GEOLOGY GEOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF THE COLCA VALLEY By Guido Salas The Colca Valley is located in a geologically rich and

active area. It is located in the south of Peru, in and between the Andes mountains, and it belongs to the South American tectonic plate. This continental plate lies under the Nazca oceanic plate. The friction between both at a depth of over 100 kilometres causes the magma to rise to the lithosphere through large geological crevices, thus forming volcanoes. So, the Colca area is predominantly made up of volcanic rocks, with the presence of some sedimentary rock. This type of rock can be seen to the northwest of Maca. The most recent sign of vulcanism, is made up of the highest mountains in the valley: the Hualca Hualca, Ampato and Sabancayo volcanoes. The Colca valley is noticeable for the diversity of materials which cover it: the alluvial terraces made up of conglomerates, gravel and mud slime. The second structure is made up of alluvial cones. These materials have descended from the high parts due to water erosion and probably glacial activity. Maca, Lari and Madrigal stand out for the presence of great masses of rock. These frequently slide, greatly affecting agriculture. The landslides are produced by the clayey lithology of some of the sediments, the abundance of water and the fracture of the land and even by active geological faults. The volcanoes Two of the at least four active volcanoes in the south of Peru, are to be found in the Colca valley or in the tourist areas linked to the Colca. These are the Sabancaya and Misti volcanoes. Along with the Ubinas and Huaynaputina volcanoes, they both belong to the central Andean volcanic region. The snowcapped mountain, Sabancaya, by the Colca valley, is the highest of the active Peruvian volcanoes. It is located near to the ancient Hualca Hualca volcano and the most recent one, Ampato.

The Sabancaya has been permanently active sine 1987. Its activity alternates between periods of relative calm and periods of increase in intensity. At present, the columns of ash from the Sabancaya rise from one to four kilometres into the air for ten minutes at a time, at irregular intervals. The ash is carried by the wind for several kilometres. The volcano started its reactivation in 1990 when the columns frequently reached over five kilometres into the sky and were seemingly full of volcanic particles. At that time llama and alpaca pasture in the area was stopped due to the ash. At present, it is impossible to foresee the future evolution of the Sabancaya. Historical narratives tell of similar activity during the XVIII century. And the volcano's name in Quechua means "he who spits", suggesting that this type of eruption did occur during the pre-Columbian era. Only a greater eruption could affect the Colca valley inhabitants, at 20 kilometres from the volcano. How to visit Sabancaya The best place to see the Sabancaya eruptions is the Pampa de Sallalli. You can reach there using a four wheel drive vehicle, along a dirt road which heads directly off the Arequipa-Chivay road, at Solarpampa. The journey lasts four or five hours from Arequipa, and approximately two hours from Chivay. The climb up to the crater is long and a guide is recommended. You must sleep the night at the mountain pass between Sabancaya and Ampato. Misti The Misti volcano is the most well known of the Peruvian volcanoes, not only for its symmetrical beauty but also, and most of all, for its proximity to Arequipa. Its activity has been known of for at least 35,000 years, when the most ancient eruption occurred. During this long period of time, up until the present, several dozen significant eruptions have occurred. The latest eruption took place 2000 years ago. This eruption started with the emission of volcanic material which fell on Arequipa. It is probable that over the last 2000 years, several minor eruptions have taken place. If a significant eruption of Misti did occur, Arequipa would be in a critical position. An eruption with an unfavourable wind, could cover the city in ash and pumice stone causing severe damage. It is possible that serious avalanches could occur. For example, the city is partly built on the remaining sediment of the collapse of the Pichu Pichu volcano. An avalanche of this nature would completely destroy the city of Arequipa in a few minutes. How to visit Misti

The climb up Misti usually takes two days there and back. There is no technical difficulty in climbing it, but it is essential to be physically fit. A mountain guide is advisable. You can descend into the exterior crater, but it is dangerous to venture into the small central crater. Ashlar stone The beauty of Arequipa lies partly in the white ashlar stone used for building all of the colonial buildings in the centre. In the Colca Valley, the Lari church has also been built completely out of this stone. Ashlar is a volcanic rock which comes from a particularly violent eruption which took place over two million years ago. It is the product of monstrous streams of fire and lava which submerged the whole Arequipa basin. At the time of its emplacement and due to the high temperature, it solidified and formed the compact consistency which enables it to be used as construction material. If an eruption similar to that of the ashlar ever occurred again, the city of Arequipa and the neighbouring plains would disappear without a trace. Seismic aspects of the Colca The south of Peru is well known for its strong seismic features. The seismic activity in the Colca valley is significant. In July 1991 an earthquake of 5.2 degrees occurred and completely destroyed Maca and its church. The geyser and the hot springs The Colca valley has several hot mineral springs, probably associated with the vulcanism. Their origin is in the rain water which filters in the subsoil and is heated in the depths due to its proximity to a magmatic chamber. Thus the water is lighter than the surrounding cold water and it rises to the surface. If there are cracks in the earth, they favour a rapid rise to the surface, the water does not lose its heat. In some cases the magma transfers a certain quantity of carbonic gas to the water, changing it into high quality mineral water. To the south of Pinchollo, in the Colca river canyon, there is a constant jet of water vapour. There are also hot spring baths at Chivay and Ichupampa. Mineral resources in the Colca Valley: mines The Colca valley has two mines. The Maca and the Madrigal mines. The Maca mine contains diatomite. This contains the same typology as carbon, petroleum and natural gas. The mine is located in the Jatun Chicta region. The

Madrigal mine contains metalic minerals. Up until a few years ago, copper, zinc, lead and silver were mined here. Due to economic measures, their mining ceased to be profitable and at present the mine is abandoned. The mine also contains quartz, calcite, galena, sphalerite, chalcopyrite and pyrite. THE CANYON: A DEEP AND ANCIENT GORGE High up, in the desolate places of Imata, near the Jayuchaca lagoon, the many Colca tributaries spread out over an Andean arch of over sixty kilometres. They run down the hills and, like the Chilamayo river, the headwaters of the Colca, they join the new river bed. It is here that the river begins its wilful journey which ends in the Pacific Ocean under the name of the Camana river. The torrent runs through parts of the canyon which only the midday sun touches and on its journey it lays bare the geological formations which have gathered since ancient times. HISTORY OF THE CANYON Seventy million years ago, during the Senonic period, the first Peruvian Andean upheaval, the Peruvian Uplift, ocurred. This wide-ranging orogenic movement of mountain building was followed by abundant volcanic outlets which spread all along the meridional mountain range, forming a strong platform. Much later, towards the end of the Tertiary period, the great volcanoes which stretch from the 150 parallel latitude to Tierra del Fuego, began to rise. Simultaneously, igneous (crystalline) rocks appeared which, after extensive erosive processes caused by differences in temperature, became exposed to the outside world. Thus, the Huaraz, Volcabamba and Urubamba mountain ranges had been formed. During the Oligocene period, thirty five million years ago, the Continental Mountain Range emerged with heights of up to a thousand or two thousand metres, causing new foldings of the sedimentary strata. Much later, towards the end of the Tertiary period, during the Miocene and the Pliocene periods, new eruptions occurred causing a great accumulation of volcanic layers. Tangential thrusts, particularly in the Pliocene period, produced the Quichano folding and lifted the range up to the altitude which it has today. During this period and the Pleistocene period, volcanic activity begins again and forms, among other outstanding mountains in the south of the country, the Coropuna and the Ampato. The eroding effect of the water which descends from the glaciers and from the different glaciations which occurred in the heights of the range millions of years

ago, has laid bare the enormous upheavals in the geological formation. The fluvial lake terraces located above the present river bed on which the terraces are, are a clear indication of the above. That is, the break in the base level due to sudden (in geological time, naturally) and sharp upheaval of the Andes, caused the narrowness of the river and molded the terraces which stretch all along both sides of the valley. The deep vertical cut in the crust, the canyon, is, then, a geomorphological occurrence, a product of erosion. The Colca river bed is at 1,300 metres altitude, and the average height of the volcanic peaks is of over six thousand metres. There is then, a real difference of about five thousand metres: the Colca Canyon is, without a doubt, one of the deepest in the world. RIVER EROSION Like the other rivers located in the north and south, the Colca's winding route cuts through three well defined geomorphological layers: the western slopes of the Andes mountain range, scattered with formidable volcanoes; the arid plains of the constantly wind-blown deserts; and the low ridges of the coastal range, a projection of the Paracas peninsula.

The Colca river descends from 4,500 metres to sea level. The violent erosive activity which it leaves on its way is the result of the accentuated unevenness in the land on most of its approximately 450 kilometre journey.

From its origins on the high plateau right to its mouth, under the names of Majes and Camana successively, rocky strata can be seen along its banks. The most ancient rest at the bottom and the most recent at the top at ground level; except where the Tectonic compression, the crushing of the crust structure, has caused such an upheaval that it has inverted the sequence. But this does not occur in the Colca region. In the stratigraphic sequence that the Majes river reveals, however, some strata have been deposited or the million year erosion factor has purged them. In the area which corresponds to the Paleozoic Period, the Cambrian, Silurian, Carboniferous and Permian periods are missing; and in the area that corresponds to the Mesozoic Period, the Triassic period is missing. However, all the Cenozoic periods are registered, from the Eocene to the Pliocene periods; and the Neozoic Period is also present.

This cut in the coastal mountain range which the Majes river pierces, is also a deep 40 km canyon (all the rivers which descend from the Andes to the Pacific Ocean and towards the Amazon Basin have the characteristics of the Canyon). Rocks from the basal complex of the Coast, from the pre-Cambrian period, can be seen there; examples of the primitive crystalline base of the crust. Thin, calcareous and sandy strata cover the outcrop; and on it lies a unique surface of Tertiary period erosion with the sediments of the Camana formation. Along both banks, subvertical strata can be seen covered by Tertiary period deposits. Up river, in the high plateau area, the volcanic layers cover all the underlying formations, particularly basalt and andesite. The aborigenes used these blocks which had fallen from the heights for the impressive petroglyphs at Toro Muerto. On the rough escarpments of the Colca canyon, sandstone, slate, quartzites and oil shale can be seen, formed in the Jurassic Period. And it is all covered by volcanic layers which end in the Coropuna and the Ampato. The stratigraphic sequence which appears in the former is very vast: it repeats the succession studied in the area surrounding Arequipa and on the basis of which all the outcrops in the south of the country have been determined. The above sequence includes nearly all of the Jurassic Period (Yura formation) and the Cretaceous Period (Aucurquina limestone). Evidence of how the Orogenic impulses carried ancient sedimentary formations to great heights, can also be found between the Colca and Callalli. There, at 4,600 metres above sea level, the quartzites can be seen in the Yura formations and the Aucurquina limestone from the Jurassic and Creatceous Periods. Such is the intimate and exciting panorama which the endless erosion of the Colca river is determined to show us. ARCHAEOLOGY THE HISTORICAL PROCESS By Pablo de la Vera Cruz Chvez 1. THE FIRST INHABITANTS GUANACO HUNTING AND GATHERING

In the Colca Valley, in 10,000 BC, geographical conditions were more or less the same as they are today. During this period, which is also called "pre-ceramic", groups of hunters and gatherers were settling in the highlands and on the coast. Seed, fruit and bird egg gathering was selective. The same happened with

guanaco and bird hunting. This method of avoiding the collapse of different species encouraged early settling in the Andes. Although the inhabitants did not know ceramics, they made arrow heads from stone. The Sumbay cave painting are a good example of life as it was then. This cave was inhabited between 5,800 BC and 3,000 AD. On the walls, the hunters had painted animals such as camelidae, pumas, foxes and other extinct animals running away. One ancient group of arrow heads were made of black volcanic rock. Another later group made arrow heads of obsidian. There are also disc shaped knives, scrapers and burins for sewing. 2. AGRICULTURE AND LIVESTOCK

A similar revolution to the Neolithic one in Europe, began in the Andes as from 3,000 BC. In the Colca valley where the climate is arid, irrigation agriculture became the main factor of the society's transformation. The place where this change is clearly noted is the Mollepunco cave. This cave shows camelidae and the domestication of these animals over many years. Later, sculptured pictures in the cave show camelidaes with ropes around their necks as well as corrals. Studies have shown that the llama was the result of the domestication of the guanaco and the alpaca was the result of the domestication of the vicua.

3. ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES a) b) c) d) e) f) g) h) i) j) Sumbay Mollepunco Pumunuta Yanque Viejo Uyo Uyo Uska Llacta Inca Houses Yanque Lari Cabanaconde

USKA LLACTA This is a prehispanic village with a cemetery and a colonial mill. It shows different eras including the Inca and colonial ones. The most important sector

shows rectangular dwellings made of stone. They have a very narrow central door. Nearly all had two floors. There is evidence of the fires that were caused by the Spanish captain, Lope de Suazo, who burned these buildings in about 1570 to force the Collagua indians to move to the Spanish Chivay. The indians farmed the terraces. There are stone tombs and a colonial mill. There is evidence of Inca and Chucuito ceramics as well as earlier examples. This site has a magnificent view of the valley as well as the opportunity to observe the colourful costumes of the inhabitants. In fact, it is an impressive experience to watch the ancient customs during the harvest or when seed is being sown in Uska Llacta. Despite all of these attributes, Uska Llacta is not well known to tourists and is not well advertised. ACHACHUA This is a walled, prehispanic village with public areas and cemeteries. It is strategically located by the canyon at 1,200 m above the river, offering magestic views. Condors can also be seen. The majority of the dwellings are still buried. This is the best place to explain the urban process in the valley and its links with the Ayacucho capital , Wari, during the era. It was very defensive and controlled agricultural production which at present is corn. This site is not visited often by tourists, nor is it well advertised. INCA HOUSE IN CABANACONDE These houses were occupied by the Incas in Cabanconde for administration purposes. The houses are rectangular with one door facing East. They are built in Cuzco style. Previously the village was occupied by the Cabana ethnic group. The town is at present inhabited and although the buldings are known and admired, they are not well cared for or visited much by tourists. INCA HOUSE IN YANQUE These are houses from the time of the Inca occupation of Yanque for the Cuzco administration of this area of the valley. The Spaniards also arrived there. They are two storey, rectangular houses with one door. The architecture is in Cuzco style and ceramic was also found there. The site was previously inhabited by the Collagua ethnic group. UYO UYO or YANQUE VIEJO (Ichupampa) This is a prehispanic village. There are terraces and channels surrounding it. The rectangular dwellings are made from stone and have one central door. Nearly all

of them have two floors. The village is divided into two sectors by a channel. This place shows clearly the organization of a rural Inca village. This village had a local population of farming Collagua Yanque inhabitants. The Spaniards found the Collagua indians living in this village and they forced them to move to the present town of Yanque. There is a myth about this event. The place has a spectacular view of the terraces and landscape. The colourful costumes of the local farmers are attractive. Despite its easy access from the road and from Ichupampa this site is not visited regularly by tourists. It is not well advertised either. SAN ANTONIO - CHURA (Coporaque) This is a prehispanic village with cemeteries and terraces as well as abandoned wells and channels. It lies at the foot of the Pumachiri hill. There are various sectors which correspond to different eras. The dwellings are rectangular and made of stone with one tall, narrow door. Nearly all of these houses had two floors. These houses were also burned by Captain Lope de Suazo as he forced the Collagua indians to move to Coporaque. There is a rectangular chapel which stands on the top of the San Antonio hill. It is a solitary, rectangular structure. Despite its spectacular landscape and its archaeological significance, the site is not visited regularly by tourists and information about it is not readily available. CHININEA (Yanque) These are tombs built into the side of the canyon, known also as hanging tombs. They are individual and group tombs built in stone and mud in caves dug into the wall of the canyon, following ancient traditions. They have small doors. The tombs were looted by the Spaniards. They can only be reached using ropes. They are directly related to the San Antonio - Chijra complex inhabited by Collagua indians. Despite its archaeological importance and magnificent view, the site is not regularly visited by tourists. It is easily accessible by means of a 20 minute walk to visit Coporaque, San Antonio, Chininia and Yanque. More information should be made available.

AGRICULTURE IN THE COLCA VALLEY By Jos Berdejo Mendiguri

The first types of agriculture in the area were irrigated by flooding and later systems of irrigation extended to the highlands. There is no record of when agriculture began in the Colca valley however, research shows that the first fields were on the high slopes of the valley near the glacial water sources. The Andenes or Terraces These are typical characteristics of the Colca valley. It is difficult to determine the age of the terraces as research shows the existence of different periods of farming and occupation. Terraces (Andenes) are generally modified and so soil is mixed and provides confusing results for analysis. Terraces and their functions 1. The terrace provides soil on non farmable land or retains soil which can be eroded. 2. Erosion control. 3. Microclimate control: the terraces can create favourable microclimates for crops, protecting them against freezing temperatures, wind and sun. 4. Humidity control: the terraces retain humidity and enable irrigation to be uniform. Types of agriculture Land is classified by its access to irrigation sources. Some fields which have access to water are not being farmed. Some fields which are irrigated have terraces and others do not. These latter fields are slightly sloping. Some terraces are not called this by the inhabitants if they are on topographically named plains. Farmers maintain that sloping fields can be irrigated if the water is carefully managed. Vegetable Gardens These gardens are irrigated by means of a system of channels which flow through the streets. Gardens usually produce vegetables such as lettuce, carrots, onion and garlic. Some families grow flowers or eucalyptus trees. Irrigation

The inhabitants have a saying which says that to irrigate is to teach the water. They must force the water to flow in the appropriate directions and at the right speed. The inhabitants are concerned about saving water. They tend to value land according to its access to water sources. Irrigation in the valley has three purposes: 1. To bring forward the growth period for the crops to September, before the rains start; 2. To enable crops to ripen before the cold sets in April and May. 3. To rescue crops if the rains do not come after sowing. The Majes Project developed during the eighties consisted of the use of the Colca and Siguas rivers to facilitate irrigation for 12,000 hectares of the coast on the Pampa de Majes. This modern system has also regulated and improved the water sources for the left hand side of the Colca valley. The right hand side uses the Colca river and its streams. Terrace Rehabilitation The terraces in the Colca valley have slowly been deteriorating and there are fewer and fewer areas for farming. Therefore, annual improvement and rehabilitation are necessary. The process is as follows: the deteriorated terraces are selected; work teams are organized and then cleaning, digging and repairs are carried out. Farming The Colca has very limited mechanized farming due to the following facts: Uneven topography Low profitability Lack of means of communication and transport between the production and commercialization points Yield limited due to climate Agricultural machinery is needed less as there is sufficient manual labour

Little diffusion of information about improved technology Traditional farming tools used

The Chakitaqlla is a foot plough The spade The threshing stick Plough pulled by oxen Division of the Colca land At present there is a significant extension of more than 3000 hectares of abandoned terraces. A great investment is needed to repair them. Although the increase in population has not been great, there has been an increase in small farms. Seeds 32 varieties of corn seed, 12 of broad beans and up to 54 varieties of quinua seeds have been recorded. Farming system in the Colca Valley 1. Monoculture This consists of farming one crop such as Corn in fertile areas not affected by cold and with good water retention Barley in areas exposed to cold Broad beans in flat areas not affected by cold Alfalfa in flat areas and terraces with good water retention. 2. Mixed Farming

This system particularly applies to sectors with some climatic, water or fertility limitations. Corn / Borad beans on terraces with lack of water Corn / Peas on terraces not affected by cold and with good water retention Broad beans / Quinua in flat areas and terraces which have low fertility and are exposed to cold Corn / Potato in cold areas with abundant water and high fertility Broad beans / Potato in cold, fertile areas with abundant water areas Corn /Quinua /broad beans in terraces with little water and soil fertility problems. 3. Crop rotation Crop rotation is based on programming different crops which diversifies the crop production and improves weed control, improving too the farmers economic possibilities for commerce. The advantages are as follows:

Pest control Rational soil exploitation The need for large quantities of supplies is reduced Weed control Two or more harvests a year. 4. Ploughing The advantages of this are: Weeds rot The earth softens, breathes and rests Worms are eliminated

The soil absorbs the sun's rays The soil is looser Pests and plagues are avoided Fruit growing The main fruit production is apples, pears, peaches, quinces, figs, pacaes, lucumas, custard apples, guavas, citrus fruit and avocado pears. The fruit production is low and the orchards are old and not maintained adequately. Main Crops

POTATO (Solanum tuberosum) According to records potatoes have been identified as having existed for 9000 years on the Andean coast. The Spaniards discovered the potato on arrival in Peru and by 1573 it was being used in Seville, Spain. Soon the plant was taken illegally into France and most European countries. There are over 3000 varieties. CORN (Zea mays) Some consider corn to be originally Mexican. It was found in Cuba by Columbus' men and it was soon taken to Spain and by 1525 had spread over all the peninsula. By the XVIII century it was accepted as food for human consumption. There are approximately 10 local varieties in the Colca. QUINUA Quinua was the basic staple diet of the prehispanic peoples. According to research it originates in Lake Titicaca. It is not easy to cultivate it out of the Andes as it depends on a great deal of sun. Other crops in the Colca Caihua (grain)

Kiwicha (grain) Trawl (Grain) Olluco (tuber) Oca (tuber) Au, Isau (tuber) Achira - Maca (tuber) Arracacha (tuber) Yacon (tuber) The Colca agriculture and its place in the regional and national economy The local market depends on supply and demand and manual labour is also offered. This latter involves a temporary migration. Participation in the financial market is limited as this is restricted by credits from financial entities. 1. Farmers who are integrated into the market. They keep part of their produce for their own consumption and the rest is commericalized. 2. Farmers with little participation in the market. This category includes farmers who give priority to subsistence farming and reciprocity. 3. Farmers with two types of different produce. These are the fruit farmers who produce fruit for their own consumption and for exchange and cochineal for the local market. Often other activities or the offer of their own manual labour must be carried out for subsistence. All members of the family participate in the production and economy of the home. Role of the women in the Colca farming The women participate actively in farming such as preparing the land, selecting the seed and sowing, fertilizing the soil and weeding. The men drive the plough, level the ground, control pests and irrigate.

All the family participates in the harvest. The women also run the home and are responsible for the domestic activities, the garden, the children, etc. PRESENTATION According to the inventory carried out by the National Office for Natural Resources in 1988, the Colca Valley holds a total of 10,220 hectares of terraces. Some of these are abandoned and deteriorated, others are partly maintained and 4,760 hectares are in good use. The conservation and maintenance of these terraces are important for the area. Without terraces this land could not be farmed. The inhabitants who should carry out this maintenance and these repairs, require training in the techniques for repairing and maintaining this important productive resource which is also a great tourist attraction.

I. TERRACES AND THEIR IMPORTANCE The terraces or "pata patas" are man made modifications on the slopes of hills which form steps or horizontal platforms sustained by carefully built stone walls in order to keep the earth firm and so be able to cultivate crops in adverse topographical and climatic conditions. IMPORTANCE OF THE TERRACES

The following are the many advantages of the terraces: 1. They keep the earth firm on the sloping hills avoiding the erosion of farming land by water. 2. They take greater advantage of the irrigation and rain water. 3. They make the most of fertilizers and maintain their natural fertility better. 4. The terraces facilitate farming on slopes for the inhabitants, making it easier for ploughing and other activities. 5. They create an appropriate climate for crops, reducing the effect of frost due to the fact that they maintain the heat of the sun during the day. 6. The wind on terraces does not cool or dry the soil as much and so reduces the effect of the cold winds. 7. The terraces as a whole generate a diversity of microclimates which enable the inhabitants to cultivate a variety of crops. II. PARTS OF A TERRACE AND HOW IT WORKS The terraces are not simple structures but rather a complex system. 1. WALL OR "ANCHACA" The wall of the terrace is a retaining wall made of stones of different sizes placed precisely one on top of the other. This provides stability. The wall follows the curve of the contour and slopes slightly inwards. The height of the wall depends on the width of the terrace and the slope. To fill in the terrace, small stones are used behind the wall to give it greater stability and drainage.

2. TERRACE This is the platform where the crops grow. Some of these are based on the side of the hill itself and others are more man made. The man made terraces use stone for drainage, then sand and clayey soil as well as fertile earth. 3. IRRIGATION DITCHES These structures are used for watering the terraces. The terraces use four types of irrigation ditches for different functions. Ditches at the head of the terrace or "Orccoyas" control and take the water to each terrace. They are made of stone and earth. Sloping ditches flow down the centre of the group of terraces and are made of stone. They have channels which branch off to each terrace.

Falls or "Pakchas" and "K'alchas" transfer the water from a higher terrace to another interior one. When the water fall is steep, it is called a "Pakcha" and when the fall is subdued by a channel, it is called a "K'alcha". Drains or "Wikchuras" are ditches which are at the end of a group of terraces to evacuate the water to a main ditch. 4. PATHS OR ACCESS These structures enable the farmers to reach the terraces with ease: "Zarupas", "Charq'eas" or "patiqllos" are steps made of stone set in the wall. "Pucaras" is a stairway which sticks out and is parallel to the wall. It is made of stone which has been carefully tied to the wall and the terrace. "Hatun Pukaras" is a side stairway which joins several terraces at one side and it lies parallel to the irrigation ditches. III. REPAIRING OF THE DETERIORATED WALLS When a wall falls, it must be rebuilt immediately.

IV. CONSTRUCTION OF NEW TERRACES 1. EVALUATION OF THE TYPE OF SOIL It is important to design the type of terrace which is to be built according to the depth of the soil, the slope and the shape and size of the land. 2. CALCULATION OF THE SIZE AND DESIGN OF THE TERRACES According to the depth of the soil and the slope, the calculations can be made for the height of the wall and the width of the terrace. 3. PROCEDURE FOR BUILDING

Mark the lines according to the contour line of the hill. Smooth the curves so that the terraces do not have sharp bends. Dig the foundation at a reasonable depth. Start building the foundation with stone. Continue the wall using stone. As the wall is built, the filling should be added and compressed.

4. OPERATION FOR FILLING THE TERRACE The terrace is a flat platform. It is advisable to work in small spaces or stretches of land at a time. 5. BUILDING OF THE SECOND TERRACE. The same method is used for the next terrace except that this time the building starts at the opposite end. 6. BUILDING OF COMPLEMENTARY STRUCTURES During the building process, the stairs and irrigation ditches will also be built. 7. FINISHING AND CHECKING THE TERRACE An edge is built along the wall to avoid water escaping during irrigation and the terrace is levelled off to give a flat terrace. The A-Frame can be used to measure and check the level. TERRACES MUST BE BUILT FROM ABOVE, MOVING DOWN. NEVER BUILD USING DRY EARTH.

V. TERRACE MAINTENANCE

1. Irrigation must be controlled 2. Vegetation must be constantly cleared from the walls. 3. The walls must be checked regularly. 4. The pathways must be repaired. 5. Ploughing must not be done parallel to the wall. 6. The yoke must be used carefully. 7. Use natural compost to improve the quality of the soil. 8. Avoid loose animal grazing. 9. Never plant trees near the edge of the terrace.

THE A-FRAME This is a simple instrument used for contour lines. It is made of 3 thin poles, some string and a stone. The poles are tied in the shape of an "A" and the string with the stone on the end is hung from the top.

INTRODUCTION The Colca Valley agriculture is peculiar for its low irrigation technique. Among the main problems of this area are the handling of water and the irrigation system deterioration due to lack of maintenance. On the last few years, private and government institutions have done works of irrigation systems at a high cost; if maintenance work is not periodically done on these systems they will not last as long as they are expected to do.

The rustic (stone, earth and others) and permanent (concrete) irrigation system maintenance must be programmed as an extra activity of the farm work (canal, floodgate and sand-clearer cleaning); This way the construction life-span is secured and greater availability of water, which is scarce here, is also guaranteed. This work is also intended for those farmers who use the irrigation system facilities and water administrators as well as for the authorities that are directly involved in the control and supply of water. The irrigation system maintenance works are directed to the Comisiones de Regantes (Irrigators Commissions) but the people who actually use each canal are the ones who will be interested in securing the proper use of water on their farms. PARTS OF THE IRRIGATION SYSTEM 1. OUTLET This is the hydraulic structure which collects the water and takes it to the channel. 1.1 PARTS

Wall - for channeling the water Barrier - to divert the water Entrance for the water to enter the channel Well for sand and stone removal Scouring sluice for removal of material accumulated in the well Overflow channel Flood gate to regulate the water flow.

1.2 MAINTENANCE Stones deteriorate the infrastructure and therefore it requires repair using cement, stones or other materials. The main problem with the floodgates is corrosion.

2. MAIN CHANNELS These are the most important in the irrigation system. 2.1 WHY DO THEY DETERIORATE? The reasons for deterioration are as follows: Heavy rain, animals, lack of flow control, plants.

2.2 MAINTENANCE Channels must be cleaned at least twice a year by the community.

a. Slightly sloping earth channels. When these are cleaned, digging must not be too deep. The interior sloping walls must be cleaned inwards. When a channel has been affected by landslides or too much filtration, compressing can be carried out to repair, using the following:

Clay Stones Soil compacting

To compress adequately:

Measure the original channel (width of base and height of walls, as well as slope.) Excavate to form a new channel. Excavate for the walls. Add the clay to the ditches and compress it in 10 cm layers. Check the quality of the compression, using a pick. Add rocks to slopes and floor to avoid erosion.

b. Concrete channels The main problem with the concrete channels is fissures and cracks. In order to maintain these, they must be repaired with cement and sand. Trees must be planted to control landslides. Infiltration ditches can control the run-off.

3. THE RESERVOIR

The water that enters the reservoir drags the earth that accumulates causing a diminished capacity for storing water; obstruction and corrosion of earth walls.

MAINTENANCE Withdraw the earth deposits in the desilter and the reservoir. If the walls are made of earth, always maintain the slope and use rocks. Grease and paint the valve of the flood gate. Repair the fissures and cracks in the walls. Protect the walls and surroundings of the reservoir with trees and bushes.

4. OTHERS 4.1 FLOW MEASURE It is of great importance to regulate the quantity of water that the crops and land require. In order to measure accurately, the channels must be cleaned frequently. 4.2 LATERAL CHANNELS These are located in the high parts of each irrigation sector all along the main channel. The flood gate must always be made of wood or metal.

4.3 AQUEDUCT Used for crossing a road or stream. 4.4 CHUTE These are used for water from streams in the rainy season to flow over the channel without damaging it. 4.5 DRAINS These must be built in places where channels cross roads. They must be maintained to avoid blockages.

4.6 FALLS These are located in places where the land is very uneven. The water must fall vertically into a well. This avoids erosion. 4.7 RAPIDS These are structures which enable the water to pass over very uneven and steep land. A well for calming the water torrent is necessary. It must be kept clean. 4.8 WATERFALL STEPS These are used for taking the water over very steep and uneven ground.

4.9 IRRIGATION CONTROL STRUCTURES These are lateral turnouts which divert the water to a natural stream for maintenance purposes. 4.10 WATERING PLACE These must be located in places where animals pass. Frequent maintenance is necessary. INTRODUCTION This article is a description of architectural and urban development in the Colca Valley. It also introduces the reader to an understanding of the architecture and urban development in the valley as an answer to the social, cultural, historical and physical factors of Collagua life.

ARCHITECTURE Evolution of urban and architectural structures throughout history Pre-hispanic period The villages were spread along the Colca valley forming "Ayllus", divided into two parts: Hanan Saya and Hurin Saya. The dwellings were organically organised around a central space. Religious symbols were represented by elements of nature (hills, snow capped mountains). The Incas imposed a political organization represented by the "curaca" (chief) in each Ayllu. Colonial period The indian population was forced to live in new urban groups in order to collect taxes and have manual labour easily accessible. The streets were formed by blocks, around a central square, with a church and the town council. A new type of rectangular dwelling was imposed, with the door facing onto the street. The villages were still divided into two areas, socially and by location. The "Curacas" no longer had supreme authority but shared it with the new mayors. Republican period The Independence did not constitute a social revolution. Colonial architecture did not change. However, a new concept of dwelling arose. The house looked inwards onto an interior patio. The new State political system named the Colca villages as districts. The 60's, 70's and 80' of the XX century The Agricultural Reform brought about a substantial change in the ownership of the land in Peru. Many large estate owners disappeared and made way for small farmers.

Many new buildings appeared such as schools, markets and medical centres. New materials such as cement, corrugated iron and iron were used. Commerce and consumption of consumer goods increased due to the arrival of the MACON Irrigation Project and shops began to appear. Shops were an integral part of a house. The villages are still organised into groups according to location. This facilitates community participation for public works. The present type of building The buildings today are all organised around an interior patio. However, some houses are used for shops, others include animals pens. Houses can also be of different shapes. The dwellings - spatial distribution Some areas are covered, such as the kitchen, the entrance, the bedroom, store room. Others are open, such as the patio, pens and gardens. Some houses are very simple with the basic patio, kitchen, one all-purpose room and the animal yard. Others have more rooms. The kitchen is used only for the purpose of cooking. It is small, dark and for the family. The owner participates actively in building the house, choosing the materials and design and in giving the house a name and status. Religious elements are always present in the house (candles, niches, etc.). The family, neighbours and some builders all help to build the house. Social and Cultural Aspects The dwellings are divided into common and more open areas where celebrations and get-togethers can take place, and more intimate areas which are only for the family members, such as the kitchen, bedroom and store room. Once the roof is finished, there is a ritual celebration which involves giving the house a name and spirit. Social and community gatherings take place in the patio, the streets and the square. The calendar of these celebrations is based on the agricultural calendar.

Bull fighting is also a popular community celebration. If there is no bull-ring, it is carried out on any convenient open space. Within community life there are three important moments when people get together: when the roof of a house is finished, a marriage and a funeral. Building Materials Traditional materials Earth - The sand and clay proportions in the soil are ideal for building. The earth is also thermal. It is used in the foundation and as bricks. Adobe - This is a brick made of mud mixed with straw and ichu. It is thermal and mainly used for walls. To make adobes the mud is prepared first with the appropriate addition of straw. Then it is placed into moulds and dried in the sun. Stone - This is used for various different parts of the house. It is easily acquired in the rivers or nearby and transported by truck or donkey and cart. Wood - This is mainly used for roofs or doors and windows. Straw - This is a material which has been used for hundred of years. It is mainly used for thatched roofs and also to mix for adobes. The most common are straw made from ichu and also straw made from barley. Straw does need appropriate maintenance. Industrial materials The most common industrial and non- traditional material is corrugated iron. It is being used more and more to replace straw for roofs. Acoustically and thermally speaking, it is not appropriate. RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE Colca Churches Churches were built in the Colca in order to present a symbol of Christianity within the indian villages. The Collaguas built and decorated these large, impressive churches and were well known for their artistic abilities.

Most of the Colca churches are surrounded by vestibules or esplanades. Luis Enrique Tord states that most of the churches were built between the last third of the XVII century and the beginning of the XIX century. Nearly all the churches are in the shape of a Latin cross, have a large nave, access to the tower from inside and chapels. Nearly all the churches have two square bell towers. They also have open chapels which were for celebrating mass with the indians in the open air. IMMACULATE CONCEPTION CHURCH IN YANQUE Construction The old church was built by the Franciscans towards the end of the XVI century, but fell down in 1690. Indians, in groups, organised by the Spaniards, worked on the building with the traditional rituals and celebrations. Unfortunately the church went on fire in 1802 and many valuable objects were destroyed. What was left was used, along with donations and community efforts, to repair the church. Several different types of craftsmen worked on the church, such as painters, sculptors, carpenters, brick-makers and tile-makers as well as stone masons and builders. Church This church has a typical architecture of the time with a long main nave, the shape of a cross and two towers. The two extraordinary facades of this church are beautifully decorated with relief. There is a deteriorated image of the Virgin Mary. The decoration includes flowers, fruit and leaves. Saints are also depicted there along with the figure of a Bishop on horse back with a sceptre in his hand. He was Bishop Antonio de Leon (1700 and 1702). This facade is unique in the region but has similar characteristics to some in Cajamarca, Central America and Mexico. The facade facing the square is different and shares Renaissance and Baroque designs, which is difficult to explain. There are monograms of Christ and Mary as well as the Franciscan arms. Other decorative elements include lions, eagles, dragons and vegetables. Cobbled stones

The entrance has coloured cobbled stone, which presents various decorative designs. The outlines are mainly in brown and white. The following designs can be seen: a rhombus, two circles and the sun with eleven rays including two eyes, nose and lips. There are other circles and a half moon on a rectangle. THE PURISIMA CONCEPCION CHURCH IN LARI Building This is one of the most spectacular churches in the Colca Valley and the only one which completed the full design of the Latin cross and a dome. The church was built during the second half of the XVIII century by the Priest Juan Bautista Ramos who started it in 1758. The church was 83 metres long and 11 metres wide. The dome was made by the Priest Luis Lazo de la Vega. Despite the grandeur of this church, the village had less than 1000 inhabitants. The Priests and Church would donate large sums of money for these constructions and the inhabitants would provide the manual labour. Repairs were made later to the church in the XIX century, due to an earthquake, a fire and also faults in construction. Certain parts of the church were built in strict imitation of the large churches in Arequipa. Later a cemetery was also built. The church It is a strong, powerful church, but the towers seem somehow out of place with the main body of the grand church. This type of construction may have been carried out due to the fear of earthquakes. It is built in the shape of the Latin cross with a main nave and a dome. There are two bell towers, topped by small pinnacles. There are many similarities between this church and churches in Arequipa, such as the San Francisco church. Decorations on the facade include white, green and red images on a yellow background. The main altar has impressive carved stone and the pulpit and easel paintings include indian images. The church is separated from the square by a double entrance area, divided by stone pathways. These serve as separations between the profane universe (the village and the square) and the sacred universe (the church). The impressive Lari church once again indicates the historical distinction of Lari as being high-ranking within the Collagua culture.

INTRODUCTION This article describes the architecture in the Colca valley and in particular in the Province of Caylloma. This is an agricultural region which is well known for its spectacular terraces, its Barroque churches and tourist attractions. The Colonial aspects of its villages and architecture, are obvious. Yanque was the capital of the Collaguas province; Lari was equally important for the Colonial authorities and Coporaque was the first village to be evangelized by the Franciscans. These three villages were typical of indian villages converted to christianity and re-organized by the Spaniards. The article is divided into two parts. The first part analyses the use of space in the village and the second part focuses on architectural details. 1. TERRITORIAL PLACEMENT AND SPATIAL FORMATION 1.1 Location characteristics Yanque, Lari and Coporaque are located within the agricultural sector of the Colca valley between 3,200 metres above sea level and 3,800 metres above sea level. Yanque and Lari are built on similar flat ground whereas Coporaque is built on a slope with water running through the middle which breaks the tradition of the typical square village. Yanque occupies a central place which facilitated political and administrative control. Its agricultural land is on both sides of the river. Lari and Coporaque have their fields surrounding them. Most of the inhabitants of these villages are farmers and their lives are linked to the land and not to urban living. 1.2 Physical and spatial organization 1.2.1 Yanque Yanque is a very regular village, in the shape of a grid. This was a characteristic of the indian villages established by the Spaniards. There is a square in the middle. There are two main roads which cross at the square, one runs from East to West (Camino Real) and the other from North to South (Avenida Fray Martin de Porres). The cemetery is in the South. The village ends abruptly on the east

where the fields start. This was another Spanish characteristic. Whereas in the North, the village ends far less precisely with a mix of rural and urban characteristics.The village is divided into blocks. 1.2.2 Lari Lari is divided into two different areas: the "new town" which is compact and square, to the North of the church; and the "old town", to the South, which has semi-regular rectangular and trapezoidal blocks. There are buildings which are seemingly pre-Colonial such as one called the "Chief's house". The church is the largest in the valley and the land surrounding it is vast. The limits of the village are difficult to define as the houses have been abandoned and are in ruins. 1.2.3 Coporaque Coporaque has a semi-regular shape with square, rectangular and trapezoidal blocks. The Chillintira river runs through the middle of the village from North to South. This does not however deform the grid shape of the village around the square and church. The blocks around the edges of the village are mainly uninhabited. 1.3 Public space and architectural expression The architectural structures show a desire to structure a new society on the basis of European models. The symbolic value of the church was obvious as it was placed in the centre of the village and was large and of different colours to the other dwellings. The portico or area in front of the church symbolized the transition between the sacred and the profane. The square was fundamental and used for traditional feasts, dances and processions. It was also used for markets or transport. 1.4 Churches and convents The churches in the Colca have been studied for their religious architecture. They are generally in the shape of a Latin cross with one main, high nave. They usually have two square towers with bells. They are built out of ashlar which is white, but black stone was also used in the case of Lari and Coporaque.

The Coporaque church, which apparently dates back to the XVI or XVII century, has had its old straw roof replaced by metal roof. Later churches, such as Lari and Yanque, have the typical domed roofs of stone and brick. The old convent in Yanque is still in use and is in good condition. It is South of the church. Some fruit trees are grown in the patio and there is a well there. 1.5 The squares 1.5.1 Yanque The main square in Yanque occupies four blocks of land. It is rectangular with the church in the South and other buildings to the North. In the 1930's eucalyptus trees were sown there from East to West. Later other modifications have been made which are alien to the local reality. These variations have neither added to the square's beauty nor to its usefulness as an open space for public gatherings. 1.5.2 Lari The main square in Lari occupies nine blocks of the "new town" and has a trapezoidal shape. The church, municipal stadium and other buildings are to the North, and other houses and shops surround the rest of the square. Some buildings and modifications have been built which inhibit the use of the square and affect the dominance of the church over the square. 1.5.3 Coporaque Coporaque main square occupies around 10,000 m2 and is trapezoidal. The church is at the top of 24 steps. The bull ring is also in the main square area. Fortunately the archways of stone and tiles, which provide access to the square, are still standing. 1.6 The Streets The streets are approximately 4.80 to 6.80 metres wide. The use of cobbled stone to pave roads and/or pavements , has died out. Ditches with water for washing, animals and gardens, run along the middle or sides of the streets, some still in their stone channels. 1.7 Cemeteries

The cemeteries in the Colca valley are usually surrounded by a wall, with a doorway and a chapel. In the three villages we have studied, the cemetery is separated by about 200m to 250m from the inhabited area. The Yanque and Lari cemeteries are surrounded by mud brick walls the tomb stones face the entrance. Some cemeteries have tables and places where inhabitants drink after the funeral. 1.8 The bridges The Yanque bridge, known as the Puente Cervantes, is a stone structure in the shape of a triumphal arch built at the end of the Colonial period. The bridle paths leading to it mean that cars cannot cross it but it is well used by inhabitants. 1.9 Bull ring Bull fights are traditional in the Andean villages and are carried out on religious and village feast days. Yanque celebrates these on the 1st of May (Virgen de Chapi), 13th June (San Antonio) and 16th July (Virgen del Carmen). The bull ring is circular and surrounded by a mud brick wall. The Coporaque bull ring is very large compared to the Yanque one. 1.10 Public pools Several public pools are used by inhabitants for washing and swimming. There are some built in Yanque. Coporaque has some spring baths which are used as public swimming baths. 1.11 Stadiums The stadiums are built using standard football field dimensions and a free space for the public. 1.12 Public services infrastructure The inhabitants of rural villages see their basic needs as different to those of the people accustomed to the services offered by urban areas. The water used for domestic purposes comes from the thaw. Most houses have a tap and sink in an outside patio this water must be boiled for drinking. There are no drainage systems. The inhabitants use the fields or animals pens for their needs.

Inhabitants get most of their food from their own crops. Meat is obtained through exchange with shepherds. Many of the villages have a diesel operated generator for supplying electricity to the main streets and square. Nearly all the rubbish is organic so it is rapidly devoured by pigs. Other rubbish is burned. There is a medical centre in each village but inhabitants often use medicinal herbs as these centres often lack supplies. There is also usually a Primary school but there is a lack of text books. There is a secondary school in Chivay and an agricultural institute in Yanque. There is a daily bus and there are occasional trucks and cars which are also used for public transport. 2. DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE IN THE COLCA VALLEY 2.1 Housing Architecture depends on the conditions of the environment and the requirements of the village. Ancient buildings and new ones form a strange mix in these villages. The whole family and neighbours and friends participate in the building process. All the stages of the process are accompanied by rituals and celebrations which end in a large party for everyone. In the Colca, the dwellings represent an extension of the farmer's activities which take up most of his day. Therefore all the houses have areas for livestock and crops (vegetable gardens). The size and number of rooms depend on the owner's economic situation and how many people live there. The space distribution within the house is based on traditional Andean architecture. There is flexibility in the use of the rooms and they are built around a patio. The shape also depends on the winds and practicality. The general trend is to have a large room which is used for several purposes (living room, dining room, bedroom and sometimes store room). Only members of the family or close friends or neighbours are allowed in here. Many of these rooms have a type of porch which looks onto the patio and it gives shade and protection. The kitchen tends to be small and dark. It is not necessarily a closed room. Firewood is often used for cooking.

There is a store room with containers for grain and other products. It is usually large. The patio is used as the entrance and for receiving visitors. It is also used for celebrations and get-togethers. Chickens and rabbits and occasionally other small domestic animals are kept here. If the living room is too small, a bedroom is built but it is usually used too for storing domestic utensils and others. If a young couple gets married and comes to live with the family, a new kitchen is also usually built. Any buildings with two floors are relatively recent and have been built due to lack of space. If there is a shop within the house, it is often the women of the family who attend the shop. Any workshops usually function within the house and do not have direct access to the exterior. There are also special rooms built in the houses of families which prepare "chicha" ( a fermented corn drink) for storing the fermenting chicha. The vegetable gardens produce basic crops and others such as flowers. 2.2 A Traditional Dwelling There are some traditional elements which most houses have, such as: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. "Patilla" - a stone or mud brick seat in the rooms or the patio. Niches - for candles, lamps, religious images. Altar - usually in the living room used for sacred images or ritual objects. Water tap - located in the patio. The stone sink has been replaced by a cement sink in some places. "Taquiraa" - a concave receptacle carved into stone for animals to drink from. "Pilana" - this is similar to the Taquiraa and used for grinding grain. Bonfire hearth - in an open area. It is a hole in the ground with stones around it. Oven - this is only present in some homes where bread is made to sell. It is usually made out of mud. Chicken coops and rabbit cages - these are made of wood and metal mesh.

2.3 Basic functioning There are two types of entrance to the dwellings: 1. Direct entrance through the patio. 2. Entrance through an intermediate space or passage (usually roofed).

There is no direct access between rooms; the access is through the patio. In Lari, the kitchens tend to be close to the living room and bedrooms to provide heat. 2.4 Size of the rooms The largest rooms are usually between 9 and 13 metres long and 4.50 to 5.50 metres wide. The intermediate ones are around 6 to 9 metres long and are usually bedrooms or store rooms. The smallest rooms are generally the kitchens. The average length is 4.50 metres and the average width, 2.50 metres. 2.5 Technical building aspects 2.5.1 Traditional materials The Colca valley maintains its traditional building system based on the use of stone, mud, wood and straw. "Pirka" is a common material for walls. It is made from stone mixed with mud. Round cobblestones are commonly used for patios and pavements and floors seem to have been made out of flat earth. "Adobe" or mud bricks seem to date from the Viceroyalty period. This brick is not as resistant as stone but helps maintain comfortable temperatures. Eucalyptus wood is used to replace the ancient species which were used previously, such as the queua and the quishar which are practically extinct. Straw is used on roofs to keep out rain and maintain temperatures. The roof is made of barley and wheat straw and ichu. The former two are used due to the lack of availability of ichu from the high mountains. 2.5.2 Non-traditional materials Corrugated iron is now used a great deal, as it is cheap and easy to install. Bricks and iron are used in modern, public buildings. Some people have used metal tubes sold at cheap prices by the Majes Project, for making doors. 2.6 Thermal insulation: heat gain and loss

The climate is well known for its radical changes in temperature during the day and night and therefore materials which help to maintain a comfortable temperature, are needed. Adobe and pirka bricks are ideal materials. Straw is also an excellent material for the roofs. Corrugated iron, however, does not maintain a comfortable temperature. Windows and doors are also built small so as not to let in too much cold or heat. 2.7 Ventilation and illumination There is not much ventilation in most cases. Windows are small and look out onto the patio. Some have been covered. Glass windows only exist in modern buildings. The older buildings have wooden windows which are usually shut. The rooms are very dark. 2.8 Acoustic isolation The noise in these areas does not come from traffic but rather from the wind, rain and thunder, especially the latter two. Straw roofs help reduce sound. 2.9 Building process The characteristics of a particular dwelling are not based on written plans but rather on the requirements of the owner and experience of the builders. Spades and picks are used to dig ditches and stone and mud foundations are placed in them. On occasions, depending on the soil, the mud must be mixed with straw in varying quantities. The adobes are made with wood moulds and are left to dry in the sun. Adobe walls use eucalyptus or stone for the lintels. The walls are sometimes covered with mud afterwards. Stone wall building is relatively slow as the mortar has to dry. Some walls have stones and mud bricks. Eucalyptus is now used for roof structures even though it is inferior to the ancient queua and quishar wood. It needs treatment against woodworm. The logs used to be tied together with llama or sheep leather, but now nails and wire are used. 2.10 Roofs

2.10.1 Straw roofs This is the traditional material used for roofs in the Colca valley. Mud tiles have not really become popular. The best time of the year to thatch or re-thatch is the dry season, between April and November. 1. The material used for tying the straw is made out of the "chillihua" plant which is cut, dried and then wet and made into ropes. The straw is tied while the rope is still wet. When dry, it is tough and resistant. 2. Straw is laid on the roof structure and tied. 3. A second layer of straw is added. The straw may be barley or wheat straw. 4. A layer of "chilca" plant is added which has thin branches which help to fix the ichu. The branches must be green so that when they dry they are tight. Some "chac'mare" branches are also used. 5. Ichu is added finally. The more ichu is added, the more waterproof the roof is. The average thickness of a roof is 25 cm but one it has been re-thatched several times it can be up to 40 cm thick. 2.10.2 Metal roofs Corrugated iron roofs are economic and simple to install. Gutters are usually put in too. The sheets of metal are nailed on and stones are placed on top. 3. CONCLUSION The article has presented the historical, social and technological aspects of the architecture in Yanque, Lari and Coporaque which are three of the 16 indian villages formed by the Spaniards in the 1570's. They retain a great many of the original architectural characteristics. Hector Llosa, the researcher, considers that the traditional architecture meets the basic needs of the inhabitants within their environment. The modern additions are economically acceptable but are imported from urban areas which do not share the same needs or environment. However these changes do show the flexibility of the Andean inhabitants in accepting new elements and ideas. FOLKLORE FROM DE COLCA VALLEY INTRODUCTION

The dictionary defines folklore as the body of traditions, stories, legends and customs of a country. Customs include food and drink, dances, rituals and beliefs of a human group.

I DANCES 1. LOCAL DANCES The Qamili This is a fertility dance which is danced during the sowing season on the farm land of the patron saints, mainly Saint Isidro. The qamili is best danced in Chivay, Coporaque and Cabanaconde. On the set day, the steward of the farm goes to the plot of land with the dancers, musicians and people accompanying him. A hole is made in the ground, ceremonial objects are placed inside and it is covered with stones. The dance has its origin in ancient Inca myths. The group of dancers of 6 to 12 couples arrives, one of which represents the main characters (San Isidro Labrador and the Pachamama - mother earth)., The dancers sow the seed as they dance. The rhythm of the dance requires great skill and physical stamina. Sara Tarpuy The dance, like that of the qamili, refers to farming, this time to the harvest. It is very typical of Madrigal. The costumes are marvellous. The dancers dance to qamili, wititi and sometimes hauyno music, which is very popular. 2. PAGAN-CHRISTIAN DANCES The Turku Tusuy dance from Chivay and the Inti Killa from Tuti. The Turku Tusuy is a catholic ritual dance which represents the triumph of catholicism over the Callagua people. It is based on a catholic procession and pays homage to the Nuestra Seora de la Asunta of Chivay as the Patron saint. The dance represents a series of characters of Spanish and Inca origins. Variations of the dance are: Inti Killa of Sibayo and the Tuti which are also an affirmation of christianity in the area.

The music is simple and adopts a war like rhythm and later a ceremonial and slow melody. During the procession the dancers dance together and periodically pay reverence to the Virgin, finally entering the church for the blessing from the priest. Then the dancers take off their costumes and dance in the streets to a band. The Turku Tusuy is an affirmation of the christian faith represented by Christ's mother. The victory on the cross is related to the Spanish victory over the arabs and so the conquered peoples accept the new religious symbols. However, acceptance is not total as the Inca carried a corn plant instead of a sceptre which represents some type of resistance. The leaves of the corn are withered as a sign of mockery. Los Negritos from Chivay The presence of negroes in the area was frequent as they came from the coast as workers in the mines. They became sweet sellers in the processions and became integrated into the communities. At the Seora de la Asunta de Chivay patron saint procession, groups of two to four dancers are employed and paid. Their attitude is not that of negro slaves but that of free negroes. There are other areas in Peru where similar dances occur but there is more lavish detail. 3. CELEBRATION DANCES These dances are carried out during the rainy summer in the farming villages in Collaguas in the Colca valley, from Tuti to Taya. Wifala means "dance banner" and this is the name of the dance. Wit'iti is the name given to the dance from the Quechua verb "witiy" which means "make love". This is then a love dance with certain erotic elements. The dance is part of the celebrations in honour of the patron saint. At the time of the procession, lavish clothing and quilts are placed before the altar. The wifala is danced in pairs, generally couples in love. The music is not sung but has accompanying words. The dance represents a clear view of past legends. The Coporaque village did not give itself up easily to the Inca troups; there was resistance, led by Princess Mamallachi, who in a legend takes the name of Waysha (flirt). Finally she is overcome and is a victim of lust. The wit'iti is based on history but is also about the union between a man and a woman and has strong erotic and religious elements. This dance can only be found in the Colca valley.

The Wayllacha This is a round dance where people hold hands in a circle. A social feast generally begins and ends with this. The melody used is the huayno played with wind and string instruments. There is no special costume used. It has been put into practice since before the Spaniards arrived. Phujllay bulls The Spanish Conquest brought bull fights. However, they are different in the Colca valley. The bulls do not die and the fighters are not trained. The animal is respected and almost venerated. The greeting to the bull The night before there are ritual offerings to the Pachamama, with music and gatherings of people. There is a procession to the bull ring to greet the bull and after food and drink, there is a celebration at the bull fighter's home. The Main Bull Fight The fight begins at one or two in the afternoon. The custom is that the first animals let loose are the weaker ones. The Kacharpari After food and the fight, the band plays and everyone dances in the ring. The following year's bull fighter in charge is elected. The animals are thanked and are led to a place for rest and food. The Chujchu of Cabanaconde This is a dance which represents the journeys carried out by the Cabanaconde inhabitants towards the coastal valleys taking fruit and where they would get malaria. During the dance they give fruit, olives and chillis. The music is played with wind and string instruments. The Qhasqa of Taya and Lluta This is an agricultural celebration in order to clean the irrigation channels. After offerings have been made, the cleaning begins. The feast is made to receive those who have been brave enough to travel far to clean the top parts near the snow and

Ampato to ensure that water is provided. There is abundant food, drink and music. The Majeo or Countryman This is a dance for men only remembering those who travelled far to carry coastal products such as pisco, figs and others from the coast to the highlands. They also carried the message of freedom and independence at the time of the independence war against the Spaniards. The music is played with string instruments. II PAGAN-CHRISTIAN TRADITIONS The Steward The steward was always in charge of the festivities of the religious processions in the villages of the Colca. He would employ the services of those required. In fact in some places the patron saint has land which the steward can farm while he is a steward. The Altars There are people devoted to the patron saint and in charge of setting up the altars in the streets which the image of the saint will pass by. "Previstas" These women are in charge of flower arranging for the saint's image. They are usually young single women who help the current Steward. III OTHER FOLKLORE The Warmichacuy This is when the hand of a girl is asked for in marriage. The young woman's hand is asked for in a meeting between the parents of the couple. It is almost always carried out at night. This is carried out when the couple, after sexual encounters, has decided to live together. They usually begin to live at the woman's house and must have one or two children. If the man lives up to the woman's family's expectations, the couple move to live at the man's home. After living in both homes and after having been accepted by both families marriage is considered. Carnivals

These are celebrations brought from Spain. It is a time to visit the family. It is a celebration of youth, happiness and love. There are street processions with white flags as symbols of peace and songs paying homage to the home, animals and the mother earth. The Fiestas de la Cruz During the month of May there are celebrations in honour of the Sacred Cross, the symbol of Christianity. It is also a symbol of the good husband. On the 3rd of May women pay homage to their husbands, asking the Cross to grant her a good husband. The Puuchiy The puuchiy (to put to sleep) is a unique ceremony which is traditional and significant in married life. It is carried out by the godparents of the new couple. The godparents lead the couple separately to the previously prepared nuptial bed and give advice to each on marriage. Other godchildren pretend to be jealous and put up a fight. IV FOOD AND DRINK Each village in the valley has different typical food and drink. FOOD In the Colca valley a typical type of food is roast beef, mutton, alpaca and llama meat and pork.

"Chupe" is a special type of thick soup. Guinea pig is cooked in many different ways in different villages. Custard type desserts are also typical using corn starch. There is also chicken stew.

DRINKS Tafia or an alcoholic drink made with sugar cane is prepared in many different ways in the different villages. V FUNERAL CEREMONIES

As soon as someone dies the body is placed in another room for the wake. A special game of a type of dice is played. Later food and drink are served after having buried the body. Many believe in ghosts and that the coffin leaves the church and travels around. VI TRADITIONAL MEDICINE Good health in this region often depends on the resources of traditional medicine and rituals. Many men and women know how to diagnose frequent illnesses and how to treat them using herbs, including the frequent use of coca leaves. Witch doctors are also consulted. VII WORLD VIEW AND ANIMISM The inhabitants of the Collagua region observe in detail the cosmos, he geography and the environment of the region. Everything that is alive has a soul. The Andean world is a live world; everything is alive, not only humans and animals. The complex and detailed relationships between the groups of inhabitants and families show a different world full of rituals and offerings to the Pachamama. Although these rituals vary, they are all based on offerings of alpaca or llama fat, coca leaves and corn, Different colours in the offerings mean different aspects such as friendship or strength. The offerings are very complex. The Wilaja or Wilacha This is the supreme offering to the Pachamama with the blood of a live animal, usually a llama or alpaca. Again, the offering is detailed and specific in the rituals and objects used. Irrigation ditches Digging or cleaning irrigation ditches is a community affair organized by a mayor. There is a detailed order for this and everyone must participate. There are music and ceremonies organized. Rutuchi This is a custom which celebrates the child's first hair cut. There are godparents and gifts.

VIII CRAFTS The crafts have changed over the years. Some typical crafts are disappearing, such as weaving as most clothes are bought ready made. Many women now embroider. Hats have also changed their styles with the arrival of new fashions. The hat embroidery is very original. IX QUECHUA The Inca language is spoken by over four million people: two million in Peru. It is an agglutinative and very flexible language. There are no root syllables as such. Oral Literature and Collagua stories There is a strong oral literature in the Colca valley which is expressed through stories, legends, myths and rituals. This literature is based on the Pachamama, the hills, lakes and rivers. Humans change into animals and animals change into humans, usually for love. They are also linked to the sun, the stars and other natural elements. MAYTA CAPAC MYTHS IN THE COLCA VALLEY FROM VILLAGE TO VILLAGE THE INCA ASKED THE INDIANS For a significant part of the illiterate population, in the Colca for example, which had inherited a culture which did not use writing, an oral, changing, and at times divergent tradition, is the way in which world view is expressed. It is the appropriate expression of their community conscience. In Chivay, the Inca called to the Indians from the other side of the river. " What do you want over there on the other side of the river?" he asked. The Indians answered, "We want plenty of food" . The Inca answered, "Let there be plenty of barley and plenty of quinua." And to this day there is plenty of barley and plenty of quinua. In Yanque, the Inca asked the Indians, "What do you need?" Amazed, the Indians answered arrogantly, "Nothing!" They spoke that way because they had all the food they needed. There was a great deal of water from the springs and the mountains. When the Inca saw their attitude, he was angry and said, "You lazy people! You don't need anything, ....you asked for it!" The Inca dried up the springs and that is why to this day the people of Yanque steal the water from Chivay. The water comes to Yanque from the Huaranccate, a hill which belongs

to Chivay. The people of Yanque went to war waving their slings for the water. Some died and they won the war against the people of Chivay. That is why they take their water. When the Inca arrived at Maca, he asked the Indians the same question, "What do you need?". They answered quickly, "We need water." That is why he left them water in their hill. And that is why water still flows from inside the hill towards the river and there is enough for all. Later the Inca asked the people of Pinchollo, "What do you need?" Just as the Indians were about to answer, the Inca farted and that is why there is so much wind to this day in Pinchollo. The Indians were so frightened that they said nothing. When the Inca arrived at Cabanaconde, they treated him well. There the Indians said, "We want to be good people and we want good food." The Inca took out his sack of well picked corn and gave it to the Indian Chief saying," The Indians of the village will eat this." That is why to this day, soft, delicious corn grows there and that is why the inhabitants have lovely faces and speak sweetly. The Inca did not manage to get to Tapay and the Indians there had not gathered together either. If the Inca had spoken to them, the fruit that grows there would be even more tasty than it is. When the Inca went to Tisco, he said, "What do you want?" They say that the Indians answered, "We want to dress well." That is why the Inca left the gold and silver mines ajar so that they could later be discovered; that is why they say that there could be gold and silver in those places.. Then the Inca descended to the village of Sibayo. There he asked the Indians and they said, "We want to eat bushes which live in the water." So the Inca said, " Every year you must harvest seaweed, cracked objects, broken pots and so many things that can be found in the sea." They say that to this day in Sibayo all types of stories are told about ancient peoples. In Callalli, the Inca asked the Indians the same question, "What do you want?" There the Indians answered, "We want large houses." That is why the Inca built great palaces. They say that these palaces have become the rocks that you can now see. Even to this day people ask why they say that the tola bushes could have been people's food. When the Inca got to Caylloma, he spoke to the Indians who lived there. Then they replied, "Whatever you want." That is why the Inca did not leave bushes, or anything to sow. To this day the people of Caylloma live off excrement. They gather the llama excrement in barrows to cook because there are no plants.

They say that the Inca also went to Tuti. They say there were still Indians or inhabitants from the days of the gentiles; and it is there that the Indians had great faith in the Inca. The Inca even stayed and lived there for a long time and was happy to give them all types of plants which could be seen from the Pumunuta hill. They say that to this day there is a cave on Pumunuta and deep inside there is a hanging corn cob which is the size of a tall man. Some say that farming in Tuti only started when the Inca arrived. ART IN THE COLCA VALLEY For a long time the Colca valley has had an enormous wealth of cultural heritage, a product of the creativity of the inhabitants of the region in different periods. The expressions of this creativity are ideological as well as material, for example: oral tradition, customs, dances, rituals, works of art, architecture, etc. The works of art in the churches have been affected by the passing of time and the alterations made by man. Any restoration work carried out is done by trained young people from the area who can continue this work in the future. ART AND EVANGELISM IN THE COLCA The language and pre-hispanic religious beliefs in the valley were barriers that hindered the interests of the Crown. Artistic expression was an effective instrument for overcoming the Andean rituals and for imposing new religious concepts based on Catholicism. The Franciscans were the first to evangelize the Colca area and a church was built in Coporaque. Idols were changed for crosses and altars. Schools were also formed for the children. Many artists, part of the religious group, arrived from Europe. They were added to the competition of how many natives could be added to the religion. Lope de Suazo was in charge of forming villages of indians in appropriate places far from their old haunts where they might be drawn back to old religious practices. The indians did not accept with ease and had to be forced. During the XVI century the art is in a purely European style. It is only towards the end of the XVII century and especially in the XVIII century that the style becomes a mixed "mestizo" style.

ARTISTIC DEVELOPMENT IN THE COLCA Initially works of art were brought from Europe and the first artists followed these styles. After some years, due to the need to find materials to teach indians about religion, schools were formed in Cuzco, Huamanga, La Paz and Quito. The artists would send their work or go and live temporarily in the villages where new styles began to appear. The experience which the artists gained was transferred to their children. This was a prehispanic custom. Family associations were formed. SCULPTURE Prehispanic Much has been said about the influence of the prehispanic, well developed, techniques (such as the use of maguey) on the colonial sculpture, but it is difficult to prove this. The prehispanic "dolls" made of wood and cloth were very well developed and used for religious purposes. The Incas, however, forbade these dolls. So the gap between the pre-Inca dolls and the colonial sculptures spreads over about 1000 years. Spanish sculpture The Spaniards always preferred wood carvings and polychrome. They brought these techniques to Latin America. During the XVI and XVII centuries a great many sculptures were imported from Europe. The indians soon added their own details using their own experience of making idols and using their own techniques. Renaissance and Manneristic art It was around 1570, towards the end of the Conquest when the Viceroyalty was established, that wood carving in maguey and also the use of cloth, began. Maguey was soft, light and easy to work with. The techniques for using these materials developed as the years went by. The last third of the XVI century and the first third of the XVII century

The Spanish sculptors had to work rapidly during this period to decorate the churches. They were masters in polychrome and carving. They began also to use cedar wood and built retables, altars, pulpits and others. Sculpture during the Baroque period (1640-1700) Only some variations occurred during this period. Cotton began to be used in some areas. However, techniques were improved. Towards the end of the period images were made in order to be dressed and taken in religious processions. The "mestizo" Baroque and Realism (XVIII century) Art in Europe declined towards the end of the XVIII century, after the classical style period. Sculpture evolved towards realism. Crystal eyes and dresses, wigs, beards and eyelashes began to be added to sculptures. Nails made out of horn, began to be added to the statues and they were dressed using fine traditional costumes made with typical dyes of the time. Plaster faces were also made and details, such as eyes, teeth, tongues, tears and so on, were added. The face was always polychromic. Wigs were sometimes made out of real women's hair for special statues. By the end of the period there were great workshops and demands were made from abroad. Works were exported and this brought an increase in production, which in turn caused poor quality. Sculpture during the XIX century Sculpture continued to follow Colonial moulds, even after the Republic began. However, later the cloth began to take on a more industrial form and crowns turned to diadems. The colours were colder in Neoclassical style. The republics began to depend on England and France. Sculptures were imported from Italy, France and England, made of bronze and marble for the homes of the high officials. Paper also began to be used. Tools Sculptors used tools used by carpenters but during the XVIII century, use of tools and care of the maguey decreased. Techniques and materials

There were many different types of materials such as wood, plaster, glue, maguey and cloth. Relief techniques were used for decoration and on hard materials. Some sculptors used assembly techniques using iron pins. Sculptors made images, statues and retables, and used polychrome. Towards the end of the XVI century, sculptures began to be made with less sculpture on the body as the image was to be dressed. This would probably save time and materials. They were cheaper too. The iconography which was most popular in the Colca at the time was that of the crucifixion. Other themes were Jesus carrying the cross, the Virgin Mary carrying the Baby Jesus, the Immaculate Conception and various saints. MURAL PAINTING These paintings were made on stone, mud brick, bricks, etc. The first type of mural was the cave paintings. This type of art continued throughout history and during the Colonial period was mainly used for decorating churches. Techniques Not much is known about how the mural paintings were made in the Colca. However, the most common technique was that of applying Contay (white earth) with cactus juice and then on the dry white surface, local earth colourings were added after having been mixed with glue and egg beaten with water. The mural painting was carried out by a group of people led by the master who painted the most complicated and detailed parts. Cave paintings Prehistoric and other paintings were painted directly onto the wall. Sumbay: There are some impressive cave paintings there which date back many thousands of years. They used white, cream, yellow and red to represent the fauna of the time. Scenes from daily life were also painted there. Colonial mural painting

The building of the first churches goes hand in hand with the beginning of mural painting in the Colca. It is complementary to architecture and must form part of it. During earthquakes, some churches were ruined or destroyed along with their murals. All mural painting in the Colca is applied on dry backgrounds after having sketched the outlines in carbon. This type of painting was not so much religious as decorative. Some of the motifs are vegetables, such as corn, and also flowers. But there are also religious themes, for example in Chivay, where Jesus' baptism is painted. A great many of the mural paintings from the XVI, XVII and XVIII centuries have been lost and covered. EASLE PAINTING Cuzco was the main centre for painting during the Viceroyalty. It was the centre for cultural, social, ecclesiastical and political activities in the South. It is known as the Cuzco School of Art. At the time of the Conquest, Cuzco already had a deep artistic tradition which came from pre-Inca and Inca times. During the XVI century, Cuzco art was influenced by European work. Later, Viceroy Francisco de Toledo visited and ordered paintings depicting the Incas and scenes from Cuzco, painted by indians. Up until the XVII century, techniques were affected by a Manneristic influence along with the start of mural painting in churches in the countryside. In 1583 a Jesuit by the name of Bernardo Bitti arrived. He imposed the taste for the Roman Mannerism. Thus, many Europeans influenced the artistic styles of the Peruvian artists and in particular the Cuzco school. One of the techniques applied there was that of adding a dark grey brown with ashes, to the paintings. It is difficult to say when oil painting began. It was probably used since the beginning of the XVII century. First carbon sketches were made on a pink and sienna background and then the other details were added.

In the XVIII intense colours were used, especially red. As rapid techniques were used, the Cuzco paintings have not lasted well. THE VALLEY CHURCHES The Chivay church: This church has been modified and was rebuilt in the XVIII century. The retable was made of stucco and there is one which is made in a clear Baroque and Cuzco style. The mural paintings date back to the XVII and XVIII centuries and can still be seen. It is another of the churches which was whitewashed, covering many of the mural paintings. "Immaculate Conception" Yanque church: This was built by the Collaguas and originally dates back to the XVI century. But was probably rebuilt since then. Its facade is ornamented with vegetables. Maca church: This church is deteriorated due to an earthquake in 1991. It has an interior mural painting and gilded retable. "San Pedro de Alcantara" Cabanaconde church: This is a late church built after the 1784 earthquake with a Neoclassical facade. Inside there are Cuzco paintings. "Santiago Apostol" Coporaque church: This is the oldest church in the valley. It has steps leading up to it. There has been obvious deterioration over the centuries. The work inside shows art from different periods. "San Sebastian" Coporaque church: This was built around 1565 when the Franciscans were living there. There are mural paintings with the Sun and Moon. "San Juan Bautista" Ichupampa church: The church was built in the XVII century. Later on the church was affected by an earthquake in 1784. It was rebuilt in the XVIII century and was added to a great many times. "Purisima Concepcion" Lari church: This was built in 1785 or 1768. It has extraordinary dimensions in relation to other buildings in the village. It has a huge dome. There are two important paintings inside - The Lord of the Earthquakes and the Ascension of the Virgin Mary. The two paintings are linked. "Santiago" Madrigal church: This is one of the oldest churches in the valley. It is built in Renaissance style. Saint James fighting against the Moors is the main figure in the relief work at the entrance.

There is a silver processional cross among other works of art. "Santa Cruz" Tuti church: it has only one bell tower and is one of the smallest in the valley. It has an impressive pulpit in Renaissance style. "San Antonio de Padua" Callalli church: Its main facade is similar to that of Ichupampa. The painted retable is no longer Colonial style but was painted near the Independence. "San Juan Bautista" Sibayo church: This was built in 1692, it has easle paintings probably painted by artists from the region. ICONOGRAPHY Saint Ambrosio: One of the four fathers of the church. 7th of December. His icons are: book, whip, church and bee hive. Saint Ana: Mother of the Virgin Mary and Saint Joaquin's wife. Her name means grace. Her icons are an open book, red tunic and green shawl. She was the weavers and millers patron saint. 26th July. Saint Andrew: One of the twelve disciples. He was a fisherman and Saint Peter's brother. 30th November. Guardian Angel: Represented as a young man who points to the sky with his right hand. 2nd of October. Balthazar: One of the three Kings. A young , dark man wearing a turban or crown, riding on a camel, offering gold to the baby Jesus. Symbolizes the African continent. Saint Buenaventura: Born in 1221. Victim of an incurable disease but healed by Saint Francis of Assisi. Became a Cardenal. Holds an open book, a quill and a small church. 14th July. Good Shepherd: The image of a young Jesus carrying a sheep on his shoulders. Saint Catalina: Patron saint of Italy and protector of the Pope. Born in Italy in 1347. Saint Cecilia: Martyr saint who it is said invented the organ. 22nd November. Patron saint of musicians.

Saint Clara of Assisi: Born in Italy in 1194. She formed a convent of nuns. She was the patron saint of washerwomen. 12th of August. Christ: Most of them depict a crucified Christ. Peruvian artists who painted him were asked to be left alone and their food was left at the door. Crucified Christ: This was painted with different numbers of nails in his hands and feet. Christ of Huanca: This is a stone sculpture of Christ being beaten. It is half way between the San Salvador district and the old Yanantin mines. There are two versions of its origin. One is that the image appeared to an indian who was running away from the mines and told the indian to return. Another version was the healing of a man in Potosi and Christ told him to visit him in Huanca. Christ of the Holy Sepulchre: He is part of the Good Friday processions. Christ of the Sugar Cane: He is known for the crown on his head and a cane sceptre in his hand. Christ of the Column: This depicted Christ, half-naked, bleeding with rope around his neck and tied to a column. Christ of the Earthquakes: Worshipped initially in the Triumph chapel and at present in the Cuzco cathedral. This is a statue of crucified Christ made of maguey and carved wood. The cross is made of wood and decorated with silver and gild. The first legend says it was given by an emperor. The second legend says that it was originally the Lord of the Good Death and then changed its name after the 1650 earthquake. Crosses: The cross worship can be celebrated on the 3rd of May linked to the harvest. The cross is carried through the streets. Diego de Alcala: This was a Franciscan saint born in Andalucia. He carried a great cross on one of his shoulders and a basket of bread in one hand. He is the patron saint of the sick. 11th of November. Franciscan order: This was founded in 1208 by Saint Francis of Asissi. There are variations of the Franciscan symbol. One of these is the crossed arms of Christ and Saint Francis on a cross. As from the XVIII the habit was light blue whereas

before that the colour was not defined. Finally brown was adopted and the habits were made from sheep wool. Saint Isidro Labrador: This saint looked after sheep and was a farmer. He was a very religious man. He is the patron saint of many farmers. 15th May. Saint Joaquin: Saint Ana's wife and father of the Virgin Mary. He is an old, bearded man. He was patron saint of the weavers. 16th August. Saint Joseph: The virgin Mary's husband. He was a modest carpenter. Pope Pious IX declared him patron of the Universal Church. Saint Teresa was devoted to him. This devotion reached America in the middle of the XVII century. Saint John the Baptist: A Hebrew prophet. He announced Jesus ministry and was decapitated. He is dressed in poor pilgrim clothes. He is the patron saint of sheep and is celebrated on the 25th of June. Jesus as a Child: Christ was often depicted as a child. He was adorned with the images of the Incas but in 1675 the Bishop of Mollinedo ordered these to be taken away and he was only allowed to have the rays of the sun behind his head. 25th December and 6th January. Saint Paul: He was born in one of the intellectual centres of the Roman Empire. During his youth he persecuted the christians. One day Christ appeared to him and he was temporarily blinded. 25th January. Saint Peter: Part of the twelve apostles and saint Andrew's brother. Jesus commended the church to him. Wise Men: Their story is in the Gospel of Matthew. The tradition is that there were three kings but this is not proven. Their visit to the Baby is known as the Adoration of the Wise Men and is celebrated on the 6th January. Santiago el Mayor: He is part of the twelve apostles. He was John the Evangelist's brother. He is also known as James. He is patron saint of Spain in the wars against the Moors and therefore also protected the Spaniards against the indians. He is dressed as a knight on a white horse. Celebrated in Coporaque, Huanca and Madrigal on the 25th of July. Santiago el Menor: He is part of the twelve apostles. He was the youngest of the two Santiagos. He was the first Bishop of Jerusalem.

Saint Sebastian: He was a Roman and was a martyr in 288 AD. During the Colonial period he was the patron saint of the indigenous aristocracy and was prayed to when there were epidemics and plagues. Holy Trinity: In Peruvian Colonial art this is depicted as three equal men with crowns, on thrones or standing. The Holy Spirit is on the left, God the Father in the middle and God the Son on the right. Virgin Mary: She is represented as a model of femenine purity. She is a typical case of syncretism as she represents the Roman goddess Venus but when she arrives in Peru, she represents the Pachamama and the Apu. Most of the worship of Mary comes from Spain. Usually she is depicted as a beautiful white woman. Virgin of the Ascension: This comes from the apocryphal gospel of Saint Peter who narrates Mary's ascension into heaven. 15th August. Virgin of the Conception: Symbolizes the moment when the Virgin Mary receives the Child. Immaculate Conception: In 1263, the Franciscans took this image as their patron saint. She is usually depicted as being surrounded by angels with the dove of the Holy Spirit above her head. THE FLORA OF THE COLCA VALLEY, THE SALINAS AND AGUADA BLANCA NATIONAL NATURE RESERVE AND THE JOURNEY FROM AREQUIPA (2,300 metres above sea level to 5,000 metres above sea level) When we travel from Arequipa to the Colca Valley we will climb from 2,300 metres above sea level (desert) to 4,800 metres above sea level (high plateau) and then descend to the Colca river at 3,000 metres above sea level. (inter Andean valley). There are a great many changes in the vegetation as you go along. There is also a variety in the flora (around 300 species), some used as medicines, others as dyes and so on. In the valley, there are the remnants of what were the queoa forests. There are two marked seasons, the rainy and the dry seasons. DESCRIPTION OF THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF VEGETATION Desert type scrub with cacti

This area has plants which only grow during the rainy season. Other bushes which remain dry occasionally come green when there is humidity. Scrubland The grass ("ichu") which grows here is typical and gives a yellowish hue to the ground. There is also a greyish pulse called iru-icchu among others. Pasture This area is yellowish in the dry season and green in the rainy season with a short grass called "crespillo" (Calamagrostis breviaristata) , along with the ichu and iru-icchu. "Tola" (Parastrephia lepidphylla, Baccharis buxifolia, among others) bushes This area was full of these types of bushes but due to the indiscriminate extraction of the "tola" bushes, there is another plant, the "canlle" (Tetraglochin Strictum) which grows on the now bare ground. Humid pasture There is a great deal of water in this area. There are springs and a permanent supply of water all year round. The vegetation here is not large in size but very nutritious for the South American camelidae. Yareta (Azorella compacta and Azorella yarita). This is a resinous plant which grows in high altitudes and forms small compact groups like cushions. It was used for fuel and for medicinal purposes. Riverside vegetation The vegetation in this area can be very different and varied. There are bushes such as the "Cantuta" (Cantua candelilla and Cantua buxifolia) known as the Inca Flower, dedicated to the sun and used in religious rites. It is used for dyeing yellow. Queoas This is a wood of queoa plants. There are also other bushes and herbs. The queoa trees have been felled indiscriminately by man for building, tools and carbon. This tree can be found in Chivay, Yanque, Cabanaconde and Huambo.

Snowline There is apparently little vegetation in this area due to the altitude. The ground is greyish and there are rocks. However, yellow, orange and green lichen can be seen on these rocks. Scrub with thorny bushes This area is dominated by the "chiri-chiri" bush (Grindelia bergi), along with many other types of bush. Steppe with bushes and herbs There is a great variety of woody bushes as well as other thorny bushes. There is vegetation which only grows during the rainy season and also small cacti. Near to Tapay there are fruit trees. Steppe with Column Cacti Enormous column cacti up to 6 metres tall grow in this area. Their fruit is also used for medicine and some birds eat them too. The Raymondi "Puya" There are only about 150 of this plant. It has been affected by man's intervention. There are other bushes and vegetation around them. Terraces The crops grown on these are typical to the area: potato, corn, broad beans, quinua. They are also used to cultivate imported crops such as wheat and barley and oats and alfalfa. THE FAUNA IN THE COLCA VALLEY AND THE SALINAS AND AGUADA BLANCA NATIONAL NATURE RESERVE MAMMALS Despite their rugged countryside, The Andes have fauna which have adapted to these conditions.

In the case of the Colca valley, it is not only rugged but also arid. 32 of the 68 species of mammal in the Colca live in the Salinas and Aguadas Blancas Nature Reserve. The White Tailed Deer and "Tarukas" The Taruka lives high up in the Andes and differs from the White-tailed deer in that it is stronger and the antlers only have two parts. This species is in great danger from hunters. The white tailed deer lives in the lower parts of the Colca valley (Cabanaconde and Huambo). They are also hunted. CARNIVORES There are five species of carnivore in these areas. The Puma This is the largest carnivore and is a solitary animal except when it is being raised by the mother. It adapts easily but needs a great deal of food and that is why its territories are wide. The fact that it is not very common in the Colca is due to the lack of food it can get there. It is also hunted and attacked by man to protect the flocks. It does not attack man however. Osjollo or wildcat This animal is larger than the domestic cat. It feeds off small birds and rodents. Andean fox This is the most common carnivore in the Andes. It is the size of a dog and even attacks domestic livestock, but prefers sick or vulnerable animals. It adapts easily and also eats all types of vegetables and fruit and even leaves. It can help to eliminate rodents and insects. Despite the fact that man attacks it, the fox reproduces quickly and has a great capacity for survival. Skunk This feeds off insects, larva, snails and worms but can also eat rodents, frogs and others. It is a calm and quiet animal.

Achocalla (type of weasel) Its name in Quechua means that it is brown on top and white underneath. It is fierce and agile. It eats constantly and can eat a great many rodents. It likes to drink blood and eat brains. Vizcacha and other rodents The vizcacha lives in the rocky areas in the high Andes, all over Peru. It is similar to a rabbit or a squirrel.Its meat is tasty and is occasionally eaten by the inhabitants. It is exclusively herbivore. The other rodents are like mice or rats, of different colours and sizes. The smallest ones mainly eat insects and the larger ones are herbivores. They are small but reproduce fast and control the growth of the vegetation, spreading of seeds and abundance of insects. On the other hand, they do not help the farmers as they invade and consume crops and stored food. Marmots also exist in abundance in the highlands. They eat insects, eggs and fruit and are fierce. There are also bats which have adapted to the high Andes. BIRDS Peru and Colombia have the greatest variety of birds in the world. The Salinas and Aguada Blanca Reserve has 136 registered species. Condors Despite having been worshipped by ancient cultures and being present on four South American coats of arms, little is known about its habits and customs. The condor's habitat is inaccessible. It has been considered to be a sacred bird, a symbol of strength and power and the sun's messenger. It feeds off dead animals.

It is almost extinct in other countries but is present in Peru, Bolivia, Chile and Argentina. However, it has many factors against it such as the lack of wild fauna to feed off, the use of pesticides, hunting and others. It is a very heavy bird with a huge wingspan. The condors are well known for being black and white with a white collar. They have bare heads. Their nests are inaccessible and made of a few branches. The condor can live for up to 50 years. Aquatic birds These birds can swim and dive. Their feet and beaks are different. These are found in the lakes and rivers. Amongst these are the ducks, flamingos, sea gulls and Andean geese. There are three registered species of flamingo on Lake Salinas. There are thousands of these birds. There are seven different species of duck. Small birds The birds find shelter from the wind by the rivers and streams and in the bushes. There they find more vegetation and humidity. There are swallows, hummingbirds and others. They feed off fruit, flowers and insects. Giant Hummingbird The hummingbirds have long beaks and tongues and insert these into flowers. They assist pollination. The Giant Hummingbird is the largest in the world (23 cms long). It is aggressive and territorial and chases other hummingbirds. Birds of Prey

Eagles Hawks Falcons Owls Nightjar

The queoa forests are the home of many birds, some typical only of this area. There may be up to 45 species in a small area of the forest. Some of them have adapted specifically to this area. AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES

Reptiles and amphibians are scarce in this region. There are three amphibian species and five reptiles. The desert and the high altitudes are a hindrance for these types of animals. Frogs and toads stay close to the water and do not freeze at night due to a special substance in their blood. They are occasionally eaten by the inhabitants. There are also snakes and lizards. After many attempts, the Salinas and Aguada Blanca National Nature Reserve was declared a reserve in May 1977 and a National Reserve in August 1979. The declaration is based on the following:

Seriously altered natural resources, such as the 10,000 hectares of queoa forests and other species which according to ONER studies existed on the slopes of Misti, Chachani and Pichu-Pichu; the desert encroachment due to the indiscriminate felling of tola and yareta and the near extermination of vicuas and guanacos. The historical value of the evidence found of man's evolution from hunting to domesticating alpacas and llamas and finally to putting them to sustainable use. The need to protect and suitably manage the water basin of the Arequipa valley and irrigation such as that of La Joya, San Isidro and San Camilo. The potential of repopulation, conservation and use of the vicua. The critical situation and poverty of the alpaca and llama breeding. The existing tourist potential, especially as this area is located on the route to the Colca, Puno and Cuzco.

The creation of this reserve and particularly the Special Project for Rational Use of the Vicua, was greatly opposed by this sector. OBJECTIVE The conservation of the biological diversity of the high Andean species and the promotion of sustainable use of the natural resources available. FAUNA Among the protected species are the vicua (vicugna vicugna), the guanaco (Lama guanicoe) and the taruca (Hippocamelus antisensis). Among the carnivores are the Andean cat or osjollo (Pseudalopex culpaeus), the skunk (Connepatus rex) and the puma (Puma concolor). Other important species are the vizcacha (Lagidium peruanum) and 10 more rodents.

There are around 121 bird species, amongst which are the condor (Vultur gryphus), three species of flamingoes (Phoenicoparrus andinus, Phoenicopterus chilensis, Phoenicoparrus jamesi), the ajoya (Fulica gigantea), the huallata (Chloephaga melanoptera) and three partridges. There are also eight species of amphibians and reptiles. VEGETATION There are around 180 species; some are particularly important, such as the q'eoa (Polylepsis besseri) as it is in danger of extinction and is the dominant species in the ecosystem with the greatest biodiversity in the Andes. Other species are significant due to their use, such as the tola (Parastrephya lepidophylla) and the yareta (Azorella compacta) which are used for fuel. There are also a great many species of gramineae which are fed on by the domestic and wild herbivores. The marsh vegetation is also particularly interesting. ORIGIN AND IMPORTANCE OF DOMESTIC CAMELIDAE The Camelidae originated and developed in the North-Western region of North America approximately 16 million years ago. Different groups emigrated to different parts of the world, including one group to South America where it became four species: llama, alpaca, guanaco and vicua. Taxonomy Despite the fact that the term "auquenido" is often used to refer to the family of animals, it is not the correct term. These animals are camelidae. Their taxonomy is as follows: Kingdom: : Animal Subkingdom:: Metazoan Phylum: : Chordate Subphylum: : Vertebrate Class: : Mammal Order: : Artiodactyl Suborder: : Tylopod Family: : Camelidae World and National Distribution

During the period of the Conquest, native livestock was replaced by foreign livestock. The number of llamas, alpacas and vicuas dropped during the Colonial period. During the Republican period, the depredation of camelidae was encouraged as a presumed tribute to the church. At present the breeding of camelidae by the inhabitants of the high Andes in our country is their main economic activity. Camelidae are a source of wealth which must be preserved and increased. Llama During the prehispanic period, the llama was the most important camelidae socially and economically. After the arrival of the Spaniards, the llamas were pushed to the high plains where the foreign animals have never been able to adapt. The llama eats dry, hard grass and is a strong and resistant animal. There are different types of llama: The Llama Ch'aku (woolly) which has two layers of different types of wool. The fibre is used for making ropes, sacks and blankets for the inhabitants' own use. The Llama Q'ara (short hair) has very short hair and in some parts has only very short smooth hairs. It is used for carrying loads. Both types of llama are of a variety of colours. Alpaca The alpaca is smaller than the llama and moves in smaller groups, overseen by shepherds. The alpaca eats the dry, coarse grass of the high plateaux. Its wool is well known all over the world. Alpaca Suri. This is a slim, angular animal. The wool is shiny and straight and does not absorb dyes easily. Alpaca Huacaya. This is taller than the Suri and has coarse, curly hair. The Huarizo or Misti This animal has characteristics which are intermediate between the llama and the alpaca. It is larger than the alpaca but its wool is thicker.

PROBLEMS OF BREEDING CAMELIDAE IN THE COLCA VALLEY Over the last two decades the political and economic systems applied have not always been appropriate for the alpaca production. Also, due to social violence, the alpaca production was literally abandoned in many cases during the eighties. Towards the end of the decade there was another failed attempt to promote wool trade. During the nineties. Free trade was enforced and this meant the involvement of private enterprises in the trade. The soil and grass are progressively deteriorating. Industry began to demand white wool by weight and this also affected the trade. At present there is a programme for taking into account quality and classification. Due to this there is a move towards genetic improvement and programmes implemented by private and state institutions. CAMELIDAE HABITAT The camelidae tend to live in the south area of the Andean highlands between 3,800 and 4,800 metres above sea level. They thrive on slopes spread with short, coarse grass and gramineae. The temperatures are low, between 15 and 20 centigrade. Food (grass and water) There are two very important nutritional periods: 7-8 months old and the last trimester of pregnancy. These both coincide with the dry season where there is less availability of grass. This results in smaller and weaker animals. The alpacas are very dependent on water and therefore the shepherds must be careful to lead them to abundant water. Llamas are much more resistant to lack of water. For the farmer, the soil, water, grass and animal availability is very important. The farmers work together, sharing pasture land which results in animals passing on diseases easily. Land is divided into sections according to the seasons and availability of water and grass.

In the rainy season, the farmer does not gather the animals together so that they do not pass on diseases to each other; they wander free at nights. Andean camelidae adapt marvellously to the altitude due to their ability to bear cold. The females give birth to their young during the rainy season when they have more chances of survival and this characteristic is genetic. Their lungs are formed in such a way that they are able to extract the maximum amount of oxygen possible. The following are general characteristics:

Long hair Harelip Three compartments in the stomach Water compartment They do not uproot grass, enabling it to re-grow. Their hooves are made in such a way that they do not harm the soil They do not lick their young when they are born They can be inter-bred Polygamous They spit as a defence They walk great distances

Age determination Their age is determined by their teeth, which are only found on the bottom jaw as the top one has no teeth. The animals are born with milk teeth and their teeth change as they grow older. Age can thus be determined by observing how many teeth have changed. Reproduction Camelidae are constantly on heat. Ovulation is induced by copulation and occurs 26 hours after this. Female camelidae reach sexual maturity at the age of two years or when they reach 33 Kgs in weight. Male sexual maturity is usually reached when they are three years old.

Llamas and alpacas reproduce all year. However, females and males are constantly together which results in male inhibition and so young are usually born between December and March. Gestation lasts 342-358 days and young are born between 5 and 9 am to provide further chances of survival. Suckling does not affect ovulation. Farmers have a calendar of activities to manage the livestock, including parasite control, shearing and pasture rotation. Shearing Tinkachi or T'inka: This is a ritual and offering to nature, animal reproduction, the springs and streams and in request for protection. The offering is made in February and August. The offering is a llama, the blood of which is drunk by the family. Finally the animal is boiled and served to all attending. The bones are burned. PRODUCTION, TRANSFORMATION AND COMMERCIALIZATION Llamas are used mainly for meat and for carrying loads. Its wool is mainly used for the inhabitants' own consumption or for ropes and sacks but not for commerce. The alpaca wool used to be very popular but prices have dropped and lately alpaca meat has also been commercialized. The first to export alpaca wool were the British from Arequipa. Peruvian alpaca wool reached 80% of the world production during the eighties. It was used for jumpers, blankets and other articles. The fact that the industry demanded quantities of wool without taking into account quality control, has meant that quality has dropped. Designers are taking less interest in the product. However, articles of clothing are made with the wool, in the area, for the inhabitants' use as well as the tourist trade. Meat For many farmers, alpaca breeding has meant their only source of income as the high altitudes do not permit crop growing. Alpaca meat, wool and skins constitute a source of income for the farmer. Llamas tend to be used more for their meat. Alpaca meat has a higher protein

percentage and less fat than the llama meat, although the percentages in both vary with age. Llama and alpaca meat consumption is often rejected as the meat is considered to be only for indians to eat or it can be confused with vicua meat which is an animal in danger of extinction. However, alpaca meat is healthier than other meats as well as having a pleasant flavour. It contains more protein and less fat and contains magnesium, sodium and potassium. It is low in cholesterol. The smell of the meat when it is cooked is strong. Hides It is not yet very commercial but after being treated can be used for clothing and other articles, especially the hide of the young. The alpaca hide is often wasted when the animal is killed. ORIGIN According to paleontological studies, South American camelidae (llama, alpaca, vicua, guanaco) originated in the Rocky Mountains or in the North West of North America. The most primitive camelidae is the Protylopus petersoni. By the Late Miocene period, about 5 to 10 million years ago, the Pliauchenia had evolved a great deal and had many characteristics similar to the llama and the Paracamelus. During the last part of the Pliocene period, a group of these animals emigrated through the Behring Straits towards the West and Africa, evolving into the Camel. During the Mid Pliocene, there were two different genuses, Paleoloama and Lama. The former became extinct and the second one became the Lama and Vicugna. The Llama was obtained through the breeding of guanacos and the alpaca through the vicua. The family has three genuses and six species. Two of these genuses (Lama and Vicugna) are South American and the other, Camelus, is in Central Asia. Two of the species are now domesticated: two breeds in the Old World and two in the New World (Lama guanicoe glama and Lama guanicoe pacos). The Lama and Vicugna genuses have the following in common: A pointed snout; long pointed ears; large eyes; long, tall neck; long, wooly hair.

Vicua and Guanaco Taxonomy Kingdom: SubKingdom: Phylum: Subphylum: Superclass: Class: Subclass: Order: Suborder: Family: Genus: Species: GUANACO Genus: Species: Lama Lama guanicoe (Osgood 1932) Animal Metazoan Vertebrates Mammalla Mammalla Eutheria Artiodactyl Tylopod Camelidae Vicugna (Lesson 1842) Vicugna vicugna (Molina 1782)

The vicugna and lama are very similar but the vicugna has inferior incisors which are permanently open. They are in this sense similar to rodents. The lama's teeth are short. The vicugna also has a tuft of hair on its chest, whereas the llama does not. THE GUANACO According to Dr Julio Bustinza M, the guanaco was the first camelidae known in the West through Magellan's diaries in 1520. The species survives due its great capacity to adapt. It is consdiered to be a valuable and renewable resource in danger of extinction in Peru and Bolivia. The quality wool is found on alpacas and vicuas. The meat and hides are also good quality and could be commercialized. Present distribution of the Guanaco

At present the guanaco inhabits all the area from the coastal desert to the high mountain ranges, including plateaus. Important Biological Characteristics of the Guanaco It is generally very similar in appearance to the llama although it is slightly smaller. The eyes are black and it has long ears with white edges. The colour of its wool is brown. Similar to other camelidae, its gestation period lasts 11 months. The births occur from September onwards and the young remain with the mother for 10-12 months. Behaviour Guanacos are extremely territorial. Their family groups are made up of one male and between one and nine females. Similar to vicuas, the guanacos can form groups of males of up to 60 animals. Some researchers affirm that during the winter the family groups lose their territorial character. Ecological adaptation The guanaco can also live on the desert coast. Their great capacity for adapting is due to some of the following mechanisms: 1. Adaptation to the desert 2. Adaptation to thirst. 3. Adaptation to drinking salty water and even eating sea weed. Some causes of extinction 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Hunting for hides. Killing the grown animals for meat. Competition for food with other animals such as sheep. Diseases. Malnutrition Predators Lack of control and protection from hunters.

THE VICUA

This is a wild camelidae of great importance for the economic and sustained development of the high Andean inhabitants. Most of the world's vicua population is in Peru. Basic Physiology The vicua has a slim body and neck and long, slim limbs and can run fast (up to 47 kilometres an hour at 4,500 metres above sea level). Its neck is proportionally longer than that of other camelidae. The vicua can run fast but save energy and this is vital on the arid and cold plateaus. The vicua weighs between 35 and 41.5 kgs. Its hooves are especially formed to help it grip rocky surfaces and not deteriorate the thin soil. Its inferior incisors grow constantly during the whole year. They are always sharp and can cut tough plants. It cuts grass very near to the soil and does not pull out the roots. Its eyesight is very keen, but its hearing and sense of smell are not as sharp. Its hair is light brown with white. Its stomach is like that of all herbivores but its is suggested that camelidae absorb fatty acids better than others and that food is in general is taken advantage of better. They also have compartments which can store water. The vicua has also adapted to the lack of oxygen. Its red blood cells are of a different shape and facilitate oxygen diffusion. The vicua's hair protects it from the cold. It has two layers, one thick and longer and the other, on the inside, of fine fibres. Another extraordinary adaptation is the weight of the young when they are born. It is equivalent to 15% of the mother's weight. The vicua is polygamous. The females are sexually mature at the age of two years and then remain permanently on heat. The vicua generally reproduces between March and May so that the young can be born between February and April in the rainy season when there is abundant pasture. Ovulation is induced by coitus. The female gives birth to one young vicua, llama or alpaca and this usually occurs around or before midday in sheltered areas. There is no hostility towards the newborn animal and it rapidly stands up, suckles and begins to imitate the mother. Natural enemies

Vicuas have natural enemies which hinder its development:

Dogs Andean foxes Pumas

SOCIAL AND TERRITORIAL ORGANIZATION The vicuas have families made up of one male and a few females, even up to 12 females, and their young. The young are sent off to form their own families after about 9 months. 75 to 85% remain in the same territory all year. Young herds (males) Groups of 9 to 18 month old males which have not yet reached sexual maturity can join together as a group. They do not have a leader. Solitary males They have completed their biological cycle and due to age are expelled from their groups. Meaning and consequences of the social organization 67% of the vicuas are in family groups and multiply. The herd of males ensures the vigour of the population (28% of the total population). The old males who wander along constitute about 5%. The sense of territory is very obvious and all of these factors avoid inbreeding and too much use of pasture in one specific area. CALENDAR OF ACTIVITIES The activities are carried out by communities, technical and administrative staff of State organizations and the National Vicua Society. The State has declared specific control and legislation over the vicuas.

Counting (census) and registration Birth control (to protect them against hunters, predators) and protect the abandoned young. Health control Predator control (hunting dogs, foxes) Evaluation and improvement of pastures (for example, replanting grass)

Capture The methods used were used by ancient cultures. The vicuas are chased and rounded up in pens. They are then sheared. This usually happens between May and October. Evaluation and identification of the animals The animals' health is checked and they are then selected for shearing. Marks, microchips and mainly aluminium earrings are used for identification. The animals are registered. Shearing The shearing can be done manually or by machine but the vicua must be over 12 months old and have appropriate length of wool. Shearers try not to waste any of the wool. There are different qualities of fibre depending on which part of the body it comes from. The wool is divided and stored and labelled. It is generally the women who do the job of separating and checking the wool. Control and monitoring In 1995 Peruvian law stated that people participating in illegal hunting of the vicua or other similar species would receive up to 25 years prison sentence. There is a great deal of control over hunting in the area. COMMERCIALIZATION There are a few organizations which are authorized to commercialize vicua wool under strict control. Some countries forbid vicua wool commerce as the animal is considered to be in danger of extinction. COCHINEAL AND AYRAMPU These are two natural colouring dyes which have been used since pre-Columbian times by natives for dyeing weaving. They also possess some medicinal properties. Cochineal is a parasitic insect which lives on a cactus, or prickly pear plant and contains a colouring substance, maroon red carmic acid. The Spanish conquerors found it in Mexico where the colouring was used by the Aztecs. Hernan Cortes took the prickly pear plant to Spain and it grew

particularly in the Canary Islands. At that time only small cottony stains were observed on the prickly pear leaves and the dye was extracted. It was not until 1703 with the invention of the microscope that the Cochineal parasite was discovered. The dye is collected from the leaves of the prickly pear by scraping them so that the insects fall and then by drying them. The female insect is the one which possesses the dye and it contains the greatest concentration of it when it is in the process of egg laying. At present, this dye is in great demand for making cosmetics, drinks and food which require colourings, as it is not carcinogenic. Despite the fact that it exists in a great many locations, Peru is the country with the greatest production and the Colca is one of the most important regions where it can be found. The prickly pear is a nutritious and well liked fruit. It is gathered from the natural places where it grows, particularly by the streams in the canyon. The ayrampo, which is still is not used industrially, is also a dye from the fruit of a small cactus of the same family as the prickly pear, used for textiles and food. It is also used a great deal for its medicinal properties. The Valley of Marvels Vicuas should always be seen as one sees them at four thousand meters of altitude behind the volcanos which guard Arequipa, in the National Reserve of Aguada Blanca. At liberty, in their natural habitat, the animals are more authentic than behind the bars of zoos, more beautiful than when they are immobilized in photographs. Agile, silky and delicate, the vicuftas on the pampa of Cahahuas seem to shed their proverbial timidity. Their large intelligent eyes observe with arrogance the visitor who interrupts their strolls or their grazing, and they only withdraw -slowly and fearlessly, with elegance- if one gets too close with the camera. Browsing among the shrubs in groups of five or six -a male with his slender harem- or in vast, honey colored herds, they can be seen drinking from blue pools in friendly company with wild ducks, Andean gulls and even flamingos. There are about three thousand of them, and they are prospering. Four valcanos, Misti, Chachani, Pichu Pichu and Ubinas, form the western boundary of their dominion. The eastern is a vertiginous abyss in which a river courses. It waters a corner of Peru full of marvels: the Colca Valley. Those of us who live immersed in the ugliness of Lima sometimes forget the beautiful things of Peru. One of them is this southern valley, to the north-west of

Arequipa, at which one arrives after scrambling over the peaks of the Andes and crossing the mesa of the vicua from one end to the other. The whole history of Peruvian man is summarized in this hundred kilometers of startling landscape, which until only a few years ago was incommunicado with the rest of the territory. The irrigation project which, through tens of kilometers of tunnels, carries the waters of the Colca to the other side of these mountains to the pampa of Majes, required that a road be built. And now one can come by car to this land, which before could only be reached by mule or on foot. But tourism is still limited and modern man has not had time to depredate the valley. Only time has done that, but fortunately in moderation. Archeological remains of the Collaguas and the Incas are scattered over the whole valley. Apparently the latter subjugated the area for only a short time. A legend says that the Inca Mayta Cpac took a fancy to a girl of the region and carried her off to Cusco where he married her. The most impressive of these ruins are found in an unnamed spot equidistant from Yanque and Achoma, from which one can see for a great distance. The walls, roads and structures climb the mountain sides, spreading out to the right and left in what must have been a formidable citadel. Those who lived here centuries ago were numerous, and from this eagle's nest they controlled the valley. The walls of their dwellings, places of worship and storehouses are high and made of rugged stones protected from deterioration by a coating of mud plaster. Mauricio de Romaa a lover of this region who has explored it and written about it for many years, assures me that archeologists have only begun to study these ruins in recent times and they are still not catalogued or protected by any law. In any case, judging by these majestic stones, the Collaguas reached a high level of civilization and were architects as advanced as the Incas. They were also industrious and prosperous. A good part of the landscape all along the valley was created thanks to their diligence and imagination. Neither in Cusco nor in any other region have 1 seen terraces which ascend and descend the hills with the same defiance of the law of gravity. At some points it is as if the whole mountain, by some miraculous geological chance, had contorted and contracted so that the waters of the river and the slender streams into which the snowy peaks melt might make fertil their every contour, from head to foot. Every shade of green occurs on these terraces, and sharply contrasts with the ochre and grey of the high parts of the range and the white crests of the snowy peaks. And little has changed them since the ancient Peruvians constructed them, supporting them with walls which have resisted the assault of centuries until today, when the peasants continue breaking the soil with the "taclla" (the traditional foot plow), sowing the same crops and using the llama as a beast of burden. But without doubt the poverty of the present population is much greater than it was in ancient

times. When one contemplates these terraces one almost believes what the historians assure us: that ancient Peru fed all its inhabitants, a feat which no later regime has been able to repeat. The Spanish occupied the valley in 1540, the year in which Gonzalo Pizarro established the District of Collaguas. But it was the viceroy Toledo who, by ordering that the dispersed populations of peasants be concentrated in settlements, gave the region the human profile which it has retained until our days. As a consequence of the ordinances of Toledo fourteen villages were established. They are still there, only a little less than intact, although horrible corregated zinc has replaced some of the ancestral straw roofs on some of the dwellings of the more prosperous families (to speak of prosperity here, however, always seems a little obscene). The almost total isolation in which these fourteen villages lived from colonial times until the beginning of the Majes irrigation project has preserved their original appearance. There they are with their main plazas, their streets laid out in a straight line, their churches with the high towers which can be seen from a great distance. And there are their lordly and euphonic names: Cabanaconde, Pinchollo, Maca, Chivay, Achoma, Yanque, Tuti. Although some have a coating of whitewash, the majority of the churches show the naked stones of their structure: the sun turns them golden at midday and reddens them in the evening; their bell towers are still the pinnacles of the area, from which the fields can be watched. They tell me that they have been less plundered than the churches of the villages of Cusco, Puno or Ayacucho; that the retables, altars, pulpits, frescos and paintings of the 17th and 18th centuries are still there. I was only able to visit the interior of the little church of Maca, which has, in effect, an intriguing altar and some interesting oils. The secret of the conservation of these interiors is, probably, their sacristans, truculent, incorruptible men who let no one cross their thresholds except neighbors and people they knew. The priest of Cabanaconde denied me entrance with the argument that in order to visit the church one had to have written permission from the archbishop, neither more nor less than what is necessary to stick your nose in a convent cloister. When 1 tried to argue he warned me that no stranger entered his church because there were lots of thieves running loose. The sacristan of Yanque, on the other hand, slyer and more irrefutable, got rid of me by saying, 1 never open the church when I'm drunk." (He was.) The villages seem to be very near each other, but that is not true. It is an illusion caused by the purity of the atmosphere which shortens distances and clearly sets off men and things. The sensation this causes to one coming from the coast

where the fogs and mists give the the landscape a phantom look, is truly magical. Nature is a continual presence here, closer and more luculent. Viscachas, partridges and an occasional deer cross the paths between the villages, and bands of parrots chatter in the eucaliptus trees. As one descends, the valley narrows until at three thousand meters of altitude it becomes the Colca Canyon. This is the main dish of the excursion, the dramatic moment. From a little rocky point which opens onto the void, one sees the river a thousand meters below between double rock walls, leaping and writhing over obstacles as it rushes to meet the Majes with which it will flow on to finally disappear in the coastal sands. The spectacle is really impressive. And to make it perfect, a condor soars through the sky above the roaring precipice -a black spot beneath the shining sun- looking for carrion. Another marvel of the Colca is Mother Antonia. She lives with two other "gringuitas" like herself -Mother Mariella and Mother Rosemarie- in what was the sacristy of the church of Yanque, some rooms of glacial stone which the three little Maryknoll nuns warm with their kindness and good humor. Mother Mariella is a doctor and the other two sometimes work as nurses. They also act as teachers and social assistants. But really they are peasants who live on what they can produce on their piece of land which lies next to the church. It is enough to see their hands and feet to realize how rough it is to work the land under the conditions prevailing in the Colca, and to understand to what extent these women have become integrated into the society in which they live. Once a month they publish a mimeographed bulletin with church news, sanitary and agricultural information and information for artisans, which they sell for ten soles" (a Peruvian coin), Mother Antonia has been in Yanque for 12 years. She learned Quechua here. Before, she lived five years among the peasants of Puno who taught her Aymara. And before that she lived another five among the poor of Lima, with whom she perfected her Spanish. What winds brought this New Yorker from the Bronx to Peru? Good winds, there is no doubt. To speak with her, to listen to her relate anecdotes, is pure delight. As there are no police in Yanque it sometimes falls on Mother Antonia to fill the roll and, for example, confront the bandits of the village. They are three brothers: rustlers, bullies and rapists. The bravest of the three struck her, while the other two threatened to kill her. it doesn't seem to have frightened her, since she laughs while she tells it. Her Spanish is full of bucolic "r's" and "s's" and she pronounces the double "I" as only we from Arequipa can. THE GEOMORPHOLOGY OF THE COLCA CANYON

by Alberto Parodi The whole length and breadth of the Colca Canyon is an open book in whose pages -the outcropping rocks eroded through thousands of centuries- we can read the history of the earth in this part of the American continent. An examination of the slopes of the Colca River, including its lower section in the south-west (which becomes the Majes River, and later as it flows into the sea the Caman River, which makes a total of approximately 400 km from the source in a 4,500 m mountain range to its outlet into the Pacific Ocean), gives evidence of geological formations existing since the most ancient eras (gneis, prePaleozoic), to the most recent (Quaternary lava flows and recent aluvial and eluvial products). To here explore this fascinating subject in detail is beyond our purpose. It will be sufficient to present a summary which will be more accessible to lovers of nature everywhere, and especially to those who have the opportunity to tour the region which the impressive and spectacular Colca - Majes - Carnana system cuts through. Geography The development of the Colca's riverbed, from its birthplace in the heights of Imata (4,400 m above sea level) located in the area of Lake Jayuchaca or Indio is capricious. The Southern Railway runs through precisely this area and one can see from the train the plateau which divides the valley cut by the river from the valley which runs toward Lake Titicaca, including the two beautiful lacustrion mirrors of Lagunillas and Saracocha. In this area rise the headwaters of the Colca, formed by a fan of tributaries which spread in an arc for more than 60 km over the mountain range. At the height of Casero Palca (4,445 m) the Colca meets the waters of the Blanquillo, whose northern branch comes down from the heights of Antaa (4,700 in) and whose eastern branch, the Blanco Soracota River, flows from the heights of Sartoco (4,615 m). The main headwaters of the Colca are known as the Chilamayo River, but it gathers various tributaries which come down from the mountains Laurac Mocco (4,708 m), Saruma (4,675 m) and Llunco (4,540 m). Two streams are born in the vicinity of the railroad station of Crucero Alto (4,420 m), and farther to the south other branches flow down from the heights of Soracancha, Irachoqui (4,600 m) and Antajahua (4,780 m). It is probably here that we find the most remote branch of the Chilamayo, and thus the true beginning of the Colca River. From this point the stream flows to the north-east

in a wide channel with quiet waters for approximately 70 km, arriving near Huinco (3,950 m). Here it changes direction abruptly and flows toward the south to Callalli (3,867 m). By this time, with the river now at 3,800 m and at 3 km from the village, it has covered another 25 km. With a great curve of 25 km the river begins to close itself into a ravine from 30 to 50 m deep, in which it passes by Tuti (3,790 m), flowing out at Chivay at a height of 3,600 m (the village is at 3,663 m). It is near this spot, and from the right, that the river receives the tributaries Chalhuanca and Llapa, which flow down from the snowy peaks of Mismi (5,500 m), on whose northern slopes are born the streams which feed the Apurmac Amazon system, and which reach the Atlantic Ocean after a journey of 6,762 km. To this point the riverbed has a variable inclination of 10 km. In Chivay it changes direction again with a right angle and flows from cast to west, beginning the excavation which will turn its channel into a deep canyon. Continuing in this direction it meets the torrent which comes down from Choco; the confluence occurs at 1,850 m and the village is at 2,468 m; the distance between them is 4 km. This 90 km stretch, with the channel at an incline of up to 150 m/km, rich in falls and rapids, is one of the most picturesque. The impressive spectacle of the canyon, with a depth of a thousand meters from the lookout point of Cruz del Cndor (if we consider the peaks which rise above the terraces, here extensive, the depth is 3,400 m) adds to the gorgeous view of the wide, beautiful terraces in the upper part of the ravine, terraces hardly undulated, where many villages were built on both sides of the river in the colonial era. The terraces are of pluvial - lacustrian origen and were abandoned by the river because of its channeling subsequent to the orogenic elevation of the Andes Mountain Range during the last geological eras: the Tertiary or Cenozoic and the Quaternary or Neozoic. These terraces have been ingeniously taken advantage of for cultivation terraces, surprising in their perfection, although they are also a cause for concern due to the many rock slides toward the channel of the river resulting from the irrigation of the little farms. After the waters of the Choco join the Colca, the river takes a south-southwest direction, still deep within its canyon walls, with gradients between 40 and 70 m./km, and passes the village of Huambo at a distance. The village lies on a terrace to the left of the river at an altitude of 3,332 m, while the bed of the river is at 1,490 m; the distance between them is 15 km. Farther on, in the Valley of the Volcanos, the Colca receives the waters of the river Andagua, or Mamacocha, which is important during the dry periods as a natural regulation of the water level of the lake of the same name which lies a few kilometers from the confluence. At 1,405 m the Ayo River flows into the Colca, which now enters a long geological fault (which will be described below). Between Choco and the brusque, double change of direction at 1,038 m near Andamayo, which is at 926

m, stretch some 50 km of riverbed. There are about 15 km between the angles of the direction change and the incline is approximately 29 m/km. At Andamayo the river takes a decidedly southern direction and the walls of the canyon gently separate toward the Hacienda Per (725 m), with inclines of 10 m/km, to finally open out into the wide and intensively cultivated Majes Valley. There are various settlements in this valley of vinyards and orchards, and two important centers: Aplao (650 m) and Corire. The famous huge stone blocks of Toro Muerto are found near Corire, on the right bank, spread out in an amazingly wide area. Full of fascinating prehistoric carvings, they exert a powerful attraction on archeologists and tourists alike. There are about 7 km of channel from Andamayo to the beginning of the Hacienda Peril. From this point to the spur of coastal batholith where we find the Jaraba Hacienda at 208 m, and where the river again digs into a deep canyon when it finds itself obliged to take a wide curve to the right, spread some 55 km more along the fruitful Majes Valley. Crossing the batholith littoral, to finally flow out into the sea at the beaches of Caman adds another 48 km of journey to the Colca, which makes a total of some 400 km of length for the complete Colca-Majes-Caman system. Peaherrera, in his General Geography of Per Volume 1, 1969, attributes some 450 km to the length of the river. This is the probable length of the total channel if we take into account the many curves and the longest branch, not accurately measured, from its birth at the foot of the peak of Antajahua. Morphology of the canyon In the foregoing section we have seen that the Colca descends from 4,500 m of altitude to 0 m at Caman in a journey of approximately 450 km. This is a striking difference in elevation, remarkably exaggerated as far as Andamayo, which has been the cause of the deep erosive action of the waters between this spot and the tributary streams higher up, that is to say to the east of the north west/south-east alignment of the long chain of giant volcanos, represented here by Coropuna (6,425 m) on the right of the Colca and Ampato (6,300 m) on the left. In reality this river, as the other great rivers to the north and south, crosses in its journey three well defined types of morphology. We are referring to three parallel belts which run from north-west to south-east: that of the occidental watershed of the Andes Range, with its rosary of great volcanos; that of the costal deserts, arid pampas which are the northern projection of the Atacama

Desert (Bowman); and that of the hills of the cristalline costal massif, as the projection of the Paracas Peninsula. The formation of the canyon in the area of the great volcanos on the occidental watershed of the Andes is extraordinary, with characteristics which allow us to determine that we are confronting one of the deepest on the earth. The bed of the Colca lies between the canyon walls at an altitude of 1,380 m, so that between the average altitude of the surrounding volcanic peaks (6,362 m) and the channel there is a real difference in elevation of 4,982 m. We are inevitably struck with the magnitude of the Colca Canyon in comparison with any other in any part of the world. The channeling of all the rivers which flow down from the Andes to the Pacific Ocean, such as those which descend to the Amazon valley, are characterized by canyons. In order to explain this geomorphologic phenomenon it is necessary to make a brief orogenic summary starting with the Cretaceous period (upper Mesozoic, 70 million years ago) when the first Andean elevation occurred, known as the Peruvian Folding (Steinmann), with which the marine stage of the geological development of the continent ended. This great orogenic movement was followed by abundant lava flows which spilled over the occidental watershed of the southern range, forming a massive platform on which long after (at the end of the Tertiary) the great volcanoes which extend from Sara-Sara (5,800 m) at 15 degrees southern latitude to Tierra del Fuego, south of Chile, began to grow. Almost at the same time that these flows were produced, intrusions of igneous rock (crystalline) occurred which, after a long process of atmospheric erosion, were exposed to the light of day forming the extraordinary ranges of Huaraz, with the peak of Huascaran (6,768 m); of Vilcabamba, with Salcantay (6,360 m); of Urubamba with Ausangate (6,248 m), and others. In the Oligocene (middle Tertiary, 35 million years ago) the true emersion of the Continental Range occurred with a series of phenomena which produced an elevation between 1000 and 2000 meters above sea level, giving rise to new foldings in the sedimentary strata. This orogeny has been named the Incan Folding Steinmann. At the end of the Tertiary (the Miocene and Pliocene) between 2 and 30 million years ago, new eruptions were produced which caused a great accumulation of volcanic layers. New crystalline intrusions also occurred which were the origin of the coastal batholiths, such as that of Caldera near the city of Arequipa (on the road to Mollendo).

Tangential thrusts, especially in the Pliocene (upper Tertiary, 15 million years ago), known as the Quichuano Folding (Steinmann), brought the range to the altitude we know today. Between the Pliocene and the Pleistocene (Quaternary, 2 million years ago) volcanic activity began again and gave birth to the great masses which adorn the southern territory like a rosary, and among which we find Coropuna and Ampato. We can see from this rough outline that due to the vertical and tangential east west thrusts which the whole region underwent (according to the theory of Plate Tectonics widely accepted in recent years) the range rose in stages with great intervals of time (millions of years) between each movement. It is thus that we can explain the powerful erosive effect of the waters which flowed down from the glaciers and the different glaciations which occurred on the peaks of the range millions of years ago, and also that of the flooding rains of today, which, with their repeating cycles, give us cause for concern at the damage they cause. Evidence for the rises which were produced during the process of the emergence of the range can be found in the pluvial - lacustrian terraces which have been left at a higher altitude than the present river bed. A tourist traveling through the valley can discover it for himself in the wide, intensively cultivated terraces in the area of Chivay and Cabanaconde on both sides of the canyon, and even at Huambo and beyond, in the same way we can explain the elevation of the marine beaches which have been formed into terraces at the ocean on the occidental slopes of the continent at Caman and especially at Chala where one can count as many as four terraces. Farther north, in the bay of San Juan, as many as seven can be observed. We can also thus explain the scarp of the Matarani headlands, which are 50 m high and where the abrupt break between the level of the base and todays sea level can easily be observed. It is also easy to observe the effects of the erosive action of the glaciers of past times which have modeled the landscape of the high, bleak region of the range, from 4,000 m of altitude, leaving more or less gentle ridges the length and breadth of the area covered by the different tributaries which flow together to feed the river basin. it is surprising that we do not find more traces of glacial deposits. But these are scarce, since the erosion of the steep slopes has caused them to be carried down the valley to the sea, or at least as far as the great trough of the Majes Valley. In short, the break with the base level due to the repeated elevations of the Andes (in terms of geological time) is responsible for the cutting of the deep canyons by

the rivers and the formation of the terraces on both sides of the range. This is the origin of the impressive canyons which so strongly attract tourists to this area from all over the world. Geological history We will complete this picture of the region watered by the Colca-Majes-Caman basin with some references to the geological history of' the tellural outcroppings which make up the formations found along the length of the system. In order to do this we must come up from the oldest rocks (Precambrian gneis) which are to be found at the end of the cultivated Majes Valley, to those which are most recent, found on the volcanic peaks and in the aluvial remains along the length and breadth of the river basin. We are dealing with a geomorphological accident, a vertical cut in the crust of the earth caused by erosion which has reached a depth of more than 4,000 meters. This has left uncovered lithologic sequences which were formed in the very distant past. From its birth place in the snowy heights to the river's mouth at the Pacific, and along both flanks, we can distinguish rock strata distributed in succession: the oldest at the bottom, the later above them and the most recent on top, flush with the soil. There are, however, some places where the tectonic compression has so convulsed the layers that they appear in the reverse order. But this is not the case in the Colca basin. We also find intrusions of magma derived from crystalline rocks in the form of batholiths and dikes which cut across the pre-existing formations. The stratographic sequence turns out to be an open book to the observer who can read the history of the earth, starting with the oldest formations, which are found in the cut the Majes River has made in the zone of the coastal range before pouring out into the wide valley of Caman Various pages are missing from this book, namely those which were either not deposited, or were removed because of their exposure to the forces of erosion. Thus we can say that from the whole Paleozoic (Primary) era four periods are missing: the Cambrian, the Silurian, the Carboniferous and the Permian. In the Mezozoic (Secondary) we lack the Triassic period. In the Cenozoic (Tertiary) era, on the other hand, probably all the epochs are represented, between sedimentary and volcanic, from the Eocene to the Pliocene. And even more evident are the strata from the Neozoic (Quaternary). Notwithstanding the fact that some of the pages are missing from this geological history, it is worthy of constant revision, as we shall see from this brief sketch.

The aforementioned cut in the coastal massif is a deep canyon 40 km long. in it rocks outcrop from the basal complex of the coast which date from the Precambrian era (more than 500 million years ago). In reality it is an example of the primitive crystalline base of the earth's crust. We are speaking of what is paragneis for some authors and orthogneis for others, since it is in transitional contact with the red granite of San Gregorio (at the mouth of the canyon). These outcroppings are covered by thin layers of calcareous and sandy material which, thanks to the presence of marine fossils, have recently been assigned to the Paleozoic (lower Devonian, Majes formation, more or less 280 million years ago). A notable layer of Tertiary erosion covers this outcropping (calculated at 1,000 m of thickness) with sediments from the Caman at the ocean and toward the Majes Valley. There, subhorizontal layers of the Moquegua formation (Tertiary, between 2 and 50 million years ago) cover outcroppings of the Mesozoic (lower Creataceous, more or less 80 million years ago). On both sides of the steep slopes along the Majes Valley we find beautiful subvertical stratifications covered by Tertiary deposits in clear and surprising angular discordance. Already in the plateau region thick volcanic layers appear which cover all the underlying formations. Especially evident are basalts and andesites (Barroso formation) so old that they are considered igneous (Sencia formation) because of the metamorphic process they have suffered. The megaliths spilled from the heights toward the valley provided the ancient aborigines with surfaces for carving the amazing petroglyphs of Toro Muerto near Corire. The tirany of space does not permit us to deal with our subject more extensively. Briefly, coming up from the Majes Valley and entering the narrows of the Colca Canyon proper, we find sandstones, limestones, slates and quartzites alternating in the almost vertical scarps, which belong to the Jurasic and Cretaceous. We see here strata of anticlinal and sinclinal folds. Everything is covered with thick volcanic layers which terminate in the two giants Coropuna and Ampato. At the base of the first the stratigraphic sequence (the Ayo slopes) is so ample as to include the succession of layers so well studied in the surroundings of Arequipa and placed in historical geological time to serve as a guide in determining all the outcroppings in the southern territory. This sequence in^ cludes almost all of the Jurassic (the Yura formation, sandstones and quartzites) and part of the Cretaceous (Arcurquina limestone). On the scarp of the fault at Ayo we find Jurassic and Cretaceous quartzites covered with volcanic rocks which we encounter again before arriving at the Achoma zone, already in the high canyon. Rocks of sedimentary origin give way to thick volcanic covers, often noted in this region which was the dominion of the Pleistocene glaciers. They were widely studied when research was done for the project of harnessing the waters

of the Colca for the production of electrical energy and for the irrigation of the pampas of Siguas and Majes. As a result, in the Condorma basin (at an altitude of 4,000 m) the volcanic formations of the two rugged hills of Allusaya and Acuitanca, which were formed by massive transandean spills, serve as support for the dam already constructed which will store 300 million cubic meters of water. The volcanic outcroppings include almost all the Pliocene (Tertiary) and the Pleistocene (Quaternary), until recent times. Nonetheless, along the dividing line of the range, between the Colca and Callalli, at an altitude of 4,600 m we find outcroppings of quartzites of the Yura formation and Arcurquina limestones Jurassic and Cretaceous) which give evidence of the amazing orogenic thrusts which carried to such an elevation these ancient sedimentary formations. The materials carried by erosion and left as deposites on the plains with less than 20' of inclination belong to the recent Quaternary (Holocene). A classic example is the Majes Valley which turns out to be an aluvial deposit of great magnitude. Thanks to the patient and sacrificing labor of many generations of farmers, splendid fields, richly cultivated and crossed by irrigation ditches bordered by willows and other trees, which give freshness and pleasant shade to the inhabitants, have been developed. In rough strokes this is the geomorphological panorama unveiled by the erosion of the torrential Colca during many millennia as it agressively flows down from the immaculate heights of the distant peaks, at nearly 5,000 m of altitude, to the solemn Pacific Ocean, on its journey of nearly 450 km, The entire region is a delight to the eve, and thus to the most demanding spirit. This is due to the impressive formations and the rocky masses which are found all over the region, from the heights to the valleys, such as the majestic volcanic structures of Coropuna and Ampato, separated by a deep gorge which reaches nearly to the entrails of the earth; and to their shaded slopes, thousands of meters wide, which are reached only by the noonday sun. And it is due as well to the peaceful fields suspended on the bucolic terraces on either side of the river; to the huge rocks which seem like enchanted castles, such as that of The Pulpera (Condorma) and The Castle (Ongoro); to the caves full of the remains of the Paleolithic inhabitants, such as those of Collpa and Mollepunku; and to arqueological remains such as those of Maucallacta. And in this compendium of so many impressive visions we must remember the wide and fertile Majes Valley, with its rich orchards, rice paddies and cotton fields, its delicious wines and liqueurs. Nor can we forget the celebrated petroglyphs of Toro Muerto and their mysterious symbols which some have seen as the products of extraterrestial life.

In conclusion, we do not feel we have dealt in too much detail with the geornorphological panorama of a region of Per so complex and interesting, but rather that we have erred in the other direction in having to omit many details, for which the specialist must forgive us. CONDOR COUNTRY The condor, giant among birds of flight and mythological symbol of the most ancient Andean civilizations, is the most important figure, indeed, the lord and master of the Colca Canyon. The condor has absolute dominion over the imposing canyon. In spite of its large size, a weight of 10 or 12 kilos and a wing span of from 2.80 to 3.25 rn, the condor has managed to achieve an amazing efficiency of flight, which allows it, almost without moving its wings, to travel over long distances at great altitudes. It feeds on dead animals, that is to say, it's a carrion eater, and it can not grasp or transport its prey due to not having adequate claws such as the eagle or sparrow hawk has. It nests on steep inaccessible rocks, laying one or two eggs of 11 cm long by 7 cm wide, which must be incubated for more than two months. it feeds its young by regurgitation. The plumage of young condors is a dun brown color which changes to black when they are approximately eight years old. As adults, they have the characteristic white collar and also white markings on the wings. Only the male has the fleshy crest. In captivity condors have been known to live as long as fifty years. The condor has an extremely important significance to the South American people, as can be seen from the abundant mythological representations which date from pre-Incan times, as well as from the national symbols on the coats of arms of Chile, Bolivia, Ecuador and Colombia. Nonetheless, curiously enough, very little is actually known of this giant of the air. There is no existing population study and many of the birds' habits are still unknown. Although the bird is found in almost all parts of the Andes, even on the coast, there are few places like the Colca where its presence is continual and where one can observe it in flight from a short distance. The structure of the canyon provides observation points where the bird can be viewed from above and the plumage of its wings and flanks observed. Given its importance to the condor, the canyon has been made a national sanctuary for the conservation and protection of these amazing birds.

The canyon is an impressive rift which runs for 100 km between huge walls which average 3,400 m high. The slopes are very ronounced, almost vertical. At the beginning of the canyon the walls drop from the 5,200 m of the Chila Range on the right to the river at 3,000 m. Farther downstream, after a journey of 100 km, at the confluence with the Arndamayo River where the Majes Valley is formed, they are 900 m. high. Given the steep gradient of the canyon walls and the scarce rainfall, the area is practically desert. Nonetheless, in some more protected, humid ravines, we find examples of all the ecological niches, from the snow zone to little oases of tropical climate with abundant vegetation and fruit production, such as at Tapay. A cactus called the "tuna" is native to the region, and very abundant, as are other cacti. There are some small roads, more properly horse trails, which allow one to get down to the river and travel through the canyon, and a few bridges which permit one to reach some of the small villages which lie along the length of the canyon, such as Tapay, Cosnihua, Malata and Llatica. The only road goes to the villages of Cabanaconde and Huambo, located on the left of the river. Today there is a bridge which connects Cabanaconde with Tapay, and downstream from Cabanaconde one to Llatica, and another between Ajpi and Choco. Valley of the Volcanos This is a spectacle which belongs to the prehistoric epochs when the planet was still in the throes of formation. This truly lunar landscape is located to the East and perpendicular to the Colca. The river Andagua runs through the Valley of the Volcanos, from north to south, to the east of the massive volcano of Coropuna, for a distance of 80 km. This valley is itself a deep open fault, which extends to the area of Huambo and which the Colca later cuts through perpendicularly. The floor of this open fault, which now appears like a valley, is filled with abundant flows of basaltic lava, spread in various layers. Curiously enough the river runs underground for 17 km, covered by a lava flow, from Chachas Lake to Mamacocha Lake. The river of the same name as the latter is an important tributary to the Colca. These lava flows originated in multiple eruptions of small volcanos (80 according to Hoempler) which burst up like bubbles rising from gasses given off by the lava itself, or as byproducts from other eruptions direct from the magmatic furnaces.

The highest of the volcanos of Andagua is Pucamauras, which rises 350 m above the valley floor. There are others from 50 to 70 m high, and smaller ones from 15 to 20 m, such as Chilcayoc. These little volcanos of Andagua represent one of the most recent events in the geological history of the volcanic formations in the south of Peru. They date from the Quaternary, some 200 thousand years ago, to as recently as historical time. The Valley of the Volcanos, which must be considered as a huge geological fault, has its continuity brusquely interrupted by the tectonic fault in which the Colca River flows in its descending course. Thus the floor of the valley on the Andagua side is between 500 and 800 m lower than the floor on the Huambo side. It is evident that this rise is due to the fault in this sector, and in a later phase, to the fault of the Valley of the Volcanos itself. Geological data such as these give convincing evidence of the existence of breaks of great magnitude in the earth's crust, even to those observers who are unschooled in geology. These observations can be easily made from the village of Ayo (1,956 m; the river bed is at 1,405 m), which is situated at the end of the Valley of the Volcanos and almost on the Colca River. Logically, the plain in the fault has suffered extensive erosion and now seems to be somewhat inclined and almost rounded. The difference in the elevations of the two sides of the river is evident, but the direction of the movement produced by the fault is not easy to establish, according to Doctor Alberto Parodi. Strange flora flourish in the little spots free from lava and rich in volcanic ash. Cactus is the dominant vegetation, especially the giant saguaros and there are some isolated examples of Chachacoma and puma rosa, which are medicinal and widely used by the inhabitants of this region. Small agricultural areas exist between the volcanos where potatoes, corn and wheat are cultivated, solely for the subsistence of the inhabitants. The village of Andagua, at 3,600 m above sea level, was important during the colonial period. The mine of Orcopampa, 40 km from Andagua, still functions today. The fauna is that characteristic of Andean tableland 3,800 m above sea level. The Colca sky

Being at almost 4,000 m of altitude means there are 4 km of atmosphere less above one's head. obviously, this phenomenon is important for the observation of the firmament. if to this we add an atmosphere totally free of pollution, and without reflections from electric lights shining from cities and towns, we find that here one can enjoy excellent conditions for astronomic observation, especially from April to November when the skies are completely clear. Ancient tradition tells us of the existence of a diaphonous belt of atmosphere between Tiahuanacu and Nazca. We attribute the knowledge and interest in astronomy which the cultures of this area share to the especially propitious conditions of the zone. Curiously enough, the mid-point between Tiahuanacu and Nazca is the Colca Canyon. The view of the heavens from this point could not be better. For this reason it attracts devotees to astronomy who wish to know the southern hemisphere. They come to see the magallanic clouds, the Southern Cross, Carina and the biggest and most brilliant stars which can be seen from our planet, Sirius and Canopus, among other spectacular sights. If the presence of Halley's Comet in March and April of 1986 was a somewhat disappointing spectacle, it was easily seen from the Colca. Visitors were satisfied simply by the impressive spectacle of the sky as seen from the Colca Valley. WHERE THE VICUA LIVES by Mauricio de Romaa At four thousand meters above sea level, in the Andes Mountain Range, lies the habitat of the vicuna. And it is especially the region around the Colca that this little animal has chosen as its preferred home to live and reproduce. The scenery is spectacular, with great plains surrounded by imposing volcanos such as Ampato, which is 6,310 m high, accompanied by Sabancaya (5,976 m) and Hualca Hualca (6,025 m) and Huarancante and Chucura which are more than 5,200 meters. The road of Arequipa passes at their feet on its way to Chivay, at the base of an enormous crater. The vicua is the animal species which produces the finest natural fiber in existence (", a characteristic which permits the manufacture of extremely light, incredibly soft, very warm and comfortable clothing. As it has not been possible to domesticate this animal and the fiber is so highly valued, it was on the point of extinction in the decade of the 60's, due to indiscriminate hunting.

The vicua family group, which roams in scattered herds, is made up of one male and from four to six females. These groups are territorial. The female has a gestation period of eleven, months and gives birth to one offspring. The bachelor males, on the other hand, are wanderers, and sometimes gather in herds of from 40 to 50 heads. The vicua does not live alone on the heights, but is surrounded by a singular landscape, a striking geography, vegetation suitable to the altitude and climatic conditions of the region, and other species of animals, birds and fish. The guardian volcanos of the city of Arequipa are Chachani (6.075 m) (which shows the remains of 5 craters; Misti (5.825 m), famous for its elevation and its beautiful conical silouette, with two crowns on its crater; and Pichu Pichu (5.664 m). At the extreme south-west, at the end of Salinas Lake, rises Ubinas (5.672 m), the volcano which exhibits the greatest show of smoke, and sometimes pyroclastics, in Peru. Misti and Sabancaya are also sometimes active to this extent. There are some lakes and rivers in the area, among which stands out Salinas Lake, at 4,300 m of altitude. It is very extensive and its shallow waters are very saline. Its waterlevel fluctuates with the seasons and in winter, the dry period, it becomes totally dry, at which time the natives extract common salt, chloride and sodium borate. In summer, when the waters of the lake shine again, it is impressive to see the number of parihuanas or flamingos which gather there. There are possibly more than thirty thousand. Three species which are present are of great importance to ornithologists: the Andean, the Chilean and the James flamingo. There are also some ducks and other birds such as the Andean avocet and plovers. In Indio Lake, lying near the origin of the Colca, and with characteristics quite different from Salinas, we find a great variety of aquatic birds, among which stand out the Giant Coot and the Andean goose. There are two important rivers in this area: the Sumbay and the Blanco Rivers, which form the Chili River. Two great dams have been constructed across these rivers to regulate the irrigation of the Arequipa valley. They have formed the two reservoirs Frayle and Aguada Blanca. These are excellent places for trout fishing. This fish has been introduced with great success due to its great powers of adaptation. Climate and vegetation

Great fluctuations in temperature are characteristic of zones at this altitude. At dawn in winter (June to August)' the temperature drops to as much as 20 or 22 degrees below zero (Celsius) in the shade. The sun's rays are very hot and drying (30 to 40). Summer (January to March) is the rainy season with approximately 400 mm of annual rainfall. Temperatures vary less and are higher. The average low is 2 or 3 degrees below zero, with maximum temperatures of from 16 to 18 degrees at midday. Given these climatic conditions at from 3,800 to 4,000 meters above sea level, the characteristic plants are the tola and the ichu. They form a microclimate which makes possible the development of other grassy and leguminous plants, which in turn form the sustenance of the camelidae and other animals. Partridges are generally associated with this type of vegetation, such as the "llutu", the "pisaca" and the "kivio" which lives in the highest zones. The tola is a dwarf bush which is used for fuel and which has been cut so extensively in some places that it is causing the formation of real deserts. It also has medicinal uses. Father Bernabe Cobo (1582-1657), a priest who studied nature avidly, tells us about the tola: "It is hot and somewhat styptic, very sticky. It has the virtues of joining and holding. Thus a bath of it made with urine and salt removes tumors from the legs of the gouty. Its leaves and green hearts, when wet and applied to bloody wounds, join and dry them. Powdered and mixed with egg whites and salt, it is useful for joining broken bones." The "ichu" or mountain straw, with its hard prickly leaves, is used for the roofs of houses. At higher altitudes, more than 4,300 m, the vegetation is small and close to the soil. In humid places small compact plants appear which are cushioned against the soil with an end to keeping them warm and protecting them from the strong frosts. During the day heat from the intense rays of the sun accumulates in the soil. This heat is transferred to the plants during the night and prevents the sap from freezing which would kill the plant. In this type of pasturage, generously watered by abundant streams, it is common to find Andean geese and some types of ducks. The vegetation on the slopes of the high mountains or on the rocky plains, above 4,500 m, is characterized by the "yareta", a very primitive plant which grows very slowly. It belongs to the umbelliferous family and is of high caloric power (more than 5,000 calories). It is believed that a Spaniard in Potos was the first to use the yareta as fuel, since the indians had no knowledge of this property. At the beginning of railroad communication between Arica and La Paz it was used as

the source of energy in the locomotives, and on an even lesser scale between Arequipa and Puno. Today its use is prohibited in an effort to protect it. Its medicinal properties were known and its resine was used in the form of plasters in cases of pneumonia, rheumatism and the treatment of wounds. Father Bernab Cobo describes the yareta thus: "It is a plant so shrub-like that it seems neither bush nor tree, though it burns and serves as wood. Nor does it seem to belong with the genera of grasses, because it is only a green spot which is born on the bleak upper regions in the cold lands. It is round and some are as big as a millstone." On some slopes, those between 3,500 and 4,200 m, trees grow which are called "queoa" and "koller" or "quishuar". Their biological association with other vegetal species, large and small mammals, birds, reptiles and insects is one of the richest in the Andes. Forests which were easily accessible to the settlers of the city of Arequipa have been practically destroyed, since they were indiscriminately cut to supply the needs for wood and charcoal. This is the case on the slopes of Misti, Chachani and Pichu-Pichu. Fortunately some virgin forests still exist in spots which are difficult to reach. The camelidae Having described the geographic environment and briefly sketched the vegetation existing on the heights and some of the animal species, we can now say that the most important inhabitants and users of these pastures in the high Andes are the South American camelidae. Two of the species are wild, the vicuna and the guanaco, which both live in Peru and are in danger of extinction. The other two, the llama and the alpaca, have been domesticated since before the Incas. These camelidae, which have a common origin with the came ls, have special characteristics which allow them to take advantage of these little pastures. Their incisive teeth grow permanently and are continually worn away as they browse along the ground ingesting nourishment. They also have a light step because their hooves are cushioned at the base and protected by a horny material. Since the vegetation is scarce and very cellulosic, the camelidae are capable of a high level of nutritional conversion which allows them to transform herbage unfit for other species (such as the bovines) into food adequate for themselves. They can survive many days without water.

In the decade of the 60's there were thought to be no more than 10 thousand vicunas in all Peru, Bolivia, Chile and Argentina. This necessitated a program of conservation in order to save the species from extinction. In order to fill this need the National Reserve of Pampa Galeras was established in Nazca. Later, after intense efforts by a conservation group of Arequipa (PRODENA) a second reserve was created, the National Reserve of Salinas and Aguada Blanca. Similar conservation units were created in Bolivia, Chile and Argentina. Today, a population of more than 100 thousand vicunas is thought to exist, with 80 of the population in Peru. In the area of the National Reserve of Salinas and Aguada Blanca the estimated population is 4,000 vicunas and some 300 guanacos. The latter species was thought to be extinct in this area, with only a very small population remaining in Peru. The presence of the taruka or Andean deer is also important in this zone. This species is also widely hunted and on the way to extinction. They inhabit rocky zones of difficult access. It is easier to observe examples of the vizcacha, a rather large rodent which is well camouflaged to blend with the rocky habitat where it lives. Among the flora and fauna briefly described, the figure of the vicuna stands out sharply as the queen and first lady of these great heights. Efforts to preserve the species are destined to save it from the thoughtless destruction of overzealous hunters who appreciate the quality of its fiber for commercial ends without thinking of the possible extinction of an animal species of rich and rare qualities. (1) The diameter of vicua fiber is 10 microns whereas that of sheep is over 30. (2) North American is the place of origin. During the Pliocene the South American camelidae moved to the Andes and the dromedary and camel moved to Asia and Africa, all species disappearing from North America. There is no better source of information about the Collaguas than Dr. Alejandro Mlaga Medina, the Arequipan historian who has dedicated many years to historical research about the Colca. In his book The Valley of the Colca Dr. Mlaga tells us, "The province of Collaguas was made up of two ethnic groups, both of long historical tradition: the Cabanas and the Collaguas. They can be differentiated by their customs, clothing, and especially by their language." In his account of 1586 Ulloa y Mogollon writes: "The Collaguan ethnic group can be considered to have originated from the frontier zone between Collagua and Vellilli, where there is a worship place marked by a snow covered peak from which these people are said to have come at a very early time in the world's

history. The peak is called COLLAGUATA. When they arrived in the region which is today called Collaguas they confronted the natives of the area, conquered them and established themselves as permanent settlers." This legend clearly shows that some of the tribes originated from the high plateau and that water played an important part in their agricultural activities and their survival. The Collaguas normally deformed their heads in a high elongated form by means of splints which they attached to the new born infants. This differentiated them from the Cabanas who also deformed their heads, but in another form. It is possible that this practice was due to the influence of the Lupaca, an ethnic group which inhabited the high plateau and had their capital at Chucuito. According to Ulloa y Mogolln, the Collaguas spoke the Aymara language, which they considered their own, although certain small villages such as Pinchollo, Coln and Tapay spoke different dialects of it. For this reason some authorities consider the Collaguas to have originated from Collao. The territory occupied by the Collaguas comprises the high central part of the Colca valley. There were two principal centers, the seat of political power and the residence of the principal rulers. The most important was Yanque, on the right bank of the Colca. It was made up of two districts or settlements called "Hanansaya" and "Hurinsaya" and governed by their respective "Yanques" or rulers. The second in importance was Lari Collaguas or Recollaguas, also set on the right bank of the Colca, divided into two districts and governed by the "Lares". The other ethnic group was the Cabanas, said to have come from the snowy covered peak called Gualca-Gualca, which rises in front of the town of Cabana. When the Cabanas came down from the mountain they went in two directions, one group toward Cabana-Colla and the other toward Cabana-Conde. The Cabanas also practiced craneal deformation, theirs of an oblique tabular form, that is to say, wide and flat. The people of this ethnic group could be easily recognized by this head deformation. The Cabanas spoke Quechua or Runa-Simi with certain regional characteristics. Their capital, Cabana, was the residence of their principal rulers, and divided, the same as the other towns, into two districts called "Hanansaya" and "Hurinsaya". It is believed that these ethnic groups developed during the intermediary period of the central Andes between 1470 and 1200 B.C. when regional states arose due to the decadence of the Huari culture.

Agriculture was the basis of the Collaguan economy in prehispanic times. This explains the presence of a great number of terraces which still remain in use today. The system of distributing water by means of canals clearly demonstrates the high level of hydraulic engineering they achieved. The agricultural economy was complemented by raising llamas and alpacas which were grazed on the natural fodder found in abundance in the region. Textile manufacture was another important activity in the economy of the Collaguas. The fiber of the llama and the alpaca was used to weave their clothing, such as ponchos, "pillas", a kind of belt, "llicllas", a kind of vest, shirts and other objects which they exchanged by means of barter with villages from the lower regions. The cloth was of beautiful bright colors since they used cochineal and other vegetable and mineral substances as dyes. As far as ceramics are concerned, we find them closely related to the Chuquibamba series, possibly contemporary with the Tiahuanacoid styles and, without doubt, immediately before the Inca style and contemporary to the historical imperial period. The eight pointed star can be cited as the distinctive decoration of Collaguan ceramics. Other geometric motifs represented are squares, circles with points at the center, bands with undulating lines at the center and broken parallel lines, squares forming crosses and circular stars with rays and points at the center. Evidence from ceramic and architectural remains of the Collaguas in the prehispanic period demonstrates population concentrations of great density, especially in the Colca basin. Thus specialists who consider the large residencial centers as permanent settlements would seem to be right, rather than those of the recent authorities who have suggested that they were floating populations. It was possibly in the middle of the 15th century that the great political expansion of the Incas began, with the Inca Pachactec. Thus the Royal Clan "Mayta Cpac", which included the descendents of the Inca of the same name, received the task from the Emperor Tpac Inca Yupanqui of conquering the Collasuyo region. As a result of this one of the generals of the Royal Clan "Mayta Cpac" arrived in the region of the Collaguas and established dominion in the village of Coporaque where he contracted matrimony with the "nusta" Mama Yacchi. In Coporaque he set up the principal ruling center and had a palace of copper built. it was destroyed by Gonzalo Pizarro in 1548 in order to make harness parts for his cavalry. The left overs were used by Friar Gregorio de Ore in the casting of the bells which still exist in the church tower of that village.

From Coporaque the general of the Clan "Mayta Capac" began the conquest and domination of the valleys to the south. Arriving in Arequipa, possibly in the middle of the 15th century, he was captivated by the gentle climate, the abundance of water and cultivatable land and the generosity of the people. He is said to have exclaimed "AREQUIPAY": "Yes, stay!" The Incan presence in the Collaguas region and in the south of the empire came late, in the middle of the 15th century. Nonetheless, they managed to impose their political organization, religion, economic system, judicial system, military system, educational system, and indeed, their culture in general. In 1532 Francisco Pizarro conquered the Incan Empire. He put to death the Inca Atahualpa. Then he marched to Cusco and took possession of all the territory dominated by the Incas in the name of the Crown of Spain. From Cusco, Francisco Pizarro divided the major part of the Andean population among his companions under the system of "encomienda". This system (from the verb "encomendar", to commend) consisted in placing one or more chiefs and the Indians who were his subjects, under the domination of a Spaniard. The Spaniard then acquired the rights of tribute and the services of the Indians "encomendados" or subjugated. In exchange for these priviledges the "encomendero", or Spaniard, assumed the responsibility of indoctrinating the Indians in his charge with the Catholic Religion. In 1540 Pizarro "commended" the Yanquecollaguas to his brother Gonzalo and the Laricollaguas and the Cabanas to other Spaniards, dividing them according to the districts Hanansaya and Hurinsaya. After the treason and murder of Gonzalo Pizarro in 1548 the charge of the Yanquecollaguas passed for a brief period to Francisco Noguerol de Ulloa, who shortly after returned to Spain, renouncing his rights in exchange for a pension. After 1565 the Yanquecollaguas were subject to the Crown of Spain and paid tribute directly to the "corregidor" or magistrate of the province. From the first years of colonization the inhabitants of the province were instructed in the Catholic faith by Franciscans. They built churches in the villages and adorned them with gold and silver from the treasures found in the temples on the high peaks. Later, by order of their superior Friar Gernimo de Villacarrillo, the Franciscans retired to their monasteries in Cusco. In 1570 the viceroy Francisco de Toledo asked that they return to the province because of the many complaints against the priests of San Pedro who replaced them. Some of the friars returned but they took charge only of the Yanquecollaguas and not of all the villages.

A period of change, both legal and as regarded tributes, followed the declaration of independence of Peru in 1821. In 1824 Simn Bolvar abolished the power of the chiefs, the "mita", a system of indian servitude, and the original system of tribute. He decreed that the land of the chiefs, or the "community" land be divided among all the families of each village. THE REALM OF CORN AND THE ALPACA by Mauricio de Romaa The prehistoric tribes hunted guanacos, llamas, alpacas and vicunas which they used both for food and clothing. The North American authority Jane Wheeler estimates that the domestic use of the camelidae goes back 8 or 10 thousand years. It is very common to find obsidian arrow heads in the valley and bordering areas. Furthermore, the majority of rupestrine paintings, such as those on the walls of the caves of Collpa in Sumbay and Mollepunku in Pulpera, represent camelidae. The first chronicles of the Spaniards tell of the "cattle of the land" or "the sheep with the long neck". The Inca Garcilaso de la Vega talks about the organization of the flocks of llamas and alpacas during the Incan Empire. The produce was distributed by quality in accord with rank. Thus when a vicuna was taken on a hunt it was clipped and its wool or fiber offered to the Inca. The fiber of the alpaca was destined for the nobles and high officials, while the llama served to cloth the common people. The high part of the Colca valley, from the slopes up-water from Chivay to the snow line or the great high plateau, was and is used for the, breeding of llamas and alpacas. The sheep with the long neck Although less prized in the colonial period, the alpaca has recently come into its own. In the middle of the 19th century the industrial processing of alpaca began and since then has been an important source of economic activity with very positive prospects for the future. Today an important textile industry exists, primarily for exportation. It is estimated that 4 million alpacas exist in Peru along the Andean range. The majority of the population is dispersed in small groups of from 100 to 500 head and there are probably about 35,000 breeders. The alpaca is the major source of economic gain in the Colca region. Since the initiation of exportation in the middle of the last century "mistis", as the Arequipan creoles are called, have been established in the villages to collect the fiber and supply the

exporters. This has a marked social and economic influence on the peaceful region. The fiber of the alpaca is obtained by shearing the animal, which is normally done every two years with an average yield of 6.7 lbs for each animal. The alpaca, unlike the vicuna, is domesticated. Thus they are cared for by shepherds, either the owners or employees of the owners, and sheltered in huts on lands with natural fodder. Rotation of the fields is practiced in accord with the conditions of water and pasture. The most important characteristic of the alpaca, aside from its finess, softness and natural thermoregulation, is the great variety of natural colors from black to white, with a wide range of coffees. There are altogether more than 30 commercial colors. In some breeding centers modern technology is applied which has resulted in genetic improvement of the flocks, with higher quality and greater production of fiber. Research is sometimes carried on privately as is the case with Francis Patthey, a visionary merchant and prosperous industrialist of alpaca fiber who is at present sponsoring, under the auspices of the "Inca Pro-Alpaca" Foundation, the formation of a center for the promotion and research of alpacas at the foot of Ampato in the high country of the Colca. In the course of their evolution primitive tribes passed from being hunters and gatherers to being farmers. They settled in valleys where the water supply and auspicious climate enhanced the production of food. Thus it was that the cultivation of potatoes, corn, "quinua", an edible plant, "caahua", a kind of millet and other native species began in the Colca region, down water from Chivay. Corn was the most important crop produced. Even today the corn produced at Cabanaconde is famous. We can not be precise about the arrival of the Collaguas, but it was they who developed the agriculture and constructed the terraces, which are so impressive for the enormous amount of labor which they represent. There are more than 6 thousand hectars worked into the slopes of the great canyon in order to obtain enough flat surface to sow without fear of losing the fertil soil by erosion. Irrigation is carried out through an ingenious system of canals from the streams and springs coming from the snow peaks on each side of the river. Once settled, the Collaguas built their villages. The ruins of these indicate an advanced level of engineering, as can be observed at Jaucallacta, Pumunuta and

Uyu Uyu. In some cases we find special structures which were built for the storage of corn which are called "colcas". Corn was and is the most important element in the native diet. It was also much used in rituals and ceremonies and in the brewing of "chicha", a slightly alcoholic drink. Recent studies by a team of researchers from the University of Wisconsin, directed by Professor Denevan have placed the age of some of the terraces at 1,450 years, which makes them older than the Incan Empire. Cochineal and "ayrampo" These are two natural colorants which have been used by the natives since preColumbian times to dye their cloth. They also have medicinal properties. The cochineal is a parasitic insect which lives on a cactus, the tuna, or nopal in Mexico, and contains a red colorant, carmic acid. The conquistadors found it in Mexico where it was used by the Aztecs. Hernn Corts took the tuna to Spain, where it acclimated well, especially in the Canary Islands. At that time only some cotton like spots could be observed on the "pencas" or fleshy "leaves" of the cactus, from which the colorant was extracted. But in 1703, after the invention of the microscope the parasitic insect itself, cochineal, was discovered. The colorant is extracted by scraping the "pencas" and gathering the insects which fall. They are then put to dry. It is the female insect which contains the colorant and the concentration is greatest during the egg laying phase. This colorant is in great demand today in the production of cosmetics, drinks and foods which are normally tinted, because it is not carcinogenic. Although the conchineal has a wide geographic distribution, Peru is the major producer of the colorant and the Colca one of the most important regions in its production. The tuna, or cactus apple, is a much prized, nourishing fruit which is collected from natural plantations which are found especially in the ravines of the canyon. The "ayrampo" is also a colorant found in the fruit of a small cactus of the same family as the tuna. It is used to color textiles and foods, though not yet industrially. It is also widely used for its medicinal properties. THE SILVER MINES by Mauricio de Romaa

In 1625 the Gamero brothers from Pampacolca, in the upper part of the Majes Valley, discovered rich veins of silver in Caylloma. The mines were called Santa Sata, San Cristbal and Vicunas. On another hill, called the Apostoles, the mine of San Judas Tadeo. Later, still others were found, which allowed the establishment of 22 "trapiches" (mill for grinding mineral ore) in all. In 1631 Cajas Reales were set up with an ore foundry which functioned until 1781, at which time ore was sent to the foundry in the city of Arequipa.

These events produced profound changes in the Colca. Originally an agricultural valley of importance, as the presence of Gonzalo Pizarro, the brother of Francisco Pizarro, to whom the control and organization of the Collaguas region was entrusted, shows, it became a rich mining region which absorbed all available manpower. Workers were recruited by the "mita" system, or forced mining service. Due to an abundant supply of manpower, indispensible for exploitation of the mines, the Colca became a strategic center during colonial times. Two other factors contributed: abundant food production and the presence of the llama herds. These animals were essential for transporting the mineral to ports such as Quilca, Arantas or Islay, and also for guaranteeing the supply of mercury, indispensible in the production of silver, which came from Huancavelica or was imported from Yugoslavia or Spain. The viceroy Conde Chinchn considered Caylloma as the ore deposit third in importance after Potos and Huancavelica. Thus new villages supplanted in importance those already established in the agricultural zone, such as Yanque, Lari and Chivay. Boom times arrived for some, especially Caylloma, Tisco and Callalli. Agricultural production fell dramatically, terraces were abandoned, there was famine and malnutrition, epidemics and death. The population was drastically reduced, as can be seen by a report by the viceroy of Toledo in 1570 which puts the population at 33,900 inhabitants. By the end of the 18th century it had fallen to 13,905. The mining "mitas" did not only alter the relationship of servitude which the Collaguas had with Arequipa, but that with other communities such as Potos and Huancavelica as well. In the 18th century mining suffered a serious crisis. The scarcity of manpower, due to the fall in the population level, the difficulty in obtaining mercury due to the low production at Huancavelica, problems deriving from the war between England and Spain, and internal rebellions like that of Tupac Amaru, made it

impossible to continue the exploitation of the mines. They were abandoned, or neglected, and fell into disuse. With the building of the Arequipa-Puno railroad, which allows better communication with Caylloma from Sumbay, mining activity was recommenced in this century, but without great effect on the Colca which remained forgotten. There are other important mines in the area of the Colca besides those at Caylloma, namely Arcata and Orcopampa which is at the head of the Andagua Valley. They also were worked in Colonial times and continue to be exploited up to the present day. There were also small mines in the Colca Valley itself, as is shown by the remains of a significant "trapiche" or ore mill a few kilometers from Chivay. In the decade of the 50's the mine called Madrigal, down water from Chivay, was opened and has a certain importance in the economy of the valley. HOUSES AND VILLAGES by Elsa Arana y Pedro L. de Romaa. The text of this chapter has been summarized from de work Estudio Turstico del Valle del Colca by Pedro L. de Romaa and Gonzalo Olivares. 1987 (see bibliography).

The villages of the Colca are treasure chests of surprising pleasures, in spite of their deficiencies and peculiar characteristics. Their old architecture, modest and primitive, has survived through time until our days. "Our days" are concerned with the preservation of the Colca, with the conservation and ennoblement of the legacy received from the ancient Collaguas, a legacy which endures in the inhabitants of today. They are, almost without knowing it, the inheritors of a dazzlingly beautiful, although little known, region, whose urban design and houses, sometimes in ruin, contain long pages of the history of Peru.

Figuring out how the ancient inhabitants of the Colca lived is a real research task, the motivation for much work and many studies by specialists. The villages which are today scattered on the right and left banks of the turbulent river, now accessible to the curiosity of tourists and the interest of historians, do not in

themselves explain the mystery of their origins, which go back to pre-Incan times, and certainly to before the Spanish conquest. It is presumed, not without foundation, that the ancient inhabitants who lived between three and four thousand meters above sea level subsisted by agriculture or the raising of livestock. They did not live gathered together in villages properly speaking, but scattered in dwelling places in the hills. These dwellings, that is to say the houses where they lived, don't fit any determined urban design. Rather, they were constructed in areas not apt for cultivation with an end to keeping productive areas for their subsistence. Their houses were situated in an isolated and disordered manner far from the pastures. These were the ancient Callaguas, who spoke Aymara, and the Cabanas, with different characteristics and customs, who spoke Quechua. The Collaguas consisted of two groups: the Yanquicollaguas and the Laricollaguas. Both ethnic groups were settled on extensive areas in multiple ecological niches (John V. Murra). The complicated topography of the Colca obliged the indigenous inhabitants to develop large numbers of terraces in order to facilitate agricultural exploitation of the land. One can still observe, not without amazement, these cultivation terraces, many of them in disuse, like an undulating garden which is lost in the horizon. Who conquered the Collaguas? According to the Inca Garcilaso de la Vega, it was the Inca Mayta Capac. But more recent studies say that the expansion of the empire began more recently in the middle of the 15th century with the Inca Pachacutec. It was then that the ayllu, the basic nucleus of Incan village organization, was introduced. The lands incorporated into the empire were divided in fourths, halves and thirds. According to the chronicler Ulloa y Mogolln, the social and organizational duality of the Incas was expressed in the division of the inhabitants into two halves: the hanansaya (the upper part) and the hurinsaya (the lower part). Each half had two "curacas" or chiefs, chosen by the Inca, who were succeeded by their brothers or legitimate sons. The organization was, then, of four fourths grouped into two halves. Incan institutions were not changed immediately with the arrival of the Spaniards in the 16th century. The conquistadors divided the resources and Indians of Peru without knowing them deeply (1532-1548). The first physical division was the repartimientos which were concessions of Indians made to the colonists who acquired certain rights over them in exchange for instructing them, evangelizing them and protecting them. These apportionments were made up of one or more villages. The valley of the Colca was not subtracted to these primary attempts at resettlement. In 1561, before the Ordinances of Toledo, the viceroy Conde de

Nieva ordered, in agreement with the so called "Instructions", that the village designs "be like those of Lima". The criteria for the choice of settlements were good climate, water, pasture and woodland. They had to be far from the original dwelling places, and from the tombs, in order to avoid contamination from ancient beliefs and pagan practices. They were also located far from the canals and little farms. But it was the viceroy Francisco de Toledo who was the great artificer of the organization of the Viceroy Statute of Peru. He issued ordinances of great importance during his administration. In order to carry out his designs, he conceived of a concentration of the indigenous masses into villages which would facilitate the political structure, the religious instruction of the people, the division of the magistrates, the collection of tribute and the supply of manpower. The imposition of a policy of grouping into villages had been demanded since 1549 by religious teachers of various orders. The clerics, whose evangelizing mission was clear, complained to the King of Spain as well as to the viceroys about the difficulties which the dispersion of the settlements caused.

In answer to this need, or demand, the Royal Charter of October 9, 1549 was issued to form villages of Indians in the viceroyalty of Peru. It was in the following period that they began to establish some reducciones (settlements of converted Indians), which were conceived of as dormitory villages, or stores for manpower, not as centers of service. The first attempts at settlement in the Colca Valley were carried out by Franciscans in the area of Coporaque. Themselves already settled in the Colca, the Franciscans began their activity with the construction of the first chapel, dedicated to St. Ursula, in 1560, and another to St. Sebastian somewhat later. The judicial division into corregimientos (the district in which the magistrate, justice or mayor exercised jurisdiction) was made during the governorship of Lope Garca de Castro. At the instigation of the "encomenderos" (the Spaniards entrusted with apportionments of Indians) of the Colca Valley, the governor decreed the creation of the Province of Collaguas (1565), separate from that of Arequipa. The corregimiento, or district, of Collaguas (established in 1540 by Gonzalo Pizarro, the brother of the conquistador Francisco Pizarro) comprised the partitions of Yanque, Lari and Cabanaconde, which were visited by Lope de Suazo between 1571 and 1574. It was he who divided the population of Collaguas into 24 villages: ten in Yanque, six in Lari and eight in Cabanaconde. Of these 24 original villages of the Collaguas division in the Colca Valley only 14 exist today: nine villages of those which were in the Collagaus partition, two

of the original settlements of Lari and three in Cabanaconde. Thus today the visitor or researcher can visit the following villages: on the right bank there are Sibayo, Tuti, Coporaque, Ichupampa, Lari and Madrigal; on the left, Callalli, Canocota, Chivay, Yanque, Achoma, Maca, Pinchollo and Cabanaconde. Huambo and Tisco are on the heights at some distance from the valley proper. Of these the most interesting and most worthy of study are Yanque and Sibayo as they conserve the largest number and highest quality of remaining structures. Other villages have been more affected by the corregated zinc roofs and other modern intrusions and have thus lost, to a greater or lesser degree, their character and importance in the study of the original urban structures. It is not to be believed that settling the Indians in these villages was an easy task. "The Indians tenaciously resisted their massive removal. It was necessary to subjugate them by force. The settlements had a relatively short life", attested the viceroy de Toledo in 159. The population of Indians who were rebellous against this new structure was decimated by the epidemics which broke out as a result of the concentration. It was further reduced by migrations of Indians who protested the excessive tributes they paid and the inhuman treatment and opression which they suffered at the hands of their Spanish masters, both civil and clerical. From these research results we can conclude, though without definite assertions, that the Toledo settlements not only created the villages but also meant the end of the "ayllu" as the nucleus of social organization, it being replaced by a peasant community which was finally consolidated in the 17th century. Features of villages and dwellings

Once the Toledo Ordinances were in force, the settlements of the Colca began acquiring, as they became real villages, their own special physiognomy. Doubtlessly, the magnificent presence of the church placed in the nucleus of the settlement, the plaza, according to the Indian model, was of great importance. But we are dealing here with the architecture of dwellings and not of churches.

The civil constructions in the villages were residences which had their origin in the Toledo Ordinances. Houses had to be constructed with independent rooms. We must, of course, differentiate between the houses of the common people and those of the "curacas" or chiefs. The first were constructed with an interior patio, the latter with an exterior patio for community meetings. The tradition of the interior patio (of Iberic origin) has a prehispanic counterpart in the cancha, a

small block of houses walled in. Thus "the intimate character of the dwelling which turns inward was also an Incan tradition" (R. Gutirrez). According to the Ordinances each dwelling had to have two or three rooms "so that the children might sleep apart from the parents." This was against Incan tradition which called for the houses to be built with one large space, a single room where the whole family lived. Abounding in details, the Toledo Ordinances said that "the houses of the `curacas' would consist of a living room, a bed room for the chief and his wife, a bedroom for the daughters and the serving women, and two different bedrooms, one for the sons and one for the male sevants. At the back there would be a kitchen and in the interior a corral." In response to a questionaire sent from Spain by King Philip II in 1586, Juan de Ulloa y Mogolln, the magistrate of the province of Caylloma-Collaguas wrote a description of the houses of the province in his "Report from the Province of the Collaguas". He said they were small, covered with straw (the region abounds in straw and stone) and the common peoples' houses were smaller than the chiefs'. The materials for construction came from the immediate area. In general "pirca", a rough dry stone, was used, mortared with clay. The last courses and the gable walls were often of adobe, which is an Incan technic according to the Inca Garcilaso de la Vega. He describes the roofs of gable frames joined by ropes which were made from long, soft straw similar to esparto-grass. In the Colca "reata" or llama skin was used to tie the roof since llamas abounded in the region. Urban design The urban plan of the villages of the Colca which originated with the first Indian settlements was regular and corresponded to the checkerboard board pattern of the "Indian model". It had various origins. According to Garca Bryce its antecedents were in the Greek and Roman cities. Later it was influenced by French forts which were rectilinear, either square or rectangular, provided with plazas and in some cases with arcade. After making the plan, parcels of ground were given out. The surrounding lands were alloted later. The village plan was based on streets and regular blocks. The streets, of different widths, were of a human dimension and very pleasant. In them life followed its course without tension. In Yanque the width fluctuated between five and seven and a half meters, in smaller villages between three and five meters. In a great many of the villages of the Colca the streets were traced in a straight line. They crossed at right angles forming rectangles subdivided into two or more dwellings per block. The size of the blocks varied from village to village. The smallest are in Ichupampa and Pinchollo while the largest are found in Cabanaconde. The design of the villages

which Juan de Matienzo, judge in the Audience of Lima, proposed, called for blocks, and in each block he delineated four parcels. The streets were to go to the edge of the plaza and not to the center. The houses were to be together, but independent, with doors on the street "so that they could be visited by the justice and the priest." The plaza was the generating nucleus from which streets began systematically. Yanque, Chivay, Lari, Achoma, Coporaque and Sibayo have plazas which are equivalent to four blocks of the urban grouping. The plazas continue to be public space for the common use, just as they were required to be by the Toledo Ordinances of 1561.

The plaza also has a hierarchical function. The civil and religious authorities, which are the expressions of the two manifestations of the power of the conquistadors, are placed around it. The main parcels were for the Spanish authority, residential inns for foreigners. The houses of the commoners formed homogeneous rectangular blocks. The dwellings of the chiefs and most important people had a large patio for public meetings. The Spanish were not inclined to live among the Indians of the Colca except in Caylloma (the population of Caylloma was called "golondrina" or "swallow" because of the coming and going of the workers in the mining district). In any case, Caylloma is a spot of lesser personality as far as architectural interest is concerned. Certainly, the most important building in the villages of the Colca is the church, an inevitable result of the religious dominion imposed by the conquest. Following it in importance are the "cabildo" (the clerical residence), the jail and the hospital. The parish house was adjacent to the church, the hospital on the perifery. The church, the cemetery and the dwellings of the subjugated indians were around the plaza. A small parcel of land went to the priest for a garden. Nothing was actually built on to the church. The "cabildo" and the jail were separate buildings, not attached to it. As stated above, we are concerned here with the civil architecture, which has often been belittled or ignored because of the importance of the churches. The civil buildings, of modest features in comparison to the ornate design of the churches, comprise, in general, a close knit fabric which converges on a principal, central space, the plaza, where the church reigns supreme. But the church is only a small part of the whole and can not be conceived of without the surrounding structures which complete it. The case has been with the churches that, although they show the ravages of time, the necessary resources have always been forthcoming to protect and restore them. The civil structures of the villages, on the other hand, although still very much alive and in use today, have

not awakened the same instinct of conservation. Unfortunately, therefore, they are subject to deterioration and modification which tends to destroy their original characteristics. Yanque and Sibayo

These are the two villages of the Colca Valley of greatest interest to researchers, since they are examples of the Toledo settlements which still exist today, at least vestigially. Yanque was the capital of the District of Collaguas, the residence of the magistrate and the holy see, and thus the evangelizing head for the other villages. It had been, originally, in another area, but when the settlements were established it was moved to the spot it occupies today. The design of the village is compact and it shows a surprising regularity. It is rectilinear and spreads out from an extensive square, the plaza. The royal highway crosses the center of the plaza, dividing the village in two, with six blocks of buildings arranged on either side. There are ruins of houses in this village which are definitely Incan. On the perimeter of the village lie ruins which the local tradition considers the houses of Incan "curacas" or chiefs, which in their day must have occupied the whole square. The house of the chief Choquehuanca is also there. Decorative elements appear on the walls, and the doorways are tall and narrow. The houses are constructed with worked stone, and, according to studies, may be representative of the period of transition. That is to say, they are structures which stand out as different from the rest of the normal houses in the villages, especially because of the masonry characteristics of their walls. In almost all cases the units which make up the parts of the total dwelling are independent structures, separated from each other by spaces which were usually used as corrals in the manner of the Incan "canchas". Often the main building has a door and a window the lintels of which show carvings in high and low relief. In the houses of more recent construction one enters by way of a vestibule with a door which closes the dwelling. The patio continues to be the natural heart of the residence uniting the separate rooms which do not communicate directly, but rather by means of a door to the patio. Sibayo was born as one of the 24 Toledan settlements of the Collaguas District. It was originally called Utrera de Sibayo. It was an alpaca breeding village set on the banks of the Colca River. The discovery of the mines of Caylloma made it extremely important. Its structure has remained unchanged through four centuries, thus Sibayo is the clearest example of what the settlements were

originally like. Today it is virtually abandoned. Its walls and enclosures are built of stone taken from the river. The difference between the monumental scale of the church in comparison with the modesty of the domestic dwellings is indeed striking. External influence and present state It is of great interest to consider the external influences, which manifest in the civil structures. These were imported, so to speak, from the urban architecture of Arequipa. How did this come about? The cause was essentially the minor tremors and major earthquakes which frequently hook the White City (as Arequipa is known, being built of white stone) during colonial times and later. After each disaster it was normal to bring laborers from the Colca, either Indian slaves or mine workers, whose manpower was indispensible in the restoration and reconstruction of the castigated city. Alejandro Mlaga, for example, informs us of this situation when he tells in his report that the Indian workers of Collaguas contributed extremely meritorious work after the earthquake in Arequipa on 22 April 1582. It was because of this, then, that the people of Collaguas had close contact with urban colonial architecture, especially religious. The workers from the settlements, once they had finished their task in the city, returned to their villages with the motifs they had observed in colonial Arequipa etched on their retinas. Not only did they imitate the designs they had observed, they also applied them to their own architecture with interesting variations. We can observe in the houses of the Colca, due to this external influence brought back by the workers, many lintels carved with anagrams of Jesus and Mary; symbols of the passion such as the cross, ladders and nails; rosettes, quatrefoils and other heraldic motifs, especially lions. This external influence was not limited to the colonial period but continued into republican times. In Cabanaconde there are the remains of a house which has a portal with a rococo motif. And in Achoma, across from the church, there is a house which incorporates in its portal a design with a central motif which represents the Peruvian shield. With the passage of time the villages of the Colca have suffered both natural and artificial deteriorations, produced by disasters, the evolution of customs, the appearance of progress and the introduction of foreign elements which jar with the original structures. According to Gade, the first efforts to modernize the settlements occurred in this century during the 20's and 30's. But the expedition of Shippee and Johnson in 1929 already reported the use of corrugated zinc roofs

in the construction of the houses of Yanque. The use of corrugated zinc is probably the most extensive result of the influence of the exterior on construction in the villages of the Colca. FIESTAS AND WORK by Mauricio de Romaa. The text of this chapter has been summarized from an article by Mara A. Benavides. 1987 (see bibliography). Simn Bernal Malaga, an anthropologist born in Coporaque, the oldest village of the Colca, did an interesting study of the agricultural work and the fiestas of the region, and it is to this material which we turn in the present chapter. The most important agricultural task carried out in the Colca occurs at the beginning of the Agricultural season and consists of scraping and cleaning the canals. Some of the canals require several days work in the high plateau where they originate. The canals are, naturally, blocked during the cleaning, and when the water begins to flow again the first rush of it is greeted with great celebration and devotion. The people kiss the water, cross themselves with it and bathe in it. Everyone is full of joy: the workers who proudly show their tools and the straw and flowers with which they have bedecked their hats and clothes; and the women, children and old people who have come to meet them with "chicha", food and band of musicians. In some cases they celebrate a mass of tanksgiving at the highest point accessible to the priest with his paraphernalia. The national flag floats on the breeze, along with the standard of the village, and hundreds of smaller flags adorn the hills so that the joy of the fiesta can be seen at a great distance.

The "barbecho", or plowing, takes place immediately before or after the first water flows. It is accompanied with great solemnity and offerings of "chicha" and food to the "Pacha Mama" or "Santa Tierra". The earth is considered a fertile woman and the time when she will give birth must be prepared for with care and attention. The water is considered the masculine element which fecundates the earth. Then, the men plow with a team in furrows, or with a "wiso", a kind of hoe, with which they make a hole in the ground. The women, symbol of the reproductive forces, come after them, placing the seeds in the earth and covering them carefully. The "mishka" or early sowing of corn and beans takes place in August. In September and October the rest of the land is sown. Some fields are left fallow,

depending on the water supply. October, November and December are the months which are the period of gestation for the earth. It is necessary to irrigate and hoe around the corn. The fiestas at this season are related to ceremonies to protect the crops from drought and frosts. The first of January is the presenting of the staffs, when those who will wield the authority in the villages during the coming year receive the symbol of its investment. This occurs in the atriums of the churches which were cemeteries before the constructions of the mausoleums on the outskirts of every village during the second half of the 19th century. The rods are symbols of authority in the Incan tradition as well as in the Spanish. The second of February is the fiesta of the Virgen of the "Candelaria", the patron of single women. The women adorn the image and carry it to the fields, where they make sure that the Virgen looks in all directions to insure a good harvest. This ceremony begins the period called the "verde", when they begin to harvest the first fruits of the "mishka", the August sowing. At the end of February or the beginning of March they celebrate a movable fiesta, the fiesta of Pujllay, known in modern times as carnaval. Pujllay is a mysterious person, perhaps a Spaniard, who comes into the village like a whirlwind causing quarrels and upsets, catalyzing, indeed, all the aggression accumulated during the year. This is expressed in fights and acts of vengeance, especially between the two factions of the village. The Pujllay stays in the village a week, then he leaves and the tranquility and spirit of cooperation returns. The Saturday of Pujllay, or carnaval, work is concerned with repairing the roads and bridges, or else the "tinka", the branding of livestock. The llamas and alpacas are gaily decorated with colored ribbons around their ears and collars of fruit and flowers around their necks. The bulls and oxen are adorned with bread and fruit as a symbol of appreciation for the aid they have given in the sowing. The Tuesday of carnaval begins the fiesta proper, which lasts a week. This is considered the day of the year when there is no justice and one can take revenge for grievances suffered during the year. Until the decade of 1960 the authorities refrained from interfering, but after that acts of violence were no longer permitted. The week of Pujllay is also a time of complete sexual freedom for single women. They can have sexual relations with whom they wish, be it men of their own faction or strangers. This week of sexual liberty results in an increase in the birth rate during the month of November.

Until a few decades ago the dance of "witite" was traditional at carnaval time. This is a dance in which the young men disguise themselves as women, wearing skirts, blouses, or a white shirt and a cloth hat or simply a black cloth on their heads. This is adorned with hanging decorations which hide their faces. They wear on their backs two "llicllas" or little blankets in which they put their ammunition: quinces, dahlia roots and pieces of cactus trunk. They carry "huaracas" or slings in their hands with which to hurl the ammunition. The "witite" is danced with the two factions of the village forming lines with a little lane between. They then sling things at their rivals in the opposite line, aiming at the head. There used to be frequent injuries and occasional deaths.

In the 60's the dance was modified and women were permitted to join in. Today they dance with a "witite" or with a young man without a disguise. The slings are now no more than adornment in their hands as the couples parade through the streets of the village to the sound of bands of wind instruments and percussion. Competition between factions has been transformed into a competition to see who can dance the longest and which musicians can play the longest. The "witite" is danced at Pujllay, or carnaval, in all the villages. It is also danced in the villages at the festival of the patron. The rhythm of the music is gay and rapid, different from the "huayno" and other more well known Andean dances. After the fiesta of Pujllay the young single people of the village must clean it, and the atrium and interior of the church as well, in preparation for Holy Week when they celebrate the passion, death and resurrection of Jesus Christ. Starting with the Friday before Palm Sunday, they have many nightly processions which they perform with devotion. They carry the traditional images on litters: the "Virgen de los Dolores", Christ carrying the cross, and on Holy Friday, the glass coffin with the dead Christ. Holy Week culminates with the great fiesta of Resurrection Sunday which begins, according to the Catholic liturgy, in the church before dawn. At the first rays of light the resurrected Christ, along with other saints, is carried out to the sound of bands and the tolling of bells. This brief procession around the plaza symbolizes the joy of the resurrection of Christ and the approaching harvest, which promises abundant food and corn to make "chicha". A little known ceremony is celebrated in Yanque on Resurrection Monday. This is the decoration of the "tombolas" or altars set up inside the church in honor of the pleople who have died during the year. Each altar is decorated with flowers and fruits of the first harvest. These are later given to the priest as a symbol of the tithes and first fruits which were paid to the church in the 18th and 19th

centuries. April and May are the harvest months, and June and July are the months for repairing roofs, walls of mud and stone, and the deteriorated terraces. This is also the time when the majority of the patron saint festivals are celebrated in the villages. The fiesta of "Santiago Apostol", celebrated the 25 of July in Coporaque and Madrigal and the fiesta of the "Virgen Santa Ana", celebrated in Maca the 2 of August are especially important. In these fiestas the litters with the images are accompanied by people in disguise. There are two Turks with masks, pointed hats and swords who symbolize a duel between the two factions. Another person is disguised as "Inti", or the sun of the Incas, and another as the moon. The sun and the moon are elements which frequently appear in the decoration of the churches, for example in the towers at Cabanaconde and in the pavement of the atrium at Yanque. The patron festival of Chivay is the "Virgen de la Asunta", the 15 of August, and that of Yanque the "Pursima Concebida", the 8 of December. All the fiestas are celebrated with processions and dances. The most characteristic dance of the region is the "witite" which symbolizes the mythical "women warriors", a tradition equivalent to the Amazons of the jungle. Other traditional dances are the "wifalita", the "huaylacha", the "kjamile" and the "lanlaco". Some symbolize the mating of animals, others mule driving or mythical aspects of magic and healing. In general the symbolic dances are losing force in the region. They were repressed by the priests during the colonial and republican periods as obscene and idolatrous. Today they are little encouraged by the inhabitants of the villages because they represent too much expense for the "mayordomo" responsible for their organization. THE ART OF THE COLCA VALLEY

by Francisco Stastny

Whoever visits the Colca valley for the first time finds a natural spectacle of unusual beauty which tends to lie continually renewed. From the moment when the road begins its descent from the high country around Chivay, what is going to be a permanent feast for the eyes comes into view: the snow capped peaks, the deep gorge where the river runs, the cultivated fields of changing colors, and the regular outline of the villages dotting both sides of the ravine. The image is

fascinating and the visitor soon perceives that the animation of this panorama is found in something more than the simple beauty of the natural setting. It is the human presence and its close link with the geographical ambiance which produces the feeling of exaltation. It is a landscape transformed by the creativity of the Collaguas, people who have shaped it through the centuries with their architecture, their agricultural terraces and their very presence. Wherever one looks the extensive skirts of the mountains have been worked into a system of terraces designed with a wise mixture of geometry and art which has tamed the landscape. There are few places like this valley. Here one can see with great clarity that the ancient Peruvians' knowledge of topography allowed them to design their agricultural terraces with an elegance which reveals an evident aesthetic and landscaping intention. The play of volumes and undulating outlines of the zone around Tres Lagunas, for example, or of the diverse amphitheatres of terraces, are models of monumental architectural design which combine the beauty of a park with the utility of an agricultural field in an association characteristic of Incan art. The polichrome figures of the peasants dressed in their bright clothes dot the fields, roads and villages wherever you look. In their design and the elements which compose them these costumes have much in common with Spanish fashion of centuries past. The skirt caught up in the belt brings to mind the saints of Zurbarn who make the same gesture in order to carry in the "pocket" thus formed a bunch of flowers or some other tribute of their sanctity. But the manycolored design of the embroidery which covers the cuffs, bib and border of the jubn (jacket) is an inheritance from the mestiza morphology of the art of America. And the fact that these embroideries are applied with sewing machines certainly gives the lie to those who despair of viable creative solutions coming from the encounter of traditional Andean culture with western technology.

Impressive stone structures complement the images of the Colcan landscape with a monumental dimension. The imposing structures of the parish churches rise up in the plazas in striking contrast with the smallness and modesty of the streets laid out around them. As in medieval Europe, one sees here the centuries of effort made by agricultural communities, who poured the majority of their energy and their labor into raising a tribute to their beliefs. Dedicated to exalting the official religion, these works bring together the aspirations of the whole population, channeled and directed by the "curacas" of both factions of the village, "hanansaya" and "hurinsaya", who guided them in collaboration with the priests.

Some of these churches are examples of exceptional architectural quality which show in their structure the fascinating relationship of this strategic inter-Andean valley with the two great focal points of artistic expansion which are found to the south and the north: Arequipa and Cusco. The great church at Yanque is directly related to the first. It was the main Franciscan missionary center in the valley. The harmony of its vigorous towers and the rich ornamentation of its reliefs make this church one of the most important monuments in the early mestizo style. Constructed as it stands today in 1691-98, by builders and stone cutters brought from Arequipa and headed by Master Ignacio de Aldana, it is contemporary with one of the first notable works in this style, the church of La Compaia de Arequipa. Its manner of ornamenting in relief, nonetheless, is completely different. It represents a parallel experiment rather than a derivation from the southern example. In the church of La Compania we find rhythm and formal concentration accentuated by the architectural members and deep carving which hides the background to play with the density of shadows. The church in Yanque is quite the opposite: a subtle, airy design, shallowly carved, which climbs the facade of the church without covering.the plane of the wall and almost without interfering with the architectural rhythm. The main portal represents Saint Francis of Assisi surrounded by saints of his order and Dominicans, each one in an oval shield which emerges like a flower from the undulating stems which surround them. On the side wall, on the other hand, the architectural grammar has been respected more. An exterior arch spans two vigorous buttresses with a design, even more tenuous than the former, which depicts the figure of the "Virgen Inmaculada" below a tympanum and flanked by a foliage design, in which the mysterious motif of the sirens appears.

Many other churches of the valley are worth seeing. Perhaps the most important after that of Yanque, although somewhat off the beaten track, is the church of Tisco, which combines in one harmonic and original conception some of the most beautiful features of both artistic centers. From Cusco comes the great oval window in the main facade and the design of the towers; from Arequipa, the relief treatment of the notable 18th century lateral borders which enclose the portal. The church of Lari, at the other end of the valley, is the most grandiose structure of the whole region. A true antiseismic bastion reinforced with solid, vertical

profile buttrusses strengthens the Latin cross design and allows the roundness of the only raised cupola in the Colca Valley to stand out. No less fascinating are churches like that of Cabanaconde which, although late (reconstructed after the earthquake of 1784), offers beautiful stone carving which combines neoclassic themes with solutions of light fantasy and popular taste in the handling of the architectural grammar, both on the exterior and in the retables. Or like Coporaque and Madrigal, the two churches which conserve in their elongated plan and their classic, entablatured portals, decorated with cherubs and large rosettes, a clear link with the earliest 16th century structures in the region. In Coporaque, facing the side portal (and almost hidden by a bull ring constructed in the atrium), we find one of the purest late renaissance (c. 1565) facades preserved in Peru, that of the chapel of San Sebastian, in itself worth a visit to the Colca Valley. Whoever takes the time to walk through some of the villages will have the surprise of finding remarkable examples of large residencial houses built in stone. The great two storey mansions in ruins near the church of Yanque, which are dotted with carved reliefs of vizcachas, speak of the splendor of past times. And so speaks the structure on the heights of Cabanaconde, with oval windows and ornamentation of small stones; and the numerous portals with carved lintels in Achoma which represent the allegory of Liberty and the oriental lion with a flower (facing the main door of the church), and the heraldic eagles and other themes in the street which leaves the plaza and heads toward the road to Maca; or the Incan house of Lari beyond the plaza on the side opposite the parish. The church of Maca is one of the most original of the region. The work of Simn Soto in 1812-13, it shows a notable if late development of the theme of the open chapel in the form of a balcony in the facade. These openings to the exterior in the churches of Southern Peru are interpreted as places of worship or to exhibit relics to a native population which follows the mass from the atrium. These structures are often found in combination, in the Colca, with apsidal bays which serve the same function. But the most interesting aspect of the church of Maca lies in its interior decoration which still preserves the complete set of golden retables from the 18th century. Saints, mirrors and some paintings of the Virgen and the Church Doctors alternate in the wood carvings. The ecclesiastical interiors of the Valley were like this before the 19th century, when the use of stone and stucco structures came into vogue. These later materials have also been used to construct notable buildings which stand out for the gaiety of their decorative motifs. Some, like those of Ichupampa, combine gold leaf finishing with lateral borders in vigorous relief which derive from the Arequipan tradition. In Yanque, the series of retables designed in stucco by the architect Rafael

Paulete, who was brought from Arequipa for the work, stand out for their serenity. The most abundant artistic form is that of three dimensional sculpture. It is this technic which gives us some of the oldest and most important examples of colonial art in the Collaguas region. Due to a lack of wood, as in most of the regions of the sierra, the sculptors were obliged to look for alternative methods to that of carving in cedar. Thus modeling in maguey, plaster (stucco) and glued cloth developed, which permitted the almost perfect miming of the traditional system. In the 18th century, glass for the eyes, wigs of human hair, natural teeth and nails, or marble ones, and sewn clothes instead of the modeled drapery, were added. All of these materials contributed to the collective search for a mystic illusion which attempted to supplant reality on its own ground. As might be expected, some of the most remarkable examples of the primitive sculpture of the Colca Valley are to be found in Coporaque. The great piece in relief of the Coronation of the Virgen is there, and some isolated pieces such as the San Francisco (which is missing the face) and a San Antonio, all with remarkable ornamentation work on the cloaks. Other works from this early period and from the beginning of the 17th century are found in Maca ("Crucifijo'; `Inmaculada'), in Callalli (San Antonio, dated 1566 or 1588) and Tuti. The most oustanding piece of the following period is the "Virgen Inmaculada" of the great altar at Lari. It is difficult to see because of the height at which it is placed and because it has been mutilated. But it is the only sculpture in the Colca Valley which is clearly from the school of the sculptor Martnez de Montas of Seville. In general very few examples from the second half of the 17th century have been preserved. Works from the two following centuries, on the other hand, are abundant. Those of the beginning of the 18th century show all the richness of texture and undulating forms of the baroque, and a little later we find the whole range of realistic technics cited above. There is a "Virgen Dolorosa" in Maca worth mentioning for its intense expression and the hands; in Cabanaconde an excellent Coronation of the Virgen made up of three figures in high relief; and in Lari and Ichupampa two Santa Rosas (the second with an anchor) of special grace and rich ornamentation. With the beginning of the 19th century the first names of sculptors begin to appear in the documents of the Valley. Thus we know of the intense activity of a Diego Gmez, an Andrs Espinoza from Arequipa and the Heredia family. The best place to admire the works of this period is the church of Yanque. Because of

afire in 1802, almost all of the images in this church are posterior to that date. They were sculpted by Diego Gmez and Matfas Heredia. Among them, the beautiful archangel Michael, with flying drapery, the Saint Paul, the Virgen of the Nativity and many others. The visitor of today normally finds whitened walls in the virreinal churches. This was not the normal situation before 1820-50, but rather the opposite. The first churches of the 16th century were primarily decorated with murals which were easier to apply than great carved ornaments. This custom continued as a compliment to the retables and sculpture throughout the colonial period. The imposition of neoclassical taste and the rationalist reaction of the 19th century made white walls the vogue and the baroque colors were hidden. Many churches in the Colca Valley demonstrate this situation. It is enough to enter the church at Chivay to appreciate how the whole nave was covered with a gay, painted decoration before being plastered over in white. The baptistery preserves a remarkable group of older murals (17th and 18th centuries) which represent the Baptism of Christ and a group of Apostles. Others even older are found in Coporaque and Achoma. In Maca and Lari we can admire gay compositions of flowers and birds in the main arches, as well as the Thurible mural which decorates the presbitery of the latter. In villages such as Maca and Sibayo the presbitery has been decorated with large canvases set in golden frames exuberantly carved. Although the influence of Cusco was dominant in painting on canvas in the southern part of Peru, and in the Colca we find works which demonstrate this origin, there are also other examples which proceed from diverse sources. Such is the series at Sibayo, which may derive from wandering artists or the activity of painters and painter-sculptors such as Manuel Cervantes or the Heredia family, residents in the region. The most remarkable examples of painting on canvas of large dimension are the two sets which are preserved in the transepts of Cabanaconde and Lari. In this last church the monumental compositions contain valuable documental testimonies which reveal to the modern spectator the ethnic aspect, the physiognomy of the features and the appearance of the clothing of the people who inhabited Lari at the end of the 18th century. Grouped as donators kneeling at the foot of the ritual representation of the mass, the important citizens of the time appear on the right and the left of the central composition, integrating, no doubt, the two traditional moities of the Andean communities, the "hanansaya"and "hurinsaya". The absence of embroidery on the clothes of the women confirms that this ornamentation is a relatively recent phenomenon in the history of the Colcan costume.

Caylloma was a rich mining zone where silver was abundant between 1629 and the end of the 18th century. It is not strange then, that the churches might have had rich ecclesiatical outfits of precious metal. Today not many vestiges of those ancient splendors remain, but in more than one parish one can admire tiles and isolated ornaments which give some idea of what the interiors were like in the flourishing epochs. Such is the case with Chivay, Maca and Callalli. And in Cabanaconde. a beautiful ciborium still exists on the high altar decorated in relief with neoclassic loops and the eucharistic vine. From the beginning of the 18th century the names of goldsmiths have figured in the documents. Jose Lizarraga, citizen of Chivay, lived there in 1709. Originally from Arequipa, Bernardo Figueroa went to Yanque and was active there at the end of the century. And families of silversmiths suchs as the Cusihuamans and the Pazs worked in the area all during the 19th century. In the Colca Valley, as in the whole Andean region of Peru, the tradition of textil manufacture always held a very high place in the artisan world. This ability originated in remote prehispanic times when cloth was the most important artistic and symbolic expression of the society. They continued to weave during the Viceroyalty and also during the Republic. Many of these carpets, tapestries, ornaments and clothes have been destroyed by use or have been taken from the valley. But in more than one presbitery we can still find the remains of colored carpets of very large dimensions (sometimes very deteriorated) which formerly decorated them with splendor. We find them from the 18th century on in villages such as Maca, Chivay, Lari, Tuti and Canocota, where we can still recognize the traditional design of the two headed eagle of the Habsburgs, woven at a time when that dynasty had already abandoned the royal throne of Spain. With the advent of the Republic and the transformation of the social system, the habits of the population with respect to artistic creation also changed. The system of caciqueship disappeared, and as a consequence the artistic patronage channeled through the "curacas". This meant the end of colonial religious art. But in exchange it opened the way to the direct plastic expression of the popular classes. Works of art continued to be offered to the church and to the saints who protected the pastoral and agricultural life, but they expressed more and more clearly the world of the beliefs and stereotyped forms of their new patrons. Thus from this time date the retables with paintings of popular expression, such as at Pinchollo and Callalli, and many other creations which reveal the liberation of a new sensibility, such as the painted door of the baptistery at Pinchollo, the great flowers of which seem taken from an Ayacuchan retable.

Carpets, chasubles and brocade ornaments of a new design, incised and embossed tin work, which replaced the old works of the goldsmiths, images of "San Isidro Labrador" with his yoked oxen, torches and wood carvings with a strange, mysterious look, and articles of domestic-ritual use, such as ceramics and "queros" (a kind of wooden ceremonial vase) invade the artistic ambiance of the 19th century. Finally, at the beginning of our century, the arrival of the sewing machine renewed the aesthetic and social expression of women's clothing. Thus with the aid of a modern implement, the people of the region returned to the most ancient Andean traditions which considered clothing the work of art par excellence, as the immortal embroideries of Paracas and the exceptional cloth of the Tiahuanaco culture reveal. Note: The data presented in this work result from research conducted in the Colca Valley by the author in collaboration with Dr. Alejandro Malaga and the PROBAC team of the National Universities of San Marcos and San Agustin. This project was under the auspices of the Bishop of Arequipa and the Ford Foundation. As far as the history of the architecture is concerned, some of the documentary information has been taken from an excellent book of recent publication: R. Gutirrez, C. Esteras and A. Malaga: The Colca Valley: Five Centuries of Architecture and Urbanism. Buenos Aires, 1986. ADVENTURES IN THE VALLEY OF MARVELS by Mauricio de Romaa The first references we find to the Colca are in the narrations of adventurers in the extraordinary valley, such as those of the Spanish chronicler Ocaa in 1603. Later the learned Raimondi mentions his journey through the famous ravine of Arequipa. But the most detailed documentation of our century is to be found in the publications of two Americans, Robert Shippee and George R. Johnson. In 1929 they made an aerial expedition on which they took extraordinary photographs; they discovered the Valley of the Volcanos, the incredible depth of the Colca canyon and found "a lost valley of the Incas", as Shippee said in his article published in The National Geographic Magazine (January, 1934). The Colca is also mentioned in detail in the publication Peru from the Air (1930), and in the Geographic Revue of New York (1932). After flying over the area and discovering many secrets which had remained hidden until then, these intrepid adventurers made an expedition by land. They visited the series of mysterious villages which were of great importance two or

three centuries ago, and then, for reasons still unexplained, become isolated and lost until they were literally rediscovered in the last decade. With the aid of the natives, the Shippee-Johnson expedition contructed an airport in the village of Lari where there is an imposing church. To the great surprise of the inhabitants they landed in a biplane. Many of these people knew neither the automobile nor the railroad, which after 1890 had begun services between Arequipa and Puno. Intrigued by the magnitude of the canyon and the spectacular sight of the Valley of the Volcanos, the explorers continued their adventure. They crossed Cabanaconde, passing by Choco, and 5,000 m above sea level, crossing the Chila Range with their suffocating mules (sick from the altitude), to get to the Valley of the Volcanos. There they admired from the ground the impressive landscape which seems to belong to the time when the surface of the planet was being formed. In spite of the wonderful articles written about this territory, I remained completely ignorant of it for a long time. In spite of being from Arequipa, I must confess that I only learned of the existence of these secret places in the 50's when a great friend and university chum, the companion of many adventures, the engineer Jorge Fernandez Santa Gadea, showed me the National Geographic article, "A Forgotten Valley of Peru". By 1984 I was able possible to cross the Valley of the Volcanos to the Colca by the route which Shippee and Johnson used. With the decade of the 70's the opening of the Colca began due to the irrigation project for the Majes Valley. In its second stage the waters of the Apurmac River will be transferred to the Colca. The Apurmac belongs to the Amazon River system, and is indeed the most distant source of the Amazon, originating on the peak of Mismi at 5,597 m. This was discovered by another intrepid explorer, Loren Mcntyre who published an article in The National Geographic Magazine in 1972. He thus established that the Amazon River is not only the largest river in the world with reference to the size of its flow, but is also the longest in the world, its 6,762 km surpassing the 6,677 km of the Nile. Touristic promotion was begun by Gonzalo de Reparaz, who wrote in 1955 about the existence of the great Colca Canyon in the UNESCO magazine Correo, and included it in his guide. His description coincides with that of Shippee and Johnson in their book Peru from the Air where they assert that the Colca Canyon is twice as deep as the Colorado Canyon. The Grand Canyon of the Colorado is 1,600 m deep; the Colca 3,400 m. And if we took into consideration the height of the surrounding peaks, Coropuna at 6,425 m and Ampato at 6,310 m, the depth of the canyon would be more than 5,000 m.

The reports by Dr. Reparaz motivated some Polish canoeists to attempt the navigation of the Colca. This was the Polish Student Expedition, CANOANDES 79, in 1981. They managed to travel from Canco as far as the confluence with the Andamayo River, from which point the river is called the Majes. On the first attempt they tried to go from Cabanaconde, but given the difficulties of the river, the rapids and rocks, their kayaks were damaged, as well as the inflatable boat. They were forced to return to Arequipa in order to repair their equipment. Already running out of funds, they were happy to receive the aid of various friends who lodged them and repaired the boats. In early June, they were able to recommence the expedition, this time covering a 50 km stretch of the canyon from Canco to Andamayo. This shows remarkable sporting prowess, if we consider the great difficulties of navigation and the impossibility of rescue in case of emergency. The young Poles described their experience in an article, "Sport and Adventure in the Rivers of Peru", which appeared in a canoeing guide. There they detailed their experience kilometer by kilometer and recorded their impressions when, for example, the river narrowed to a mere three meters of width, or when they went through a stretch of the canyon between almost verticle walls of 4,000 m on one side and 3,000 m on the other, which they named the "Chocolate Canyon". They also mentioned the marks they saw on a huge rock which seemed to be the tracks of some prehistoric animal. The young Polish students who took part in this expedition, which navigated a great part of the Colca Canyon for the first time, were: Andrzej Pietowski, Piotr Chmielinski, Jacek Bogucki, Steplan Danielski, Jerzy Majcherczik, Krystof Krarnieski and Zbigniew Bzdak. Since the journey of these young Poles, the same feat has only been repeated four or five times. This is not surprising when one considers the difficulty of navigating the river. It requires extremely experienced, and brave, canoeists. In April of 1985 a lamentable accident occurred in which the lives of Alvaro Ibez, Carolina Tiango and Luis Figueroa were lost. Since the Colca Canyon is the empire of the condor, the first documentaries were filmings of this magnificent bird. Some remarkable films of great impact were produced. One such was The Flight of the Condor by Michael L.A. Andrews of the London BBC. In one of the scenes the canyon is shown from a helicopter. The American television program American Sportsman, produced by the American Broadcasting Company, also made a documentary in which, with the aid of an ultra-light plane designed and piloted by Larry Newmann (one of the crew members of the aerostatic balloon which crossed the Atlantic and the Pacific for the first time), spectacular scenes following the flight of the condor were filmed.

Another important film was that made by the team of Francis Thompson, directed by Bayley Silleck, for presentation at the Smithsonian Institute in 1984. They captured exceptional scenes of condors using an enormous camera with a special IMAX system. During the preparations for the film, in the middle of the canyon, I had an accident. Most unfortunately I broke my leg and my frieds the filmmakers had to become a rescue team- fisherman's luck. In 1982 Jean Michel Cousteau began a documentary on the peak of Mismi, which was the point of departure for the Amazon expedition of Jacques Ives Cousteau. It was also the place where, some years before, the Andean explorer and amateur archeologist Peter Rose, a South African engineer, and chief engineer of one of the encampments of the Majes irrigation project, found, very near the top of the Mismi, a golden idol 10 cm high which represent an adolescent girl. Presumably this was an offering to the "apu", the mystic spirit of the mountain and the origin of the waters which give fertility to the earth, according to beliefs which have existed since pre-Incan times. In these Andean peaks in the south of Peru and the North of Chile the Colca is in an area influenced by the Amazon basin. The Cousteau expedition was interested in determining the relationship between this region and the Amazon. They discovered certain elements, such as the engraving of a tucan on the cave wall of Mollepunku, which lead one to believe that even in prehistoric times some link between the populations of the Andes and the Amazon may have existed. The petroglyphs of Toro Muerto along the lower Colca in the Majes Valley also represent various animals (snakes, birds and such) and even dancers which are typical of the Amazon. Among the many adventures enjoyed in this fantastic region, those shared with friends like Torgny Andenberg, with whom we filmed the now classic documentary From the White City, must not be forgotten. Nor can we forget other friends such as Billy Hare, Fred Allert, Alejandro Balaguer, Charles Carty, Francois and Charles Patthey, and the brothers Jordi and Jaume Blassi, photographers and adventurers with whom for many years we traveled the hidden marvels of the Colca region and learned to know and value these jewels of nature and of Man. We live in an epoch when the inhabitant of the great city desperately needs to be reintegrated into the natural environment. Normal conditions of life in a contaminated ambiance where we are surrounded by artificial elements, have caused Man to totally lose contact with nature. In the Colca region one can find the perfect conditions for sport, adventure, scientific observation, and most important of all, contact with nature.

The Colca River and the famous canyon, of an average depth of 3,400 m over a 100 km stretch, is a great challenge to the canoeist. To make the whole journey, given the conditions of navigation, a great deal of experience is necessary. Nonetheless, there are some stretches in the high country, that is in the valley proper, in which navigation, although still fascinating, is not dangerous. There are attractive ascents for the mountaineer, such as the volcanos Coropuna, 6,425 m high and Ampato, 6,310 m high. Or there is the Chila Range. One of its peaks, the 5,597 m high Mismi, is, as we mentioned above, the most distant source of the Amazon. Hikes and trips on horseback are other interesting possibilities for traveling through the valley proper and the canyon or for crossing to the Valley of the Volcanos (Andagua). Other absolutely fascinating excursions can be made following the Incan roads to Cusco or Arequipa. The majestic presence of the condor in the region is by no means the only animal attraction. There are over a hundred species of birds existing in the region. Especially interesting among them are the flamingo of Salinas Lake, the Andean goose and the giant choca in Indio Lake. As far as mammals are concerned the vicuna, the guanaco and the taruka are among the most interesting. There are also wonderful opportunites in the cultural area for experiencing ancient civilizations, and even prehistoric Man. There are archeological remains from the prehistoric period such as the caves of Ccollpa and Mollepunku. There are also pre-Incan and Incan ruins, such as the cities of Juscallacta, Uyo Uyo, and Pomonuta, or the hanging tombs in Choquetico where you will also find stone statuary. There are also the ruins of some chiefs' palaces in Yanque and Lari and the amazing "colcas", containers for food, in Chininia.The villages are especially interesting because of their state of preservation. You will find them very much the way they were 400 years ago. They were laid out during the colonial period as "Indian Settlements", each one with its church as the dominating symbol. The churches are important architecturally and contain many objects of great artistic value, such as paintings, sculptures and silver, all of which are in great contrast with the modesty of their surroundings. All along the valley and the canyon thermal springs bubble up, as for instance at Sibayo, La Calera and Yanque. All of them are worthy of being considered yet one more attraction in this mysterious region so little known until such a short time ago. The lost valley of the Incas

For reasons still not clearly determined the Colca was almost completely ignored during the Republican period, until it almost disappeared from the map. Only Caylloma was somewhat remembered because of its importance as a mining center. It was with the beginning of engineering work for the immense Majes project, an amazing labor which directed the waters of the Apurimac River, the most distant tributary of the Amazon, to the Colca River in order to irrigate the pampas of Majes, one of the driest deserts in the world, that access was opened to the mysterious valley in the decade of the 70's. In order to realize this ambitious project it was necessary to construct great dams across the Apurmac and Colca Rivers, more than 100 km of tunels and 40 km of canals. The results brought water to the pampas, making 60 thousand hectars of land fertil, and generated 650,000 kw of electrical energy. It is interesting to contrast this great modern engineering project with those carried out in the Colca more than 1,400 years ago, and still in use today. This refers to the creation of more than 6,000 hectars of terraces on the slopes of the deep canyon which were necessary for agricultural production. Water was brought to irrigate these little fields by an ingenious system of canals from the scattered springs on the heights, since the river is so deep within its walls at this point that it is impossible to use it. Thanks to this amazing pre-Incan engineering feat the Colca was an important source of food for many centuries. The great agricultural project of today, the irrigation of the Majes, carried out in the region 1,400 years later, has allowed us to discover "The Valley of Marvels", as the writer Mario Vargas Llosa calls it in his foreword. In order to construct this great system of irrigation, it was necessary to open more than 400 km of roads and build several villages to house the more than 4,000 men who worked on the amazing project for 10 years. As costly as the project was, we realize its justification when we consider that the people of the Andes and the Colca, in order to assure the fertility of the earth and thus obtain the harvests which assured them of being able to nourish their families, always made offerings to the "apu" the supreme being of the snowy peaks and the origin of water. The realization of the Majes Project required the formation of a powerful international consortium, since it was necessary to use the most modern technology, and to have available funds sufficient to finish a work which in its first stage alone cost some 700 million dollars. Thus the Majes Consortium was formed, made up of five companies from different countries. These were: A.B. Skanska Cementgjuteriet, of Sweden; Tarmac Construction Ltd., of Great Britian; Entrecanales y Tavora, S.A., of Spain; The Foundation Company of Canada Ltd.; Concor Construction (PTY) Ltd., of South Africa; and the

ELECTROCONSULT companies of Italy which carried out the studies and supervised the work. The participation of the government and Peruvian technicians was also important in the studies and in the execution of the project. To the surprise of Peruvians and foreigners alike, this important setting, full of history and culture, in which we find prehistoric remains at least 6 million years old, remains of the pre-Incan ethnic groups the Collaguas and the Cabanas, remains of the Incan Empire and testimony of an important colonial presence, appeared to the world. Little by little researchers appeared who incited the rest of us to want to know the Colca. Its importance makes it imperative to make the riches of the region known to the world. It is necessary to develop tourism in order to ensure the adequate conservation of this living treasure. Touristic villages In 1983, in the face of little faith and much scepticism on the part of Peruvian tourist businesses, the Chamber of Commerce and Industry of Arequipa together with the Autonomous Authority of Majes, the head entity in the Majes Project, and with some economic support from the Fund for Touristic Promotion in Peru, initiated the Program for the Touristic Development of the Colca. Touristic development means not only the necessity of providing a sufficient number of comfortable accomodations for visitors and the promotion of tourist attractions, but also a solid organization which can guarantee the adequate conservation of the natural and cultural resources. To fulfill this need the Peruvian Government created the Colca Authority in 1986 with law 24521. This makes the zone and the area of its influence a National Reserve and regulates its management. Since then tourism has begun to develop and various travel agencies offer tours on a regular basis. The magnificent instalations of one of the encampments for the Majes Project (Achoma Staff) are used as the center of operations. This encampment was built in order to house numerous technicians, many of them with their families. Once the work was finished the technicians returned to their homes and the place was converted into a touristic village, complete with restaurant, inn, and other services for visitors.

The Colca is accessible from the city of Arequipa. This city is a well developed tourist center with hotels, restaurants and an airport with air service to Lima, Cusco, Puno and Tacna. Furthermore it is connected with Bolivia and Chile by the Pan-American highway and with the Matarani - Arequipa - Puno - Cusco Machu Picchu railroad. From Arequipa one can reach the Colca by 140 km of paved road. The road passes numerous centers of attraction on a tour of approximately five hours. It goes through different zones, rich in exotic fauna and abounding in extraordinary and suggestive landscapes.