STATISTICS

the science of collecting, organizing, presenting, analyzing, and interpreting data to assist in making more effective decisions.

WHY STUDY STATISTICS?

3 Reasons: 1.) Data are everywhere 2.) Statistical techniques are used to make many decisions that affect our lives (examples: Medicine, Water quality, teaching methodologies, etc.)

3.)No matter what your future line of work, you will make decisions that involve data.

WHAT IS MEANT BY STATISTICS?

Statistics

Numerical Information
Examples: 1Average starting salary of college graduates 2Average number of Fords sold per month at Ford Cagayan 3Percentage of undergraduates attending CU who will attend graduate school 4The number of deaths due to alcoholism last year 5etc. +1000

Graphical Information
Examples:

-1000

86

87

88

89

90

91 92

Net Income of PAL

TYPES OF STATISTICS
Descriptive Statistics is a scientific method of dealing with data. It is the collection, organization, presentation and interpretation of numerical data. Statistics are also quantities calculated from observations.

Inferential Statistics involves the interpretation of values resulting from the descriptive techniques. It also involves making inferences, conclusions, or decisions about the population of which the sample is a part, again using sample results. The objective of inferential statistics is to draw inferences from a small group (sample) to a large group (population) and to do so with a well defined degree of confidence.

VARIABLES AND MEASUREMENT

Variable. Characteristics or phenomenon
which may take on different values. The set values that the variable can take is called its domain. Example: weight, grades, income, age, job performance

Constant. Characteristics which assume

only one value.

Quantitative or Numerical Variable.

Variables which are expressed numerically in terms of magnitude. Example: height, income

Qualitative or Categorical Variables.

Variables expressed in quality or kind. Example: sex, color, type of school

Continuous Variable. One which assumes

all values between two points in a continuous scale. Example: weight, income

Discrete Variable. One which can only

assume a finite number of values most frequently integers. Example: number of respondents in a study

Observation. Numerical recording of

information on a variable. Example: variable 110 lbs. 9.85 lbs. weight 100 lbs. 135 lbs. 112.78 lbs.

Data. A collection of observations.

Scales of Measurement
1. Nominal or Classificatory Scale
Numbers are used as codes simply to classify an object, persons or characteristics into certain categories (Equivalence). Example : Red = 0 Blue = 1 Green = 2

2. Ordinal or Ranking Scale

Numbers are used as codes, categories are not just different but be put in order (Equivalence, or) Example: poor = 0 Midclass = 1 Rich =2

3. Interval Scale
Has all the characteristics of ordinal scale and nominal scale and in addition, the distance between 2 points on the scale is known. However, the zero point is artificial. (Equivalence, or, difference between two points can be compared) Example: 320 C, 900F (VariableTemperature)

4.) Ratio Scale

Has all the characteristics of the interval scale and in addition has a true zero point. Example: weight, height

DATA COLLECTION
Primary Data. Gathered by the Researcher. Secondary Data. Using data of other sources Census. Complete enumeration in which every member of the population is included. Sample Survey. Survey of a portion of the population.

Elements in a Survey Design:

1. Set of Objectives 2. Sampling Design 3. Data of gathering plan 4. Plan for analysis of collected data

Sampling Procedures
1. Probability Sampling. A sampling
method, which makes use of the knowledge of the characteristics of the individual element in the population and thus, the chance that, each element has of being drawn as sample.

2.

Non

Probability Sampling. A

sampling method which does not specify the probability of selection of the elements in the population.
Examples: a.) accidents or haphazard samples items which come in handy are taken as samples. TV commercial of a certain product where a buyer in a superstore is interviewed b.) judgment or purposive sampling sample is selected with the researchers subjective judgment. c.) quota sampling - purposive sampling with the added specification that sample is proportioned to the population.

Probability Sampling Techniques:

1. Random Sampling. Process of selecting
a sample wherein every element in the sampled population is given an equal non zero chance of entering the sample.

2.

Systematic

Random

Sampling.

Sampling wherein every kth unit is included after a random start is taken for the sample.

3. Stratified Sampling. Population is

divided into homogenous groups of strata and selection is done within each strata.

4. Multi Stage Sampling. Sampling done

in several stages.

Sampling Techniques
SLOUVINS FORMULA
N n = --------------1 + Ne2

where

N = population n = no. of sample e = margin in of error or level of significance (0.01, 0.05, 0.001)

Example: N = 100,000 e = 0.05 n=? 100,000 n = ----------------------------- =398 1 + 100,000 (0.05)2

Proportionate Sampling: (sampling Proportionate to Size)

Men 3,000 X Women 20,000 Y ________________________________________ N = 23,000 n = 393 23, 000 n = ----------------------- = 393 1 + 23,000 (0.05)2 X 393 ---------- = ---------- ; X = 51 3000 23,000 Y 393 ---------- = -----------; Y = 342 20,000 23,000 or Y = 393 51 = 342