Electronic Devices and Circuits

According to JNTUK syllabus

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Fundamentals of atomic theory Index of first unit

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Introduction and Essential Fundamentals of atomic theory

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HISTORY OF THE ATOM

460 BC

Democritus develops the idea of atoms

he pounded up materials in his pestle and

mortar until he had reduced them to smaller and smaller particles which he called

ATOMA
(greek for indivisible)
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HISTORY OF THE ATOM

1808

John Dalton

suggested that all matter was made up of

tiny spheres that were able to bounce around with perfect elasticity and called them

ATOMS

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HISTORY OF THE ATOM

1898

Joseph John Thompson

found that atoms could sometimes eject a far

smaller negative particle which he called an

ELECTRON

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HISTORY OF THE ATOM

1904
Thompson develops the idea that an atom was made up of electrons scattered unevenly within an elastic sphere surrounded by a soup of positive charge to balance the electron's charge like plums surrounded by pudding.

PLUM PUDDING MODEL

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HISTORY OF THE ATOM

In 1910 Ernest Rutherford and his team Geiger and Marsden conducted a famous experiment . they fired Helium nuclei at a piece of gold foil

which was only a few atoms thick.

they found that although most of them passed through. About 1 in 10,000 hit
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HISTORY OF THE ATOM

helium nuclei gold foil

helium nuclei

They found that while most of the helium nuclei passed through the foil, a small number were deflected and, to their

surprise, some helium nuclei bounced straight back.

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HISTORY OF THE ATOM

Rutherfords new evidence allowed him to propose a more detailed model with a central nucleus.

He suggested that the positive charge was all in a central

nucleus. With this holding the electrons in place by electrical attraction

However, this was not the end of the story.

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HISTORY OF THE ATOM

1913

Niels Bohr
studied under Rutherford at the Victoria University in Manchester.

Bohr refined Rutherford's idea by adding

that the electrons were in orbits. Rather like planets orbiting the sun. With each orbit only able to contain a set number of electrons.

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HELIUM ATOM
proton

Shell

+ electron
N

neutron

What do these particles consist of?

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ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Particle Charge

Mass

Proton
Neutron Electron

+ve Charge 1.67262158 10-27 kg

1.60210
-19

Or 1.0086649156 amu

No charge

1,6749 x 10-27 kg Or
1.00727638 amu
9.10938188 10-31 kg
Or

-ve charge
-1.60210
-19

0.0005446623 amu

An atomic mass unit (symbolized AMU or amu) is defined as precisely 1/12 the mass of an Bhimavaram 13 atom of carbon-12.

The Bohr Atom : Bohr in 1913 postulated the following three fundamental laws:

2. In stationary a transition from one stationary corresponding 1. all energies asis given by classical mechanics are 3. Not A state determined bystate the condition to a definite W2can to another state, with possible, butenergy themomentum atom possess only certain discrete that the angular of thestationary electron in this an associated energy W radiation will be emitted. The energies. While in and states to multiple these discrete 1,corresponding state is quantized must be an integral frequency of this radiant energy is given by energies, the electron does not emit radiation, and the of h/2 Thus electron is said to be in a stationary, or non radiating, f= (W -W )/h 1 2 state. where h is Plancks constant in joule-seconds, the Ws are
energy level joules of each expressed in and in f is in cycles per second, or hertz. where n isthe anjoules, integer.
state is found to be

mvr = n h/2

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 wavelength in angstroms
E energy value of the stationary states in electron volts

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According to Schrodinger four quantum numbers are required to define the wave function. 4. Electron spin. Inquantum order to explain certain spectroscopic The principal number n an 3. The orbital magnetic number mn may have the 1, values lquantum 2. angular momentum number takes 1. 1. principal quantum number is integer 2,l3, . .and . magnetic phenomena, Uhlenbeck and Goudsmit, 1925, 2. The orbital quantum number l 0, 1, 2, ... 0, l. angular This number gives the orientation of the and determines the total energy associated with ain particular on the values 1, 2, .. .momentum , (n 1). This number indicates found it necessary to assume that, in addition to traversing 3. The orbital magnetic number m classical orbit with respect to an applied magnetic field. l state. This number may be considered to define the size The of the shape of the classical orbit. The magnitude of this its orbit around the nucleus, the electron mustto also rotate 4. Electron spin ms magnitude of the component ofit angular momentum along the classical elliptical orbit, and corresponds the angular momentum is about its own axis.nThis intrinsic electronic angular quantum number of the Bohr atom. the directionIs of the magnetic field is (h/2 ) momentum called electron spin. When m an lelectron system is subjected to a magnetic field, the spin axis will orient itself either parallel or anti parallel to the direction of the field. The spin is thus quantized to one of two possible values. The electronic angular momentum is given by ms(h/2), where the spin quantum number ms may assume only two values, +1/2 or 1/2 .
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Actual orbital shape

3S 2S 1S 1S 2S 3S

2P 3P

P(14)
+N(14)

Represents Requirement of electrons to get argon configuration

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Electron atomic and molecular orbitals. The chart of orbitals (left) is arranged by increasing energy Note that atomic orbits are functions of three variables (two angles, and the distance from the nucleus, r). These images are faithful to the angular component of the orbital, but not entirely representative of the orbital as a whole.
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Basic Information Name: Silicon Symbol: Si Atomic Number: 14 Atomic Mass: 28.0855 amu Melting Point: 1410.0 C (1683.15 K, 2570.0 F) Boiling Point: 2355.0 C (2628.15 K, 4271.0 F) Number of Protons/Electrons: 14 Number of Neutrons: 14 Classification: Metalloid Crystal Structure: Cubic Density @ 293 K: 2.329 g/cm3 Color: grey Date of Discovery: 1823 Discoverer: Jons Berzelius Name Origin: From the Latin word silex (flint) Uses: glass, semiconductors Obtained From: Second most abundant element. Found in clay, granite, quartz, sand
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Basic Information

Name: Germanium Symbol: Ge Atomic Number: 32 Atomic Mass: 72.61 amu Melting Point: 937.4 C (1210.55 K, 1719.3201 F) Boiling Point: 2830.0 C (3103.15 K, 5126.0 F) Number of Protons/Electrons: 32 Number of Neutrons: 41 Classification: Metalloid Crystal Structure: Cubic Density @ 293 K: 5.323 g/cm3 Color: grayish Date of Discovery: 1886 Discoverer: Clemens Winkler Name Origin: From the Latin word Germania, meaning Germany Uses: semiconductors Obtained From: refining of copper, zinc, lead

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Syllabus

Electron Ballistics and Applications: 1.1Force on Charged Particles in Electric field, 1.2 Constant Electric Field, 1.3 Potential, Relationship between Field Intensity and Potential, 1.4Two Dimensional Motion, 1.5 Electrostatic Deflection in Cathode ray Tube, CRO, 1.6 Force in Magnetic Field, 1.7 Motion in Magnetic Field, 1.8 Magnetic Deflection in CRT, 1.9 Magnetic Focusing, 1.10 Parallel Electric and Magnetic fields 1.11 Perpendicular Electric and Magnetic Fields.

I UNIT

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Force on a charged particle in an Electric Field

The Electric

field intensity at any point is defined as

The Force on unit Positive charge at that point.

There fore the force (f) on unit positive charge q in an electric field is

f=q

The resulting force f is in Newton and is in the direction of electric field , q is in coulombs and is in Volts/meters.

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The Newton second law of motion says

force (f )= m a

where m is mass of electron and a is acceleration of electron.

By relating the force of electric field on the electron with Newtons second law of motion we can write that

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constant electrified field

If the distance between The A difference of electron potential Suppose that an is plates isbetween very the Small situated two is applied between the plates of plate compared with dimension of two plates . parallel capacitor are the plates . which The direction of electric contained in an evacuated the electric field maybe field is from positive envelope as shown in fig. to considered be uniform . negative to plate. The direction of electric field is along the ve x direction. That is the only force on the electron.

+ + + + + + + +

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constant electrified field

+ + + + + + + +

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constant electrified field

+ + + + + + + +

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constant electrified field

V

+ + + + + + + +

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Electric Field

When Vd=0 is Volts +Ve

Two Dimensional electronic motion in a uniform electric field

When an electron moving in a straight line with a uniform velocity (Vox ) it will continue its motion in a straight line path .

If an uniform Electric field ()is introduced in its straight line path in a perpendicular direction . It has Two forces now and the resultant Is path of parabola.
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ELECTROSTATIC DEFLECTION IN A CATHODE-RAY TUBE The essentials of a cathode-ray tube for electrostatic deflection are illustrated in Fig. The hot cathode K emits electrons which are accelerated towards the anode by the potential Va. Those electrons which are not collected by the anode pass through the tiny anode bole and strike the end of the glass envelope. This has been coated with a material that fluoresces when bomb boarded by electrons. Thus the positions where the electrons strike the screen are made visible to the eye. The displacement D of the electrons is determined by the potential Vd (assumed constant) applied between the deflecting plates, as shown. The velocity vox with which the electrons emerge from the anode hole is given by
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on the assumption the initial velocities of From the geometrythat of the figure, emission of the from the cathode are the equation of electrons the straight line MP is negligible. found to be Since no field is supposed to exist in the region from the anode to the point 0, the electrons will move with a constant velocity in a straightline path. In the region between the plates the electrons will move in the parabolic path given by When y = 0, x = 1/2, which indicates that when the straight line MP is extended backward, will of intersect the tube axis The path is a straight line from the point of emergence M at the it edge the atfield-free. the point 0, the center point of the plates to the point P on the screen, since this region is plates. This result means that 0 is, in The straight-line path in the region from the deflecting plates to the screen is, of effect, virtual course, tangent to the parabola at the point. M. The slope ofathe line cathode, at this and regardless of the applied potentials Va and Vd, the point, and so at every point between M and P, is electrons appear to emerge from this cathode and move in a straight line to the point P.

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At the point P, y meters) = D, andon x =the L + l/2. the deflection (in screen per volt of deflecting voltage. Is defined as deflection sensitivity Thus

By inserting the known values of ay (= eVd/dm) and vox this becomes The idealization made in connection with the foregoing An inspection of above Eq. shows that the field between the deflecting development, viz, that the electric sensitivity is independent both the deflecting plates is uniform of and does not extend beyond the edges of the voltage Vplates, d and is never met in practice. the ratio e/m. Furthermore, the sensitivity varies inversely Consequently, the effect fringing of the electric may of be a cathode-ray tube This result shows that of the deflection on thefield screen with the potential V. enough to proportional necessitate corrections amounting voltage to as much as 40 isaccelerating directly to the deflecting Vd percent between in the results obtained applied the plates.from an application of Eq Typical measured of sensitivity are Consequently, avalues cathode-ray tube may be used as a

linear-voltage indicating device.

1.0 to 0.1 mm/V, corresponding to a voltage requirement of 10 to 100 V to give a deflection of 1 cm.
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Vd=0

H a t

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+ Vd +

- -

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Vd

+ +

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Horizontal sweep voltage applied on Horizontal Deflection plates

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Horizontal sweep voltage applied on Horizontal Deflection plates. And a sinusoidal voltage applied for vertical deflection plates.
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FORCE IN A MAGNETIC FIELD

To investigate the force on a moving charge in a magnetic field, the well- known motor law is recalled. It has been verified by experimentally that, if a conductor of length L, carrying a current of I, is situated in a magnetic field of intensity B, the force f, acting on this conductor is f = BIL sin where fm is in newtons, B is in webers per square meter (Wb/m),I is in amperes, L is in meters and is the angle between I and B. If is 900 then f= BIL

One weber per square meter is called tesla and equals to 104G
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Force on an electron
If N electrons are contained in a length L of conductor and if it takes an electron a time T sec to travel a distance of L meters in the conductor, the total number of electrons passing through any cross section of wire in unit time is N/T. Thus the total charge per second passing any point, which, by definition, is the current in amperes, is I = Ne/T The force in newtons on a length L m (or the force on the N conduction charges contained therein) is f = BIL = BL(Ne/T) since L/T is the average, or drift, speed rn/sec of the electrons, the force per electron is fm = eBv The subscript m indicates that the force is of magnetic origin.
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Current density
the current density, denoted by the symbol J, is the current per unit area of the conducting medium. That is, assuming a uniform current distribution, This derivation is independent J =I/A of the form of the conducting medium. Consequently, does not necessarily represent a wire where J is in amperes it per square meter, and conductor. It may represent equally well a portion of a gaseousA is the cross-sectional area (in meters) of the conductor. discharge tube or a volume element in the space-charge cloud of a This becomes, vacuum tube or a semiconductor. Furthermore, neither nor v J=Ne/ need be constant, but mayTA vary from point to point in space or may vary with time.But T = L/v. Then Therefore J= Nev/LA
it is evident that LA is simply the volume containing the N electrons, and so N/LA is the electron concentration n (in electrons per cubic meter). Thus n = N/LA and J=nev=v where = ne is the charge density, in coulombs per cubic meter, and is v in meters per second.
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MOTION IN A MAGNETIC FIELD

Now consider an electron moving with a speed v. to enter a constant uniform magnetic field normally, as shown in Fig Consider an electron to be placed in the region of Since the force fm is perpendicular to v and so to the motion at the magnetic Ifdone the on particle is at rest, fm = 0 every instant, nofield. work is the electron.

and the particle remains at rest. If the initial velocity of the particle is kinetic along the lines the magnetic flux, This means that its energy is notof increased, and so its speed remains Further,on since v and B are each constant in there isunchanged. no force acting the particle, particle magnitude, then fm is constant in magnitude and perpendicular whose initial velocity has no component normal to to the direction magnetic of motion of the particle. This type ofmove force results a uniform field will continue to with in motion in aspeed circular path with constant speed. constant along the lines of flux.
It is analogous to the problem of a mass tied to a rope and twirled around with constant speed. The force (which is the tension in the rope) remains constant in magnitude and is always directed toward the center of the circle, and so is normal to the motion. To find the radius of the circle, it is recalled that a particle moving in a circular path with a constant speed v has an acceleration toward the center of the circle of magnitude v /R where R is the radius of the path in meters.
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DEFLECTION IN A CATHODE-RAY TUBE MAGNETIC the cathoderay tube may employ a out Hence the electron moves in apointing straight line of The a magnetic field is taken as magnetic as well as an electric field0in order from the cathode to the boundary of the to the paper, and the beam is deflected upward. accomplish the deflection of of the electron magnetic field. In the the uniform It is assumed that the region magnetic field intensity beam. However, since it is not feasible to a magnetic field electron experiences a use force B is uniform in the restricted region shown and field extending over the entire length of the ofzero magnitude where v is the speed. is outsideeBv, of this area tube, a short transverse field The path OM coil will furnishing be the arc a of a circle whose in a limited employed, shownwill in center is at region Q. The is speed of the as particles Fig. remain constant and equal to

The angle is, by definition of radian measure, equal to the length of the arc OM divided by R, the radius of the circle, if we assume a small angle of deflection, then Where

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S=D/B is called the magnetic-deflection sensitivity of the tube. It is observed that this A modern CRT TV tube has a screen diameter comparable with the quantity is independent of B. This condition is length of neck. Hence the angle, analogous tothe thetube electric case for which the is too large for the approximation tan =very tomuch be valid. Under these circumstances it is sensitivity is independent of the In electrostatic most practical cases, L is larger than found that thewill deflection is in noassuming longer proportional to B . If the magneticdeflecting potential. l, so that little error be made deflection driven by a saw-tooth current waveform, the deflection that the straight coil lineis MP, if projected backward, of the beam in the on electric the face case, sensitivity will willHowever, pass through the center 0of ofthe thetube region ofnot be linear with time. For such inversely wide-angle deflection the anode tubes, voltage, special linearity Correcting networks thevaries magnetic field. with Then So, we can write whereas must be it here added. varies inversely with the square A TV root tubeof has the two anode sets voltage. of magnetic-.deflection coils mountedper around The deflection unit magnetic field the neck at right angles to each other, corresponding to the two sets intensity, D/B, given byof Another important difference is in the plates in the oscilloscope tube Sweep currents are applied to both coils, appearance of elm in the expression for the with the horizontal signal much higher in frequency than that of the magnetic sensitivity, whereas this ratio did not vertical Sweep. The result is a rectangular raster of closely spaced lines enter into the final expression for the electric which cover the entire face of the tube and impart a uniform intensity to case. the screen. When the video signal is applied to the electron gun, it Because the sensitivity increases L, and the thus forms the TV picture. modulates the intensity of thewith beam deflecting coils are placed as far down the neck of the tube as possible, usually directly after the accelerating anode.
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linearly increasing Magnetic field Direction into the Paper

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MAGNETIC FOCUSING
The electronic motion can most easily be analyzed by resolving the velocity into two Imagine thatv a cathode-ray tube is placed in a components, y and v, along and transverse to constant longitudinal magnetic field, the axis the magnetic field, respectively. of the tube coinciding with the direction of the magnetic field. is perpendicular to B, there is Since the force nopitch acceleration in the Y direction. Hence vy The of the helix, defined as the distance constant and the equal to voy,. of the magnetic traveled along direction A magnetic field of the type here considered is field in one revolution, is given by A force eBv normal to use the path will exist, resulting from obtained through the of a long solenoid, pthe = voy T being velocity. transverse This force gives rise to circular tube placed within the coil. reveals where T is the period, or the time for motion, the radius of the circle being mv /eB, the motion. The Y axis represents theone axis of revolution. the cathode-ray tube. with v, a constant, and equal to v0x. The resultant The origin 0 is the point at which the electrons path is a helix whose axis is parallel to the Y axis and emerge from the anode. The velocity of the displaced from it by a distance R along the Z axis, as origin is v0, the initial transverse velocity due to illustrated. the mutual repulsion of the electrons being vox It is now shown that the resulting motion is a helix, as illustrated.

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Under By continuing these conditions to increase an image the strength ofathe of anode the is field hole beyond will be observed this critical on value, the If the electron beam is defocused, smudge seen on the The foregoing considerations may be generalized in the following way: than screen. the pitch As of the the field helix is decreases, increased from and zero, the electrons the smudge travel on through the screen more screen when the applied magnetic field is zero. resulting one complete from is the revolution. defocused The beam electrons will contract then the willscreen become atthe a various tiny sharp points, If the screen perpendicular to the Y axis atstrike a and distance L from point of spot so that (the aimage defocused of the spot anode isbeam again hole) visible. when a A critical magnetic field of the is will emergence of the electron from the anode, then, forstrength an field anode-cathode This means that the various electrons in the beamvalue reached. ultimately This critical is that which makes the pitch of the at helical path just potential equal to Va,field the electron beam will come to a focus the of the pass through the anode hole with different transverse velocities v and 0x, center equal to provided the distance, as discussed be reached at which the make two complete revolutions in their ,path screen that L iselectrons an integral multiple of p. above. Under these conditions so strike the anode-screen screen at different points. This accounts for the from the anode the screen, and once spotof will focused equation may rearranged read . again appearance of be a to broad, faintlyto illuminated area the instead a be bright point on the screen. where n is an integer representing the order of the focus. on the screen. This process may be continued, numerous foci being obtainable. fact, the current of the solenoid is the the electrons factor that generally furnishes AsIn the magnetic field rating is increased from zero will move in a practical limitation tosince the order of the focus helices of different radii, the velocity v0x that controls the radius of the path will be different for different electrons. However, the period, or the time to trace out the path, is independent of v0x, and so the period will be the same for all electrons. If, then, the distance from the anode to the screen is made equal to one pitch, all the electrons will be brought back to the Y axis (the point 0 in Fig.), since they all will have made just one revolution. Return to Index
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return

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PARALLEL ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELDS

If both electric and magnetic fields exist where a e/m is the magnitude ofother the If, initially, a= component of velocity v0x perpendicular to the simultaneously and parallel to each acceleration. The negative sign results from with the magnetic magnetic exists, thisof component, together and thefield initial velocity the electron either the fact that the direction of the acceleration field, will give rise to circular the radius of the circular path is zero or is directed along motion, the fields, the of an electron opposite to the direction being independent of . However, because the electric field , magnetic field is exerts no force on the ofof the electric field intensity . the velocity along the field changes with time. Consequently, the electron. resulting path is motion helical with a pitch thatupon changes with the time. The resultant depends solely That is, the distance traveled. along the Y axis per revolution the electric field intensity In other words, increases with each revolution. the electron will move in a direction parallel to the fields with a constant acceleration. If the fields are chosen as in Fig. the complete motion is specified by
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v y=v0y - at ; y= v0yt (at2)

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PERPENDICULAR ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELDS

If the initial velocity parallel to B is The directions of the component fields are shown in Fig. zero, the The pathmagnetic lies entirely inis a directed plane along field perpendicular the Y axis, to B. and the Electric field in directed It is desired to investigate the path of an electron along the x axis. starting at rest at the origin.
The force on an electron due to since the electric The initial magnetic force is zero, the velocity is field zero is directed along the +X axis. TheAny electric force is directed alongfield the +X axis, and the electron will force due to the magnetic is always be accelerated this direction. normal to B,in and hence lies in a plane parallel to the XZ plane. As soon as the electron is in motion, the magnetic force will no longer be zero. Thus there is no component of force along the There will then be a component of this force which will be proportional to the X Y direction, and the Y component of component of velocity and will be directed along the +Z axis. acceleration is zero. Hence the motion along Y assuming that the electron starts at the origin. The path will thus bend away from the +X direction toward the +Z direction. is given by fy =0; v y=v0y; y= v0yt
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The arguments given above do indicate the manner in The force to the electric field which thedue electron starts on its path.is This path will now he shown to be a cycloid. along the +X direction. The force due to the magnetic field is found as follows: At any instant, the velocity is determined by the three components v x, v y and v z along the three coordinate axes. Since B is in the Y direction, no force will be exerted on the electron due to v y . Because of v x the force is eBv z in the +Z direction, Similarly, the force due to v z is eBv z in the X direction.

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A straight forward procedure is involved in the Hence Newtons when expressed in first terms solution of law, these equations. If the of theequation three components, yields of (3) is differentiated and combined with the second, we obtain

This linear differential equation with constant coefficients is readily solved for v x . By writing for convenience Substituting this expression for v x in Eq. (3) this equation can be solved for v z Subject to the initial conditions v x = v z = 0, we obtain the may be written in the form v xforegoing = u sin tequationsv z = u u cos t In order to find the coordinates x and z from these expressions, each equation must be integrated. Thus, subject to the initial conditions x = z = 0,

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If, for convenience,

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Straight Equations The From physical these Line (5) interpretations interpretation Path are the As a parametric special of and the case from equations symbols of Fig. itintroduced is of a common above clear importance, that merely cycloid, the consider maximum as abbreviations defined that displacement as the the electron is path as follows: generated of is the by a point on the electron released along perpendicular circumference the X axis to isboth equal of athe circle to electric the of radius and Q, which diameter magnetic represents rolls of fields along the the so rolling a angular that straight circle, velocity line, or 2Q. the ofZ Also, rotation axis. the This ofis the illustrated distance along rolling in Fig. the Z axis v 0x, v 0y =0 and vcircle. 0. between cusps is 0z equal represents to the circumference the number ofof radians the rolling The point P, whose coordinates are xthrough andcircle, z (y which = 0), or 2 Q. At the each circle cusp the rotated. speed of + the electron The electric force ishas e along X direction represents the position of the the electron at any time. Q is zero, repre8ents since at the this radius point of the the velocity rolling is circle. (Fig.), and the magnetic force is eBv0z along the X reversing its direction Fig. The dark is force the locus of the point is P.zero, The it direction. If curve the net on the electron Since u = Q, then u is represents the velocity of reference line CC drawn through the center will continue to move along the Z axis with the translation This also seen of the from center the of fact thethat rolling each circle. cusp is ofis the generating circle parallel to the Xwhen axis. constant speed This conditions is realized along the circle Z axis, andon hence ataxis, the then sameOC represents Since the rolls the Z potential. the electron hashas gained no come = eB v0z the lengthTherefore ofe the circumference that already energy from the electric field, its speed in contact with the Z axis. This and length is evidently must again be zero. v0z =/B=u equal to the arc PC (and equals Q). If an initial velocity exists that is directed parallel to the magnetic field, the projection of The angle gives the number of radians through the path on the XZ plane will From still be a cycloid which the circle has rotated. the diagram, it Note that this velocity u is independent of the charge but the particle will now have a constant readily follows that or mass of the ions. and net force is zero . In such a system of perpendicular velocity the plane. This x = Q normal Q cos ;to z= Q Q sin path ---(6)might fields will a act as a velocity filter and allow only those particles whose velocity be called cycloidal helical which are identical with Eqs.motion. (5), thus proving that is given by the ratio /B to be selected. the path is cycloidal as predicted.
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