax
+ I GG
Perpendicular axis theorem:

Statement:
It states that the M.I. of plane lamina about cen troidal axis perpendicular to the plane
of lamina is equal to the sum of its M.I. about two mutually perpendicular centroidal axis in
the plane of the lamina.
i.e. I ZZ = I XX + IYY
Proof:
Let, A plane laminma of Area A, X and Y axis are its
centroidal axis lying ni its plane. Z-axis is its centroidal axis
lying in the plane perpendicular to it.
Let, elementary area dA at a distance y, x and r from X,
Y, and Z axis respectively.
The M.I. of this elementary area dA about Z2
axis, dI ZZ = dA r
= dA(x + y )= dAx + dAy
M.I. of whole area about Z-axis is
2
x
r
y
x
I = dI
ZZ
ZZ
= (dAx
=x
+ dAy
dA + y 2 dA
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da

2
= Ax
+ Ay 2
= I XX + IYY
I ZZ = I XX + IYY
LEFT 3 PAGES
(ii) M.I. of triangular section:
Now,
x
b
=
hy h
x=
(by the relation of similar triangle)
(h y )
h
Area of Strip (dA) = xdy =
(h y)dy
h
Moment of inertia of this strip about base;
dI b = dA y
=
(h
y) y
dy h
M.I. of whole triangular section about its base,
h
h b
(h y) y 2 dy
I b = dI b =
0
= b h (hy 2
h 0
y 3 )dy
h
y3
h
h34
h 12
= b h
=b
Ib =
y4
40
4
bh
C. G.
12
h/3
M.I. about centroidal axis

We know,
I b = I GX + Ax
or, I GX = I b Ax
i.e. A (dis tan ce) = A (h 3)

2
bh3
12
=
I GX =
bh
3
3
bh
bh
12
28
bh3
36
M.I. of circular section:

y
R
r
x
dr
Let, a circular section of radius r and diameter D. Suppose an elementary ring of

thickness dr and radius r.
Now, area of elementary strip ring = 2 rdr
M.I. of this elementary ring (dIzz) = 2 rdrr
3
dIzz = 2 r dr
or,
M.I. of whole circular area about 2-axis:
I = dI
R
ZZ
ZZ
0
R
= 2r dr
3
= 2
= R
Since, R = D 2
I ZZ = (D 2)
2
D 4
= D
32
I ZZ =
32
We know,
I =I
ZZ
+I
XX
YY
Since, IXX and IYY are symmetrical,
So, IXX = IYY


I ZZ = I XX + I XX
1
or, I XX =
ZZ
2
I XX = IYY =
1 D 4
2 32
D 4
64
Q-1. The flanges and web of a 15cm 7.5cm is class ed section are 9mm and 6mm
respectively. Find the position of C.G. of section and its IXX and IYY.
7.5 cm
9 mm
1
1.5 cm
3
9mm
6mm
So| :
fig (1): A1 = 759 = 675mm
2
x1 = 75/2 = 37.5
fig (2): A2 = (150-29)6
x2 = 6/2 = 3mm
2
fig(3): A3 = 675mm (since A1 and A3 are symmetrical) x3 =
37.5mm
x=
A1 x1 + A2 x2 + A3 x3 675 37.5 + 792 3 + 675 37.5

=
675792 + 675
A1 + A2 + A3
x = 24.7mm
Now, for fig(1);
I GX =
=
bd 3
+ Ax
12
3
75 (9)
12
150
+ 75 9
9
2
i.e.(75 4.5)
= 506.25 + 47587.5
= 48093.75
For fig(2);
I
GX
6 (150 18)3
+ Ax 2
[since, h = 0, Ax = 0]
12
= 1149984
For fig(3);
2
75 9 (75 4.5)
=
+
A
h
12
= 506.25 + 47587.5
= 48093.75
Again for fig(v);
75 (9)3
GX
I
GY
9 (75)3
12
2
9 75 (37.5 24.7)
A
h2
I GY =
For fig(v);
I
GY
(150 18) 63 + (150 18) 6 (24.7 3)2

12
h2
I GY =
For fig(3);
db + Ax 2
12
9 753
= 12 + 9 75[ (37.5 24.7)]
GY
I GY =
Product of inertia:
Strength of Material
2
3 cm
y
1
30mm
4
30mm
Find the centroidal M.I. of shaded area as shown in figure:

n
So| : Since, the figure is symmetrical in the Y-axis,

So,
y=
I
LM
Component
1) 1530
2) 3030
ay
a
15748
= 996.8 = 15.8mm
= I GG + Ax 2
Area
225
900
Distance from L-L

10
15
ay
2250
1550

3) (15)2/2
4) 1530
353.40
225
a = 996.8
15748
ay
y=
I =I
XX
= 15(30)
+I
996.8 = 95.8mm
+I
XX 2
XX 3
+ 225 (15.8 10) + 30(30) + 900(15.8 15)
(-)2251.2
2250
ay
=
15748
a =
XX1
6.37
10
12
(30)4
+ 353.4(15.8 6.37)
428
= 68691mm 4
Also, IYY =
30 10 3
+ 225(15 + 5)2 +
30 30 3
3.6
(30) 4
428
12
= 233244.6mm
30 (15)
30
# Find the centroidal M.I. of the given figure:

y
I
C.G
15
3
4
xII
30mm
15mm
20mm
40mm
30mm
So| :
Fig(1): a1 =
30 30 = 450mm
2
x1 = 15 + 20 + 40 +
y1 =
30
=
85mm 3
30 =
10mm 3
Fig(2): a2 = 60 30 = 1800mm
x2 = 15 +
(20 + 40) =
45mm 2
+ 225(15 + 5)2

30
y2 =
Fig(3): a3
= 15mm
= (15)
= 176.71mm 2
4
x3 = 15 + 20 = 35mm
y3 = 15mm
2
2
2
Fig(4): a4 = 1 r = (15) = 353.43mm
2
2
4R
4 15
x4 = 15
= 45
= 8.63mm
3
3
y4 = 15mm
Now, x = a1 x1 + a2 x2 a3 x3 + a4 x4 = 47.84mm
a1 + a 2 a 3 + a 4
y = a1 y1 + a2 y2 a3 y3 + a4 y4 = 14.07mm
a1 + a 2 a 3 + a4
so, coordinate of C.G. = (47.84 , 14.07)
I GG + Ax 2 =
Now, for fig(2)
I X | X | = I X | X | + I XX 2 + I XX 3
+I
XX 4
Now, I XX1 =
bh3
+ Ax
36
30 303
=
36
30 303
+ a1 y y1
36
+ 450 (44.07 10)
)2
=
For fig(2);
I
XX 2
bd 3
+ Ax 2 =
12
60 30
+ 60 30 y y2
12
)2
= 60 900 + ( )2 1800 14.07 15
12
=
For fig(6);
I
XX
= D
+ Ax 2
64
= 15
+ a3 (14.07 15)2
64
4
2
= 15 +176.71(15 14.07)
64

=
For fig(4);
I
XX 4
So, I XX
= D + 353.43(15 14.07)
128
=I +I I +I =
4
XX1
XX 2
yy2
Again, I y y = I yy1
|
I
yy1
I
yy2
I
yy3
yy4
XX 3
yy3
+I I
30 30
=
=
36
3
30 60
4
XX 4
yy4
30 303
)2
+ 450 x1 x =
+1800 x x
12
= (15)
+I
36
3
30 60
+ 450(85 47.85) =
12
+ 1800(47.85 45) =
2
+176.71(47.85 35)2
64
(30)4
+ 353.43 47.8515 +
128
4R
[due to half circle]
LEFT A LOT OF PAGES

Q-1. Find the product of inertia (POI) for the plane hatched area about the axes XX and YY
as shown in figure.
n
So| : For figure (1);
( xy )1
=I
( XgYg )1
+ Aa b
1
10mm
= 0 + 40 60(30)(20)
= 144 104 mm 4
Since, I xy = I XgYg + Aab
a = a1
+ a2 a3 = 2676.69
X = 29.33
For fig (2);
20
60mm
( xy )2
y = 27.75
and
=I
10mm
+ A2 a2 b2
( XgYg )2
b2h2
+ Aa2 b2
72
(30)2 (60)2
72
4
( xy )3
=I
30 60(20)(50)
= 85.5 10 mm
For fig (3);
( XgYg )3
+A a b
3

=0+
(20)
4R
30 10
[since, R = 20mm]
2
= 34.85 0 4 mm 4
Now, I = I
xy
( xy )1
+I
( xy ) 2
+I
( xy )3
= 144 10 + 85.5 10 34.85

4
10 I xy = 194.65 10 mm
Since,
IX
= I XY + Ax y
= 194.65 104 + a x y
= 194.65 104 2671.69 29.33 27.75
= 42.1104 mm 4
Q-2. Find principle moments of inertia and directions of principal axes for angle section
shown in figure.
n
So| : Since,
tan 2 =
2I XY
I I
IUU =
and
I +I
XX
YY
( IYY
+
)2
+ ( I XY )2
2
Now, a = 12 2 = 24cm 2
YY
I XX
XX
x = 12 = 6cm
1
2
1
And,
40mm
y = 2 = 1cm
2
2
a2 = (20 2) 2 = 36cm
x2 = 1cm
= 2
y2
= 11cm
30 cm
Now, x = a1 x1 + a2 x2 = 3cm
a1 + a2
2 cm
y = a1 y1 + a2 y2 = 7cm
a1 + a2
=I
( XX )1
+I
( XX )2
= bd
1
2
3
1
2
+ Ax
12 (2)
+ bd
+ Ax
72
+ 24(7 1)
(18)
+ 2 18(11 7)
12
30mm
2 cm
C.G
18
2
Now, I XX
12 cm

4
= 2420cm
And, I = I
=
Now, I
+I
(YY )1
YY
(YY )2
3
12
= 660cm 4
( XY )
+ 2 12(6 3)
(12)
=I
( XY )1
+I
18 (2)
12
+ 2 18(3 1)
( XY )2
= [0 + Aa1b1 ]+ [0 + Aa2 b2 ]
= [2 12(7 1)(6 3)]+ [2 18(4)(2)]
I XY = 720cm 4
now, tan 2 =
2I XY
2 720
I XX 660 2420
or, tan 2 = .810
= 0.810
YY
1
or, 2 = tan ( 0.810)
or, =
tan 1 ( 0.810)
2
= 19 .7 or
Again, IUU =
I XX + I YY
70 .3
+
YY
I XX
+ ( I XY )
+ ( I XY )
And,
= 2677cm
I +I
I
XX
YY
VV =
2
= 403cm
Also,
XX
IYY I XX
2
I +I
XX
YY
I XX Cos2 I
2
= -19.7
2
Since,
4
= 2677cm
YY
XY
Sin2
XX
B.M.D., S.F.D. and A.F.D:

Bending Moment (B.M.):
Turning effect of a force is called moment (B.M.). It is represented by M.
It is also defined as product of force and perpendicular distance.
Shear force (S.F.):
Algebraic sum of vertical force is called S.F.
Axial force = Normal force
Shear force = Tangential force

In cruss, generally,
Bottom member = Tensile
Top member = compressive X'G5.
ALRSF]member calculation UG'{ K5{ / DFQ YFXF X'G5
Axial Force (A.F.):
The force acting longitudinal axis of the beam is called axial force (A.F.)
In Beam for S.F. calculation:
From left (+)ve and (-)ve (to right)
From right (-)ve and (+)ve (to left)
Draw B.M. and S.F. for given figure.
10KN
10KN
10XN
0.5M
0.5
2M
100.5=5KN-M
sf]moment
2M
2M
2M
2 KN/M
A
C
5KN-M
CA
2M
So| :
M B
2M
2M
=0
RA 8 2 2 7 10 4 + 5 10 2
= 0 or, 8RA = 28 40 + 5 20 = 0
or, RA = 88 5
8
83 = 10.37
RA =
8
Now, dy = 0
(i.e. vertical load)
RA + RB 4 10 10 = 0
R3 +
83
24 = 0
8
RB = 192 83 = 109 = 13.63

8
8
RA = 10.37
2M
Downloaded fromwww.bhawesh.com.np
RB = 13.63
B.M.D. (+)ve
Span AC:
x
A
C
M X = RA x = 2x
KA
2M
2
= 10.37 x
2x 2
or, M X = 10.37 x x
Since, this equation is quadratic, so, its shape is parabolic.

At, x = 0, M0 = 0
M1=9.37
At, x=1,
x
At, x=2,
M2=16.74
A
C
Span CD:
M X = RA x 2 2(x 1)
At,
At,
2M
= 10.37 x 4x + 4
= 6.37 x + 4
M2=16.74
x=2,
[Same as above. Hence checked.]
M4=10.374-4(4-1)=29.48
x=4(left),
2M
Span DE:
M X = C A x 2h(x 1)10(x 4)+ 5
A
C
= 10.37 x 4(x 1)10(x 4)+ 5

2M
Now, at x=4(right) M4=29.48+5=34.48

M6=10.376-4(6-1)-10(6-4)+5=27.22
At, x=6,
Span EB:
2M
2M 2M 2M
M X = 10.37 x 4(x 1)10(x 4)+ 5 10(x 6)

M6=27.22
At, x=6,
M8=82.96-28-40-20+5=87.96-88=-0.04 0
x=8,
A
C
2M
2M
E
2M
A
C
E
34.48
27.22
16.14
29.48
9.37
o
10.37
6.37
6.37
D
2M
Downloaded from
-3.37
3.36
13.63
B
2M

For S.F.
Span AC:
FX = RA 2 x = 10.37 2x
F0(right)=10.37
At, x=0(right),
F210.37-22=6.37
X=2,
Span-CD:
FX = RA 2 = 10.37 4 = 6.37
F2=6.37
At, x=2,
2M
F4(left)=6.37
x=4(left),
Span DE:
D
2M
FX = RA 2 2 10 = 3.63
F4(right)=-3.63
At, x=4(right),
F6(left)=-3.63
X=6(left),
Span EB:
C
2M
FX = RA 2 2 10 10 = 10.37 24 = 13.63
At, x=6(right),
F8(left)=-13.63
2M
F6(right)=-13.63
x=8(left),
Now, at x=8(right)
2M
B
CD
RB
a
2M
F8 (right) = RA 2 2 10 10 + RB
= 10.37 24 + 13.63 = 0
LEFT 3 PAGES
Draw B.M.D and S.F.D for given figure:
2 XN/m
Internal
10 KN
HInge
2 XN/m
C
B
2m
2m
E
2m
2m
2m
4.67
3.67
3.67
parabilic
0.67
-
- C
1.33
S.F.D
6.33
6.33
0.532
0.4625
.np
2M
2M
2M
Downloaded from
www.bhawesh.com.np
So| :
RA = 3.67
RB = 11
RC =
For bending moment diagram (B.M.D.):

Span AD:
M X = RA x = 3.67 x
at, x = 0,
at, x = 2,
10 KN
x
A
M0=0
M 2 = 7.34
RA
Span DB:
M X = RA x 10(x 2)
at, x = 2, M 2 = 7.34
at, x = 4,
11 KN
A
M 4 = 5.32
2
Span BE:
M X = RA x 10 ( x 2) + RB ( x 4) 2 ( x 4) (x 4)
2
2
or, M X = 3.67 x 10(x 2)+11(x 4) (x 4)
at, x = 4, M 4 = 5.32
at, x = 5,
at, x = 6,
M 5 = 1.65
M6 =0
10 KN
D
A
RA
B
RB
2M
2M
x
10 KN
2 KN/m
A
D
2M
B E
2M
2M
RA
RB
Span EC:
M X = RA x 10( x 2) + RB ( x 4) 2 2 x 2 + 2 +
= 3.67 x 10( x 2) +11( x 4) 4( x 5) 1
2
2
1
2
( x 6)
( x 6 ) ( x 6 ) ( x 6 )
6
at, x = 6,
at,
x = 7,
at, x = 7.5,
M6 =0
M7
= 0.523
M 7.5 = 0.4625

x-6
Downloaded from
www.bhawesh.com.np
at, x = 7.9, M 7.9 = 0.1498
at, x = 8, M 8 = 0.026 0
For S.F.D:
Sign Convention:
From left (+)ve and from right (-)ve
From left (-)ve and from right (+)ve
Now, S.F. at lrft of A = 0
Span AB:
FX = RA = 3.67
[(+)ve due to upward]
at, x = 0(right), F (right) = 3.67

F2 (left) = 3.67
at, x = 2(left),
Span DB:
FX = RA 10 = 3.67 10 = 6.33
F2 right = 6.33
at, x = 2right,
10 KN
F4 left = 6.33
at, x = 4left,
Span BE:
F = R 10 + R
X
A
B2( x4 )
FX = 3.67 10 +11 2(x 4) = 4.67 2(x 4)
at, x = 4right, F4 right = 4.67

at, x = 6, F6 = 0.67
Span EC:
FX = RA 10 + RB 2 2
x-4
( x 6) ( x 6 )
(x 6)
2
= 3.67 10 + 11 4
FX = 0.67
(x 6)
at, x = 6,
A
D
RA
2
F6 = 0.67
at, x = 6.5,
F6.5 = 0.545
at, x = 6.75,
2
RB
x-6
10KN
B
D
D
F6.75 = 0.388
2 KN
at, x = 8left, F8left = 1.33

at, x = 8right,
F8 right = 1.33 + RC = 1.33 +1.33 = 0
4m
FRAME:
Downloaded_from_www.bhawesh.com.np
A E 2M 2M
RA V
RE V

n
So| : ME = 0
RAV 4 10 2 2 4 =
02
20 + 16
or, RAV =
=9
4
RAV = 9
Now,
FY
= 0;
Then,
RAV 10 + REV = 0
or, REV = 10 9 = 1
FX
= 0;
Then,
RAH 2 4 =
0 RAH = 8
AH
AV
Now,
Span AB:
M X = RAH x = 8x
Since, M X = 8x
at,
x = 0, M 0 = 0
at,
x = 4, M 4 = 32
x
B
Span BC:
4m
M X = RAV x RAH 4 = 9x 8 4
RAH
M X = 9x 32
at, x = 0, M 0 = 32
at, x = 2,
RAV=9
M 2 = 14
x
Span CD:
M X = RAV x RAH 4 10(x 2)
M X = 9x 32 10(x 2)
at, x = 2,
M 2 = 14
at, x = 4,
M 4 = 16
(x-2)
4m
10
B
Span ED:
MX
(+)ve
x
2
= 2 x = x
2
at, x = 0,
2 KN
4M
M0=0
Downloaded from
www.bhawesh.com.np
A
RAH
RAV = 9
REV 21

at, x = 2,
M 2 = 4
at, x = 4,
M 4 = 16
-32
-16
-14
-32
-16
-
parabolic
B.M.D
2KN/m
2KN/m
Internal
HInge
Q Draw B.M., S.F. and A.F. diagram

[Hint or clue:
When hinge is not given i.e. as internal hinge then,
no. of unknown = 4
no. of equilibrium = 3
E
D
2M
Degree of indetermacy = 4 3 = 1
If internal hinge is given then,
no. of unknown = 4
RAV=3
Degree of determacy = 4 4 = 0
Hence structure is determinate.]
n
Internal hinge CFPBF hinge AF6 left / right port equilibrium U/]/So|
Now, MF = 0
UG]{
Sign Convention:
And force is (+)ve
And force is (-)ve
MF = 0
R
AV
4 +10 2
1
2
22
2
3
2 2
1
2
22
1
3
2 =0
or, 4RAV + 20 20.33 4.33 = 0
2M
2M
RFH = 2.84
RFV = 7
no. of determacy = 3+1 =4
So,
2M
10KN
Downloaded from
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12
RAV = [+ 20.30 8] = = 3
4
4
RAV = 3
i.e. downward direction.
Now, FY = 0;
1
2 2 2 2 + RFV = 0
2
2
or, RFV = 4 + 3
3
RFV = 7
i.e. upward direction.
For horizontal force calculation:

Let, left of internal hinge is in equilibrium and moment about D;
MD = 0
1
1
2
3 2 + RAH
4 10 2
2 22
2 =0
or, 6 + RAH 20 8 = 0
3
23+8
or, RAH =
= 7.16
43
RAH = 7.16
Now, FX = 0;
RAH 10 + RFH = 0
7.76 10 + RFH = 0
RFH = 2.84
[(+)ve , direction]
B.M. calculation:
Sign convention:
&
&
Span AB:
AH
(+)ve
(-)ve
AV
M X = RAH x = 7.16x
at,
x = 0,
at, x = 2,
For Span BC:
M0=0
M 2 = 14.32
C
2
B
M X = RAH x 10(x 2) = 7.16 10(x 2)

at,
x = 2,
M 2 = 14.32
at,
x = 4,
M 4 = 8.64
2
A
RAH
RAV

For Span CD:
2KN/m
2KN/m
A3
x
10KN
A
C
F
RFH
D
B
RAH
3
2
RAV
RFV
g
x
2-x
2
M X = RAV x + R AH 4 10 2 2 x
or, M X = 3x + 7.16 4 20 x 2
1
x
xx
2 2
3
x
6
at, x = 0, M 0 = 0 + 28.64 20 0 = 8.64
at, x = 2, M 2 = 6 + 28.64 20 4 + 8 = 30 + 28.64 +1.33 = 30 + 29.97 = 0.02 0

6
D
x
2-x
2
anti clockwise
direction
B
F
A
RFH= 2.84
RAH= 7.16
(x-2)
(x-2)
3
RFN
For Span DE:

M X = RAV
or, M X
x + RAH
4 10 2 2 2 x
= 3x + 28.64 20 2 x
2
3
(x 2)
1
3
1
2
( x 2) ( x 2)
x2
3

at,
x = 2,
M2 =0
at,
Span FE:
x = 4,
M 4 = 12 + 8.64 6.67 1.33 = 11.36
M X = RFH x = 2.84x
at,
x = 0,
M0 = 0
at, x = 4, M 4 = 2.54 4 = 11.36

DFLYSF calculation at Pt. E / OFXF+SFcalucaltion] at PT. E
value same EPSF]Ncalculation] correct 5 .
8.64
8.69
After dia plot:

(+)ve AFLX/ / DFLY /
For S.F.
S.F. at bottom
Span AB:
S.F. at bottom of A = 0
14.32
- 11.36
from left (+)ve
x = 0top,
F0 top = 7.16
x = 2bottom, F2 bottom = 7.16
FX = RAH 10 = 7.16 10 = 2.84

at,
at,
Span CD:
x = 2top, F2 top = 2.84

x = 4,
F4 = 2.84
FX = RAV 2 x
xx
2
x2
= 3 2x
2
at, x = 0,
F0 = 3
at, x = 2, F2 = 34 + 2 = 5
Span DE:
( x 2 )2
1
2 2 ( x 2) ( x 2) = 3 2
2
2
2
at, x = 2, F2 = 5
FX = RAV
+ B
FX = RAH = 7.16
at,
Span BC:
(-)ve NFO{ ELQ / TNplot UG]{ .
at,
-11.36
at, x = 4, F4 = 5 2 = 7

[Since, FE EF ]
Span FE:
At bottom of F,
FF bottom = 0
FX = RFH = 2.84
RFH
RFH
2.84
10
7.15
3
2.824
+
3722
10
2.824
-
LEFT MANY PAGES

Q. A beam of rectangular section 20cm wide and 40cm deep is simply supported over a span
of 5m. It is loaded with a point load od 10KN at the centre. Calculate the maximum shear
stress.
n
So| : Given,
b = 20cm,
d = 40cm
F = 10 = 5KN
2
(due to symmetrical)
40 cm
4
I = bd = 20 (40) = 106666.67cm
12
12
20 cm
Now, shear stress(q) = FA y = 5 (20 20) (20 2) =
I b 106666.67 20
Since, For maximum shear in section, take neutral axis unless specified.
Now,
3
Q. A timber beam 100mm wide and 250mm deep is simply supported over a span of 4m.
Find the uniformly distributed load that can be applied over the whole span so that the
4
deflected of the centre may not exceed 6mm. Take E = 1.1210 N/mm .
n
y=
So| : Since,
5wl
384EI
w/unit legk
Now, given,
y = 6mm
l = 4m = 41000 = 4000mm
4
2
E = 1.1210 N/mm
I=?
Now, I = bd = 100 (200)
12
12
So, we know,
3
y=
5wl
384EI
or, 6mm =
or, w =
w (4000)4
4
384 1.12 10
Q. A timber contilever beam 200mm wide and 300mm deep is 3m long. It is loaded with udl
of 3KN/m over the entire length. A point load of 2.7KN is placed at the free end of
contilever. Find the maximum bending stress ( max) produced.
n
So| : given,
b = 200
2.7 KN
3 KN/m
4d= 300mm
Downloaded
3m
b = 200mm

d = 300
w = 3KN/m
D = 2.7KN
max = ? (bending Stress)
bd 3 200 300 3
(
) = 4.5108 mm 4
now, I =
=
12
12
I = 4.5 10 mm
max
= 2.7 3 + 3 3
[Since, B.M. max
& always at fixed end for
2
contilever]
M
M
Now,
max
= 21.6KN = 2.26 10 N
max
= max
y
M y
max
max
I
4
2.16 10 300
2
=
8
4.5 10
= 7.2 10
max
[since, y = d/2]
N / mm
m
Q. A beam of size 25mm 25mm is carrying the max contrd load of 20KN as a simply
supported span of 600mm. The beam of same material but of size 25mm wide and
100mmdecs.
n
So| : Given,
30 KN
l=600
l = 600mm
d = 25 mm
For simply supported beam,
M
max
=
=
But,M max
max
max
b = 25 mm
y
wL
Since, B.M.max = S.F
4
=?
L
2
w
2
wL
4
w
Now,
= M max
max
max
WL d
=?
l = 1200

For contilever,
max = same
[Since, max is same for same material for both simply and contilever
beam]
M max = w L = w 1200
= 25 (100)
12
y=d 2
Now,
M
I
y
w 1200 =
or,
I
w 1200 =
Derive pure bending, elastic bending and plastic bending.

Elastic Bending = Elastic Limit leqsf] load g} x'g] bending nfO{ g} Elastic Bending elgG5 .
Plastic Bending = Plastic Stage df x'g] Bending x?n] laser df x'g] bending stress same x'G5 .
Elastic B. Stress diagram

Plastic Stress B. Stress diagram
Q. Three equal loads of 52KN have been supported by a simply supported beam of 12m
dividing the beam in four equal parts. Does the beam support the load is the allowable
2
bending stress is 50N/mm and section is 100mm(b) and
5 KN
5 KN 5 KN
50mm(d).
n
So| :
= 100 (50)
12
i.e.
bd
12
I=
And, y =
d 30
=
= 15
7.5
d = 50
b = 100

M C = 7.5 2 5 3
MC
Now,
M
I
(moment at centre i.e. Mmax)
=
y
=My
I
=
If < 50 then support
If > 50 then not support
Q. A cast iron 540mm dia & 80mm wall thickness is running full of wqater and supported over a
m
length of 8m. Determine the max stress intensity in the metal if the density of C.I. is
3
3
72KN/m and that of water is 10KN/m
=?
w KN/m
So| :
= d
64
y=D2=
M
max
= wl 2
M =
I
y
d = 540 = 0.54 (dia)
D = 0.57
2
M W = SW (0.54)
4
mP = W
(0.57)2
(mass of water)
(0.54)2
= 1.88
w = M W + mP = 4.17
Q. A rectangular beam 100mm wide
and 200mm deep and 4m long is
simply supported at ends. It carries a
UDL of 5KN/m run over the entire span. If this load is removed and two loads wKN each are
placed at 1 meter from each end, calculate the greatest value which may be assigned to the
m
load so that the max B.S. (bending stress) remain same as beam.
n
So| :
B.M max
I = bd
wl 2
= 8
Part- I
100
200
12
Part- II
w
Downloaded from www

W Rent
1M
W Rent
2M
1M
= d = 200
M =
I
max
Part-II
m
B.M. max at centre = w 2 w 1 = w KN / m =
3
I = bd =
12
= (known from above) =
M =
I
or,
w
I
w=
I
=y
beam
Determine the equation of elastic curve of (i.e. deflection curve line) contilever
supporting a UDL of intensity w over its port of length as shown below.
Solution:
At x = L,
EI =
dy
=0
w/units
A
dx
2
d y
dx
=M
[ M x
x
(L-a)
= EI ]
st
M x sf] 1 integrant slope
3m
Slope sf] integrant deflection
TORSION:
Torque/ Twisting moment/ Turning moment/ Torsion/ Process Torsion:
Assumptions:
(i)
plane normal section of shaft remain plane twisting i.e. no wrapping or distortion
of parallel plane normal to the axis of the member takes place.
(ii)
Torsion is uniform through the length i.e. all the normal cross-sections which are
at the axil distance suffer equal relative rotation.
(iii)
Radia remain straight after torsion.
(iv)
A stress is proportional to strain i.e. all the stresses are within the elastic limit.
(v)
The material is homogeneous and isotropic.
Relation between twisting moment, twist and shear stress:

A
1
B1
A
T
Torque
D
C
O
O
o
B
B
T
A
Note: D & B line are joined so that DB//CA. Also DB=CA
Let a torque T applied at the free end of shaft. So, balancing torque of equal magnitude
but opposite in direction in induced at the other end.
Due to the torque the radial ive OA shifts to OA1 and CA shift to CA1.
=
Let,AOA1
ACA1 =
BDB1 = 1
Let, qs = intensity of shear at the surface of the shaft.
Then, = qS c
Where, c = modulus of rigidity
= AA1 = OA1 = R = R
And,
CA
Hence,
CA
qS R
=
c
L
CAL
(i)
Since, c =
shear stress = qS
shear strain
Similarly,
Let, DB shift to DB 1
Let, DB is at radius r from the axis of shaft.
Let, q be the shear stress at layer of radius r , then,
=
q
c
So,
& = BB1 = r
1
DB
L
q r
=
c
L
q c
(ii)
=
r
L
From equation (i) and (ii),
q
S
q c
= =
RrL
Maximum torque transmitted by a solid circular shaft:

Suppose a solid circular shaft of radius R. Let an elementary ring of thickness dr at
radius r.
Let, qs = shear stress at outer most surface i.e. at layer R
dr
q = shear stress at radius r.
R
r
Area of elementary ring = 2r dr

Since,
qS
q=
q r
S
Turning force this elementary ring = shear stress (q) Area of ring (A)
=
qS r
2r
dr R
qS
2r
dr R
Turning moment of this elementary ring about centre of the shaft = Turning force r
=
=
qS
2r
rR
qS
dr
2r dr
3
R
Hence, Turning moment (or Torque) on the whole circular shaft;
T=
qS
2r dr
3
R
0
qS
= 2 R r 3 dr
0
= 2qS
R4
2qS R
R4
= qS R
2
qS R
T =
for radius of shaft
T = qS D
16
for diameter of shaft
Torque transmitted by a hollow circular shaft:

Consider a hollow circular shaft of inner radius Ri and
outer radius R o subjected to a Torque T. Let, an elementary st
rip of thickness dr at a radius r.
m
Let, qs = max shear stress at the outer most surface
q = shear stress on a surface of radius r
now, Area of elementary strip ring dr = 2r dr
qS
dr
r
Ri
Ro
Turning force on this ring = 2r dr q = 2r dr
r RO
Hence, Turning moment on the whole hollow circular shaft,
q
Ro
T = S 2r 3 dr
Ri
2q
Ro
dr
O Ri
4
= 2qS r
=
Ro
R 4
O
Ri
2qS (RO ) (Ri )

4
4R
T =
qS
2
(RO )4 (Ri )4
R
O
Since, RO
DO
=
2
T =
& Ri =
qS
Di
2
(DO )4 (Di )4
D
16
Torque in terms of polar moment of inertia:

Polar M.I. of a plane area is M.I. of the area about an axis perpendicular to the plane of
the figure and passing through the C.G. of the ar ea and it is denoted by j.
Turning moment on the ring;
qS
2r
dr R
Total torque (or twisting moment);
=
T=
qS
2r dr
3
Downloaded from
www.bhawesh.com.np
=
=
q
S R
2r dr
(dA
also)
S R
dA
where,
R
2
dA = Polar moment of inertia (J)
for circular shaft,
J = D
[in Z-axis]
32
qS
J
R
Now, T =
q
T
=S
J
R
or,
Since,
qS q c
= =
R
r
L
Hence,
T qS q c
=
= =
J
R r
L
Polar modulus:
It is defined as ratio of polar M.I. to the radius of the shaft. It is also called for sional
section modulus and is denoted by zp.
(a) For solid circular shaft:
J = D
32
R=D 2
D 32
4
= =
R
D2
16
(b) For a hallow circular shaft:

J=
[D O 4
Di
32
R = DO 2
ZP =J
R
= 32 [DO
Di4
DO 2
]=
]
16DO DO4 Di4 ]
DO
ZP =
16DO
Perpendicular axis theorem = Polar axis theorem
4
4
Di
Torsional rigidity:
Since,
T c
=
or, c J =
Tl
where, c J = Torsional rigidity
L=L
Torsional rigidity, c J =
TL
Expression of strain energy stored in a body due to torsion:

torque (T) is applied. Let an elementrary
Let a solid circular shaft of radius R in
which ring of radius r and thickness dr,
dr
Let, D = Dia. of shaft l
= length of shaft
r
R
c = modulus of rigidity
U = total strain energy stored in shaft.
Now,
q=
q r
S
Area of ring, dA = 2r dr
Vol. of ring, dV = 2r dr l
Shear strain energy =
(Shear stress)2
volume 2c
Hence, shear strain energy in the ring,
q
2r dr l
du = R
2c
=
qS2 l
2 2r dr
2cR
R
Total strain energy, U = du

0
2
q 2 l r 2r dr
S
2cR
qS l
= 2cR 2 r
0
dA
R
qS l
= 2cR J
Downloaded from
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where,
J = r 2 dA
0
For solid circular shaft,
T = D
32
U =
q S l D
2cR
2
32
or, U =
qS 2 l
(2R)4
2
32
2cR
qS l 16R
2
32
2cR
qS 2
2
R l
4c
qS 2
V
4c
Where, V = volume of shaft
=
U =
qS2
v
4
c
For hollow circular shaft;
for solid shaft
qS
2
2
U = cD 2 v DO + Di
Q. The shearing stress in a solid shaft is not to exceed 40N/mm when the torque transmitted
is 2000N-m. Determine the diameter of the shaft.
n
So| : Given,
2
qs = 40N/mm
Torque (T) = 2000N-m
Now, T q D 3
16 S
3
or, 2000 = 40 D
16
1
D=
2000 16
40 m = 136.2mm
th
Q. A solid circular shaft and hollow circular shaft whose inside dia is of the outside dia,
are of same material of equal lengths and are required to transmit a given torque. Compare
the weights of these two shafts if the maximum shear stress developed in the two shafts are
equal.
n
So| : Given,
Din =
30
Di

D
Hollow
Solid

Dout = 0.75DO
Torque transmitted by solid circular shaft,
T=
qS D
16
Torque transmitted by hollow circular shaft,
T = 16 qS
DO4 Di4
D
O
4
4
q DO (0.75DO )
S
DO
16
qS 0.6836
3
DO 16
Now, Torque transmitted by solid circular shaft = Torque transmitted by hollow circular shaft
i.e.
q D 3 = q D 3 0.6836
S
S
16
16
D = 0.8809DO
Now, wf. of solid shaft = gv
since, g = m &
= g D
(i)
wf. of hollow circular shaft = g
= g
wf = m v
(DO2
Di
) L
DO2 0.4375L
(ii)
4
Dividing equation (i) by (ii):
w3
=
w4
g D
= 1.7737
g 4 DO 0.4375 L
w3
1.7737 w4
m
Q. Calculate the max intensity of shear stress induced and the angle of twist in degrees for a
length of 10m for a solid shaft of 100mm dia. transmitting 112.5KW at 150R.P.M.. Toxe c =
4
8.210 N/mm for material of shaft.

= 60P
Hint: since, Torque(T )
2N
Where, N is in R.P.M.
P = Power in watt
N = R.P.M.
T = Torque

n
So| : Given, P = 112.5KW = 112.510

N = 150 R.P.M.
4
c = 8.210 N/mm
now,
Torque(T ) = 60P = 60 112.5 10

2 150
2N
again, Torque(T ) = qS D 3
16
16 7.162 106
= 7.162KN m
(for solid circular shaft)

2
or, T = 3.1416 (100) = 36.5N / mm

qS = c
Since, D is given then, R =
R
l
qS l 36.5 10 1000
=
=
R c
50 82 10 4
= 0.089radian
3
Now,
D
2
Q. Select a suitable dia. of solid shaft of circular section is transmit 112.5KW of power at
2
200R.P.M.. If the allowable shear stress is 75 N/mm and allowable twist is 1 in a length of
6
3m. Take c = 0.08210 N/mm .

n
So| : Given,
P = 112.5KW
N = 200R.P.M.
6
c = 0.08210 N/mm
= 1 (max )
l = 3.0m
2
qs = 75N/mm
now, we know,
Torque(T ) = 60P = 60 112.5

2N 2 200
T = 2.37KN m = 5.37 106N mm
Again, for strength;
= qS D 3 (for solid circular shaft)

16
6
3
or, 5.37 10 = qS D
16
3
= 75 D
16
5.37 10 16
75
6
D=
= 71.4mm
Again, we know,
Downloaded from
www.bhawesh.com.np
T = c
T = D 4
J
l
J
32
Where, T, c, , l are known by this relation, D is known.
Now, 180=
1=
180
T c
=
J
L
Since,
J = TL = 5.372 10
3 1000
6
0.082 10
180
D 4 = ..........
32
D = 103.5mm
Hence, this diameter is greater than diameter from strength criteria.
So, Diameter, D = 103.5mm
Q. A hallow circular shaftof external diameter 150mm and transmits 200KW power at
m
m
200R.P.M.. Determine max internal diameter if the max stress in this shaft is not to
2
exceed 60N/mm
n
So| : Given:
N = 100R.P.M.
P = 200KW
or,
qs = 60N/mm
DE or DO =
150mm Now, we know,
T = 60 D = 60 200 = 190.95KN m
2 100
2N
6
T = 190.98 10 N mm
Now, T = 16
q
S
DO4 Din4
D O
190.98 10
or,
D
or,
in
[for hollow circular shaft]
16
60
(150)4
Din4
150
=
= 209.473
Q. A hollow shaft 3mm outer dia rans at 400R.P.M. against a power of 50KW. Find the inner
diameter of the shaft so that shear strain does not exceed 1/1000 . Take c = 810
6
N/cm . So| : Given,

1
1000
6
c = 8 10 N / cm
= 8 10N / mm
60D
2N
Now, T =
60 50
2 400
T=
i.e. qS = c
Again, qS = c shear strain

6
or, q = 8 10
1
1000
3
2
q = 8 10 N / mm
DO4 Di4
Now, T = 16 qS
D
O
Din =
Q. A shaft of dia 5m and length 40m by power 200KW at 20R.P.M.. Does the shaft transmits
2
the power safely if the permissible stress is 50N/mm .

60D
60
n
So| :
T = 2N = 2 20
Now, T = qS D 3
16
Is T =
qS D
>
T =
60D
then the shaft is safe otherwise non-safe.
2N
16
i.e. Applied T should be less than design T.
3
i.e. Desgin, T = qS D
16
= 60D
and, applied, T
2N
Q. A solid shaft of 150mm diameter is to be replaced by hollow shaft of the same

material.The internal diameter equal to 60% external diameter. Find the saving in material if
m
the max allowable shear stress is the same for both the shaft.
n
So| : Given,
Now, T = qS D 3 (for solid shaft)
16
or, TS =
And,
TH
16
qS
DO Di
(for hollow shaft)
D
O

or, D =
msolid = v =
D l=
And, m
hollow
2
O
4
Now, solving material,
=
i
4
m = msolid m kollow
=
* Thickness < (1/15 to 1/20) of diameter (internal)

The vessel which has its thickness less than 1/15 to 1/20 of internal diameter is called thin
walled vessel. It is used to keep the fluid under pressure. Due to the pressure of the fluid the
stresses in the wall of the cylinder on the cross-section along axis and cross-section
perpendicular to the axis are set up. These stresses are tensile and called as:
- circumferencial stress or hoop stress
- longitudional stress
The stress acting along circumference of the cylinder is called circumferential stress where as
the stress acting along the length of the cylinder is calleds longitudinal stress.
Expression for circumferential stress:
Let us consider a thin cylindrical shell under fluid pr..Let the circumferential stress developed
in the cylinder as in figure.
Let, p = internal fluid pr.
d = internal dia. of the cylinder t
= thickness of the cylinder
1 = circumferential stress

Force due to fluid pressure = pressure area on w hich pressure is acting
=pdL
(i)
Now, Force due to circumferential stress
d
= 1 (L t + L t )
= 1 2tL
= 21tL = 21tL
1 =
pd
2t
Expression for longitudinal stress:
Let us consider a thin cylindrical vessel under fluid pressure.

Let, longitudinal stress developed in vessel as shown in figure.
Now, Force due to fluid pressure,
= p area on which pressure is acting
= p d
(i)
4
Again, Force due to longitudinal stress,
= 2 de ee (ii)
Since, equation (i) and (ii) are same,
So, p
d 2
= 2 dt
4
i.e. 2 = 1 of
2
2 = pd s
4t
1 pd pd
=
=
4t
2 2t
Effect of pressure on the dimension of a thin cylindrical shell:

Let us consider a thin cylindrical shell, having internal fluid pressure
P Let, 1 = circumferential stress = pd/2t
2 = longitudinal stress = pd/4t
L = length of cylinder
t = thickness of cylinder
Downloaded from
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E = modulus of elasticity
= Poissons ratio
d = change in diameter
L = change in length
v = change in volume
now, e1 = strain along circumferential
e2 = strain along longitudional
then, e
=
1
=
Now, e2 =
E
pd 2t
E
2
pd 4t
pd 1
1
2tE 2
E
E
= pd pd
2tE
4tE
pd 1
P2 =
2tE 2
But, circumferential strain,
(ii)
e = Change in circumference
1
original circumference
= (d + d ) d
d
= d
(iii)
d
Longitudinal strain;
e2 = Change in length
original length
e2
= l
l
= l
(iv)
l
Now, equating (i) & (i) and (iii) & (iv), then,
d = pd 1 1
2tE
2
d
2
pd 1 1
d =
2tE
2
Similarly from equation (ii) and (iv),
L = pd 1
L
2tE 2
pdL 1
L =
2tE 2
(i)
Now, volumetric strain:

Volumetric strain =
We know, v =
d 2
L4
Now, Final volume, =
(d + d ) 2 ( L +
L) 4
[d 2 + (d )2 + 2d d ] ( L + L)
[d 2 L + L(d ) 2 + 2d d L + d 2 L + (d )2 L + 2d d L]
4
Neglecting smaller quatities,
Final volume =
[d 2 L + 2dL d + d 2 L]
Now, change in volume, (v) =

or, v =
Now, volumetric strain, e =
d 2
L44
[2dL d + d 2
[d 2 L]+ 2dL d + d 2 L
[2dL d + d 2
d 2 L
4
2
= 2dL d + d L
2
2
d L
d L
= 2d + L
L
eV =
2d L
+
= 2e1 + e2
LL
eV = 2e1 + e2
2 pd 1
pd 1
Also, eV = 2
1 +
2tE 2
2tE 2
pd
1
=
2 _
2
2tE
pd 5
eV =
2
2tE 2
Q. A cylindrical shell, 90cm long 20cm internal dia. having thickness of metal as 8mm in
3
failed with luid at atmospheric pressure. If 20cm of fluid is pumped in to the cylindewr find;
(i) the pr. exterted by fluid on the cylinder

(ii) The hoop stress induced.
5
Take, E = 210 N/mm and =

n
0.3 So| : Given,
L = 90cm
d = 20cm
t = 8mm
= 0.3
5
E = 210 N/mm
Now, volume of cylinder =
d 2
L=
3
28274.33cm 4
3
Change in volume = 20cm
= 0.3
5
Now, (i)
E = 210 N/mm = 210 N/cm

pd 5
v
=
2tE 2
P=?
P=
(ii) 1 = pd
2t
2
A boiler is subjected to an internal pr. of 20Kg/cm . The thickness plate is

n
2
2cm. So| : p = 20Kg/cm
t = 2cm
2
t = 1200Kg/cm
nl = 90%=0.9 nc
= 40% = 0.4
since, 1 =
pd
2tnl
d=
2tn
n
= 1200Kg / cm
So,
d = 1200 2 2 0.9 = 216cm
20
Similarly,
Since,
2 =
d=
pd
4tnc
2 4 nc 1200 4 2 0.9
=
p
20
d = 192cm

Q. A cylindrical shell is 3M long, 1.5m internal dia and 20mm metal thickness. Calculate the
m
intensity of max shear stress incuced and also the change in dimension of the shell if it is
2
subjected to an internal pressure of 2N/mm . Take E = 0.210 N/mm and = 0.3.

m
{hint: max shear stress, qmax =

n
pd
]
8t
So| : Given,
L = 3m = 3000m
2
D = 2N/mm
d = 1.5m = 1500mm
6
E = 0.210 N/mm
t = 20mm
= 0.3
2 1500 = 18.75N / mm 2
8t
8 20
now, for change in dimension;
for dia change,
2
pd
1
now, qmax =
d =
pd
2tE
2 (1500)2
2 20 0.2 10
6 1
1
2
= 0.478mm
d = 0.478mm
Change in length:
pdL 1
l =
2tE 2
2 (1500) 3000 1
=
2 20 0.2 10 2
l = 0.225mm
Also, volumetric strain,
eV =
Since, V =
d 2
pd 5
0.3
0.3
2 = 7.125
10
2tE 2
9
l = 2.3 10 mm
4
4
9
3
v = e V = 7.125 10 5.3 10 = 3776250mm
V
Column:
According to analysis, the type of column are,
(i)
short column
(ii)
long column
(i) short column:

If slenderness ratio is less than 12 then the column is short
column (ii) long column:
If slenderness ratio is greater than 12 then the column is long column.
Slenderness ratio:
It is ratio of affection length of the column to the least lateral dimension. The side
which is less among a and b is called least lateral dimension.
p Pe x Pey
A
2
2
Type of column according to support condition:

(1) Both ends, effectively held in position and rest against in ratio.
Left = 2l
(2) Both ends hinged
l(left) = l
(3) One ends fixed and other end free
Left =
(4) One ends fixed and other ends hinged:
Left =
(i)
(ii)
Fixed ends: no deflection, no slope

Hinge ends: no vertical and horizontal deflection but slope occurs
Roller: no vertical deflection but there occurs horizontal deflection and
slope Free end: horizontal deflection, vertical deflection and sloe occurs.
(iii
)
(iv)
Introduction to Buckling
Column:
A structure vertical member whose two ends are fixed which subjected to a axial
compressive load is called column.
Struts:
A structure member which is not vertical and one or both of its ends are hinged or pisjoined is called struts.
Failure of column:
Column fails due to any one of the following stresses:
(i)
Direct-compressive stresses
(ii)
Buckling stresses
(iii)
Combined of direct compressive and buckling stresses
Failure of short column:
Let, a short column subjected to a compressive load p, then
compressive stresses is given by,
P A
When the load is increased, the column reaches at a point of
failure by crushing. The load at this stage is called crushing at this
stage is called crushing load and the stress is called crushing stress.
Pc
A
Where, Pc = crushing load
c = crushing stress
So, c =
Failure of long column:

Let a long column subjected to a compressive load P. This
column fails by combine action of crushing and bending stress.
o = Stress due to direct load.
b = stress due to bending at the centre of the column
= Pe
Z
Where, e = max bending of the column at the centre

Z = section modulus about axis of bending
Downloaded from
M
I
Let,
My M Pe
=
yz
II
www.bhawesh.com.np

p
D
tensile = - Ve
compressive = + Ve
Conpression zone
tensile zone
o-b
o+b
At mid span,
m
max stress = o + b
minimum stress = o - b
m
The failure of the column occurs when max stress ( o + b) will be more than
crushing stress c. In the case of long column, the direct compressive stresses are negligible
as compared to the buckling stresses so the very long column is only subjected to buckling
stress.
Assumptions of Eulers column theory:

(1) The column is initially perfectly straight and load is applied axially
(2) The cross-section is uniform throughout its length
(3) The material of the column is perfectly elastic, homogeneous, isotropic and obeys
Hooks law
(4) The length of the column is very large as compared to the lateral dimension.
(5) The column will fail by buckling alone
(6) The self wf. of column is negligible.
Sign Convention:
concave
convex
The moment which bends the column convexity towards the original position is taken as
(+)ve
The moment which bends the column concavity towards the original position is taken
as (-)ve.
Expression for cripping load when both ends of column are hinged:

Let, P be the cripping load. Let y be the defl ection at a section x from A. The
moment due to cripping load at this section;
(Since, (-)ve sign is due to concavity)
m = Py
P
or, EI d y = Py
2
dx
or, EI d y + Py = 0
2
dx
2
or, d y + Py = 0
2
dx
EI
n
The so| of above differential equation.
+C
y = C1 Cos x
Sin x
EI
y=0
P
So, 0 = 0 + C
or, C
P
2
EI
y=0
At, x = 0,
C1 = 0
At, x = l,
Sin l
EI
P
2
=0
Sin l
EI
= 0 or Sin l
So, either C2
=0
EI
If C2 = 0 and C1 is already zero, then column will not but but at all which is not true.
Hence, Sin l
=0
EI
P =
Sin0, Sin , Sin2 , .
Sin l EI
Taking least practical value (i.e. Sin )
Sin l
Sin
EI
P =
l
EI
2
P = EI
l2
which is Eulers required equation.
Expression for crippling load when one end of the column is fixed and other end is free:

|
Let, a crippling load is acting on the column. The point B shifts to B due to crippling
load. Let y be the deflection at a section x fr om A and a be the deflection at the free end
B.
The moment at this section due to crippling load;
m = +P(a y)
(Since, (+)ve sign due to convexity buckling)
or, EI d y = P(a y) = Pa Py
2
dx
2
EI
d2y
dx
p
a
+ Py = Px
d y+P y=Pa
2
dx Ey
EI
n
The so| of this differential equation is,
P
+C
y = C1Cos x
+a
(i)
EI
P
dx
= C1
Sin x
= C1 (1)Sin x
EI
dy
EI
P
P
Sin x
EI
EI
At, x = 0,
y=0
So, from equation (i);
+ C 2 Cos x
EI
+ C2
EI
P
P
Cos x
EI
(ii)
EI
C1 = a
dy = 0
dx
So, from equation (ii);

P
0 = C1
Sin 0+C
EI
P
Cos 0
EI
C2 = 0
So from (i);
y = aCos x
+a
(iii)
EI
Since, at, x = l,
y = a,
So from equation (iii)
a = aCos l
=0
EI
0 = C1 + C2 0 + a
At, x = 0,
+a
EI

P
aCos l
=0
EI
Since, a 0 so,
P
Cos l
=0
EI
P
Cos l
= Cos 2 , Cos 3 2 , Cos 5 2, ..........
EI
Taking least practical value,
P
Cos l
= Cos
EI
P
EI
2
EI
4l
2
2 EI
2
P = 2 = (2l )
L = 2l
Expression for crippling load when both ends of the column are fixed:
Let a crippling load P as the column. Let y be t he deflection at a section x from A.
Let mo be the fixed end moment then,
Moment at the section, = mo Py

d2y
EI
2 = mo Py
dx
MG
EI
d y
2 + Py = mo
dx
d y
dx
Py
mo
+ EI = EI
2
d y + P y = m o P = P mo
2
ax EI
P
EI P EI
The solution of above differential equation is,
P
y = C1Cos x
P
+C
2 Sin x
EI
EI
dy
= C1 (1)Sin x
Now,
dx
dy
EI
P
EI
y=0
P
P
EI
EI
= C1 Sin x
(i)
+ C2 Cos x
EI
dx
At, x = 0,
mo
EI
EI
+ C2 Cos x
EI

st
So, from 1 equation i.e. (i)
mo
0 = C1 1 + C2 0 +
P
C = mo
1
P
dy = 0 also, then from above expression
dx
At, x = 0,
0 = C1 0 + C2
P EI
C2 = 0
Hence, from (i),
y = mo Cos x
P
Now, at, x = l,
+ mo
EI
P
y = 0, then above expression also written as
0 = mo Cos l P + mo
P
EI
P
mo
P = P
Cos l
EI
mo
P
Cos l
=1
EI
Cos l
= Cos 0, Cos , Cos2 ,..........
EI
Now, taking least practical value i.e. Cos2 , then
Cos l
= Cos2
EI
l
P = 2
EI
P = 4 EI
2
l
2
Expression for crippling load when one end of the column is fixed and the other end is
hinged:
Proof:

Let a crippling load P on the column. Let y be the deflection at the section x from
n
A. Let m o be the fixed end moment at A and H be the hori zontal ref at B to balance
mo .
So, the moment at a section x,
m = Py + H (l x)
EI
d2y
dx
dx
EI
= Py + H (l x)
d2y
+ Py = H (l x)
l
y
d y + P y = H (l x)
2
dx EI
EI
= H (l x) P
P
EI
Mo
d y + P y = P H (l x)
2
dx EI
EI
P
n
The sol of the above differential equation,
2
+C
y = C1 Cos x
P
2
Sin x
(l x)
(i)
EI
EI P
Now, differentiating the equation (i) then we get,
dy
= C1 (
1)Sin x
P
+ C2 Cos x
dx
dy
EI EI
P
= C1 Sin x
EI
P
+ C2 Cos x
dx
At, x = 0,
EI
EI
EI EI
y = 0, then from equation (i),
P
EI
H
P
(ii)
0 = C1Cos 0+C2 0 + H (l 0)
P
C = H l
1
P
Again, at x = 0, dy = 0 , then from equation (ii),
dx
0 = C Sin 0+C Cos 0
2
C2 1 =
P H
EI P
(Since, Cos0 = 1)
H P
P
EI
C2 =
H
P
EI
P

Hence, from equation (i),
y = H l CosCx P + H EI SinCx P + H (l x)
E
P P
P
I
EI
P
now, at, x= l, y = 0, hence from (ii),
H
0=
P
H
P
P
P
(l l )
Sin l
EI
H
EI
lCos l
EI
P =l
tan l
Sin l
EI
l Cos l
EI
(iii)
EI
EI
EI
n
now, The total so| of above differential equation is,
P = 4.5radian
EI
l
l
2P
l2
EI
= 20.5
P
2
= 2
EI
2 EI
2
D=
{Since,
2
l2
20.25]
Effective length:
End condition of the column
(1) Both ends hinged
(2) One end fixed and other end free
(3) Both ends fixed
Effective length(L)
L=l
L = 2l
L = l/2
(4) One end is fixed and other end is hinged
L=l
Q-1. A column oftimer section is 15cm 20cm is 6m
2
long, both ends being fixed. If the
young modulus of elasticity for timber = 17.5KN/mm determine:

(i) crippling load
(ii) safe load for the column if factor of safety (i.e. F.S. = ?)
y
15
So| : Given,
b = 15cm
20
d = 20cm
l = 6m
E = 17.5KN/mm
now, I XX =
bd
15 (20)
= 1000cm 4 = 10000 104 mm 4
1
2
12
and, IYY =
db
20 (15)
= 6525cm 4 = 5625 104 mm 4
12
12
Since, IYY is less than IXX so column buckles towards Y axis
Now, effective length (L) =
e 6
= = 3m = 3000mm
2 2
2 17.5 5625 104
2 EI
Now, P = L2 ( Left ) =
P = 1079.48KN
Hence, for (ii), safe load,
(3000)2
= P = 1079.48 =
F
Safe Load = 359.8KN
359.8KN
Cripling Load , P = 1079.48

Q-2. Determine the crippling load of a T-section of dimension 16cm 10cm 2cm of length
5m. When it is used as strut with both of its endhinged. Take yong modulus, E = 2 10
5
N/mm .
n
So| :
10 cm
Since the column is symmetrical in Y-section. So, we only found out
2cm
the y .
y = 3.23
Now, Let C.G. gets at a distance y from top fibre then,
10 cm
(10 2 + 2 8)y = 10 2 1 + 2 8 6
6.77
y = 3.23cm
Now, I XX
And, IYY
10 (2)
+10 2(3.23 1)
12
2 (10)
12
3
+
8 (2 )
(8)
12
+ 2 8(6 3.23)
= 314.21cm 4
12
= 172cm
Since, IYY is less than IXX hence, the column buckles towards y-axis.
Now, L(eft) = l = 5m = 5000mm
[Since, both ends hinges then Left = l]
2
5
2 10 172 104
EI
So,
(5000)
P = (left ) =
P= 135805.7 N
2

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(iii) Fixed support:

(iv) Ball and socket support:

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This is example of hinge support in 3-D.

(v) Fixed support:

Determinant and Indeterminant Structure:

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Direct stress and strain:

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Yong's modulus or modulus of elasticity, E =

Modulus of rigidity (c):

Bulk Modulus (K):

Stress given by all six (6) directions normally.

Stress and strain diagram of mild steel:

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Mild steel 250 M Pa (N/mm )

B = Yield point (upper) = YUS

UL = pure plastic state (stress const and strain increase)

Working load = OA region = elastic limit

Working Stress (or safe load):

Factor of safety for,

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Cross-sectional area of the all body i.e. A, B & C are same.

Now, for a body A:

Bar of Varying Cross-Section:

Let, a force P is acting on a body of varying cross-section as shown in figure.

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Extension of bar (I) 1 =

Extension of bar (II) 2 =

Extension of bavr (III) 3 =

Net extension = 1 + 2 + 3 = PL1 + PL2 + PL3

Suppose a uniformly tapered section from diameter d1 to d2 of length L. Consider a

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Q. A specimen of steel 25 mm diameter with gauge length of 200 m is tested to destruction. It

Percentage reduction in area

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load at elastic limit

(i) The stress at elastic limit

= Final extension 100

(ii) Percentage elongation

(iii) Yongs modulus of elasticity (within elastic limit only)

(iv) Percentage reduction in area

(v) Ultimate stress

Original cross - sectional area

[here, E = 2 10 N/mm = 200 KN/mm always]

7 days 66% strength 28 days

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focal elongation of the bar if, (i.e. take)

For body (i):

600 1.5 1000 1000

+ 2 + 3 = (0.917 + 0.713 + 1.019)mm

length dx, its extension , is given by,

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Elongation of bar of tapered shape due to self f :

Let a tapering bar as shown in figure. Consider an

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Where, = Temp. Stress

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