Introduction To Geology Plate Tectonics, Structural Geology Drifting Continents and Spreading Seas, Plate Tectonics, Minerals

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition
by Stephen Marshak 2011 W.W. Norton & Company
Chapter 5 Patterns in Nature: Minerals
Lecture 5: Minerals
Prepared by:
Ronald L. Parker, Senior Geologist

Fronterra Geosciences, Denver, Colorado Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak 2011, W. W. Norton Chapter 5: Patterns in Nature: Minerals
Why Study Minerals?

Minerals are the building blocks of the planet.
Minerals make up all of the rocks and sediments on Earth. Understanding Earth requires understanding minerals.
Minerals are important to humans.

Industrial minerals mineralsraw materials for manufacturing. Ore minerals mineralssources of valuable metals. Gem minerals mineralsattract human passions.
Another View
Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak
2011, W. W. Norton
Chapter 5: Patterns in Nature: Minerals
What Is a Mineral?
The geologic definition of a mineral is specialized:
Naturally occurring. Solid. Formed geologically. Crystalline structure. Definite chemical composition. Mostly inorganic.
2011, W. W. Norton
PowerPoint slides prepared by Ronald L. Parker, Fronterra Geosciences, 700 17th Street, Suite 900, Denver, CO, 80202

What Is a Mineral?
They are naturally occurring.
A true mineral is created by natural processes. Humans can recreate natural processes to make minerals.
These are called synthetic minerals.
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What Is a Mineral?
They are solid.
A state of matter that can maintain its shape indefinitely. Minerals are solids, not liquids or gases.
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What Is a Mineral?
They are formed by geologic processes.
Freezing from a melt. Precipitation from a dissolved state in water. Chemical reactions at high pressures and temperatures.
Subtle distinction: living organisms can create minerals.

Called biogenic minerals to emphasize this special origin.
Vertebrate bones (apatite). Oyster, mussel, and clam shells (aragonite). Other skeletal types.
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What Is a Crystal?
They have a crystalline structure.
Atoms in a mineral are arranged in a specific order. This atomic pattern is called a crystal lattice.
A solid with disordered atoms is called a glass. Lacking crystalline structure, glasses are not minerals.
Fig. 5.4b
Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak 2011, W. W. Norton Chapter 5: Patterns in Nature: Minerals
What Is a Mineral?
They have a definite chemical composition
Minerals can be defined by a chemical formula.
Simple
Ice Ice H2O Calcite Calcite CaCO3 Quartz Quartz SiO2
Complex
BiotiteK(Mg,Fe)3(AlSi3O10)(OH)2 Biotite Hornblende Hornblende Ca2(Fe2+,Mg)(Al,Fe3+)(Si7Al)O22(OH,F)2
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What Is a Mineral?
They are mostly inorganic
Organic compounds
Contain carbon carbonhydrogen bonds. Other elements may be present.
Oxygen Nitrogen Sulfur
Common products of living organisms.
Most minerals are NOT organic.
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What Is a Crystal?
A single, continuous piece of crystalline solid. Typically bounded by flat surfaces (crystal faces). Crystal faces grow naturally as the mineral forms. Crystals are sometimes prized mineral specimens.
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What Is a Crystal?
Constancy of interfacial angles.
The same mineral has the same crystal faces. Adjacent faces occur at the same angle to one another.
Faces and angles reflect crystalline structure.
Fig. 5.5a
What Is a Crystal?
Crystals come in a variety of shapes. Many descriptive terms describe crystal shape.
Fig. 5.5b

What Is inside a Crystal?

Ordered atoms like tiny balls packed tightly together. Held in place by chemical bonds. The way atoms are packed defines the crystal structure. Physical properties (hardness, shape) depend upon:
Identity of atoms. Arrangement of atoms. Nature of atomic bonds.
Sodium (Na+) and Chloride (Cl -) ions are bonded in a cubic lattice by ionic bonds to form the mineral Halite (NaCl), known as salt.
Fig. 5.6a,b

The type of atomic bonding governs mineral properties.
Stronger bonds = harder, higher melting points. Weaker bonds = softer, lower melting points.
Bonds may vary by direction in a mineral.

Faster growth where bonds form more easily. The direction of weaker bonds controls breakage.
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The nature of atomic bonds controls characteristics. Diamond and graphite are carbon polymorphs (C).
Diamondstrong covalent bonds; hardest mineral. Diamond Graphite Graphite weak Van der Waals bonds; softest mineral.
Polymorph Polymorph same composition; different structure.
Diamond
Graphite
Fig. 5.6c,d

Atomic Packing
Ionic radius (size) and ionic charge control packing.
Ion Ion atom charged due to gain or loss of an electron. Cation Cation positive ion due to loss of electron(s). Anion Anion negative ion due to gain of electron(s).
Ionic size depends on # of electrons: anions are bigger.
Fig. 5.7a
Atomic Packing
Ions pack together in different ways, depending on size.
Large central cation cationlarger number of anions. Small central cation cationsmaller number of anions.
Packing configurations define a geometric shape.

Fig. 5.7b
Cubic
Octahedral
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Tetrahedral

Ordered atoms in crystals form spectacular patterns. Atomic patterns repeat regularly in three dimensions. This 33-D internal pattern controls crystal shape.
Fig. 5.8


Ordered atomic patterns in minerals display symmetry.
Mirror image(s). Rotation about an axis (or axes).
Symmetry characteristics are diagnostic.
Fig. 5.7c
How Do We See inside Crystals?

X-ray diffraction (XRD) probes crystal lattices. Unique lattice spacing is used to ID minerals.
Box 5.2
How Do We See inside Crystals?

Modern instruments allow us to see the atomic pattern. Transmission electron microscope (TEM)
Shoots a beam of electrons at a crystal. Electrons pass through spaces reaching a detector. Electrons that interact with atoms do not. Dark and light pattern images the atomic crystal lattice.
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Mineral Formation
New crystals can form in five ways.
Solidification from a melt.
Crystals grow when the melt cools. Atoms cant remain unattached.
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Mineral Formation
Precipitation from a solution.
Seeds form when a solution becomes saturated.
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Mineral Formation
SolidSolid -state diffusion.
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Mineral Formation
Biomineralization. Biomineralization .
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Mineral Formation
Precipitating directly from a gas.
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Mineral Formation
A tiny early crystal acts as a seed for further growth. Atoms migrate to the seed and attach to the outer face. Growth moves faces outward from the center. Unique shape reflects the crystals internal atomic order.
Time
Fig. 5.10a

Mineral Formation
Outward crystal growth fills available space. Resulting crystal shape governed by surroundings.
Open space spacegood crystal faces grow. Confined space spaceno crystal faces.
Fig. 5.10b
2011, W. W. Norton
Mineral Formation
Mineral growth is often restricted by lack of space.
Anhedralgrown in tight space, no crystal faces. Anhedral Euhedral Euhedral grown in an open cavity, good crystal faces.
Anhedral crystals are much more prevalent. Euhedral crystals grow into the open space in a geode.
Amethyst Geode
Fig. 5.10d
Mineral Destruction
Minerals can be destroyed by:
Meltingheat breaks the bonds holding atoms together. Melting Dissolving Dissolving solvents (mostly water) break atomic bonds. Chemical reaction reactionreactive materials break bonds.
Chapter 9 Opener
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Mineral Identification
Mineral identification is a skill.
Requires learning diagnostic properties.
Some properties are easily seen.
Color Crystal shape
Some properties require handling or testing.

Hardness Specific gravity
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Physical Properties
Common Properties
Color Streak Lustre Hardness Specific gravity Crystal habit Fracture or cleavage
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Color
The part of visible light that is not absorbed by a mineral. Diagnostic for some minerals.
Olivine is olive green.
Some minerals exhibit a broad color range.

Quartz (clear, white, yellow, pink, purple, gray, etc.).
Color varieties often reflect trace impurities.
Fig. 5.11a
11

Streak
Color of a powder produced by crushing a mineral. Obtained by scraping a mineral on unglazed porcelain.
Streak color is less variable than crystal color.
Fig. 5.11b
Lustre
The way a mineral surface scatters light. Two subdivisions.
Metalliclooks like a metal. Metallic Nonmetallic.
Silky Vitreous (glassy) Satiny Resinous Pearly Earthy (dull) Adamantine (brilliant)
Quartz Vitreous luster
Satin spar Gypsum Satiny luster

Hardness
Scratching resistance of a mineral. Derives from the strength of atomic bonds. Hardness compared to the Mohs scale for hardness.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.
Talc, graphite Gypsum Calcite Fluorite Apatite Orthoclase Quartz Topaz Corundum Diamond
Table 5.1
Fingernail 2.5 Copper Penny 3.5
Glass - Steel 5.5 Steel File 6.5
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Specific Gravity
Represents the density of a mineral. Mineral weight over the weight of an equal water volume. Specific gravity is heft hefthow heavy it feels.
Galenaheavy (SG 7.60). Galena Quartz Quartz light (SG 2.65).
Galena feels heavier than quartz.
2011, W. W. Norton
Crystal Habit
A single crystal with wellwell-formed faces, or An aggregate of many wellwell-formed crystals. Arrangement of faces reflects internal atomic structure. Records variation in directional growth rates.
Blocky or equant equantequal growth rate in three dimensions. Bladedshaped like a knife blade. Bladed NeedleNeedle -like likerapid growth in one dimension, slow in others.
2011, W. W. Norton
Fracture
Minerals break in ways that reflect atomic bonding. Fracturing implies equal bond strength in all directions.
Example: quartz displays conchoidal fracture.
Shaped like the inside of a clam shell. Breaks along smooth curved surfaces. Produces extremely sharp edges. Volcanic glass was used by native cultures to make tools.
2011, W. W. Norton
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Cleavage
Tendency to break along planes of weaker atomic bonds. Cleavage produces flat, shiny surfaces. Described by the number of planes and their angles. Sometimes mistaken for crystal habit.
Cleavage is throughgoing; it often forms parallel steps. Crystal faces only occur on external surfaces.
1, 2, 3, 4, and 6 are cleavages possible.
Fig. 5.12g
Cleavage
Examples of cleavage
One direction
Muscovite mica
Two directions at 90
Potassium Feldspar
Two directions NOT at 90

Amphibole
Fig. 5.12a,b,c
Cleavage
Examples of cleavage
Three directions at 90
Halite
Three directions NOT at 90
Fig. 5.12d,e
Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak 2011, W. W. Norton
Calcite
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The Mineral Classes

Minerals are classified by their dominant anion.
Silicates (SiO24-) are called the rockrock-forming minerals. Constitute almost the entire crust and mantle of Earth. They are the most common minerals. Example: quartz (SiO2)
2011, W. W. Norton
Mineral Classes
Oxides (O2-) Metal cations (Fe2+, Fe3+, Ti2+) bonded to oxygen. Examples:
Magnetite (Fe3O4) Hematite (Fe2O3) Rutile (TiO2)
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Mineral Classes
Sulfides Metal cations bonded to a sulfide anion. Examples:
Pyrite (FeS2) Galena (PbS) Sphalerite (ZnS)
(S-)
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Mineral Classes
Sulfates (SO42-) Metal cation bonded to a sulfate anionic group. Many sulfates form by evaporation of seawater. Examples:
Gypsum (CaSO4 2H2O) Anhydrite (CaSO4)
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Mineral Classes
Halides (Cl- or F-) Examples:
Fluorite (CaF2) Halite (NaCl)
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Mineral Classes
Carbonates (CO32-) Examples:
Calcite (CaCO3) Dolomite (Ca,Mg[CO3]2)
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Mineral Classes
Native elements (Cu, Au, Ag) Pure masses of a single metal Examples:
Copper (Cu) Gold (Au)
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Mineral Classification
Only about 50 minerals are abundant. 98% of crustal mineral mass is from eight elements.
Oxygen Silicon Aluminum Iron Calcium Sodium Potassium Magnesium All others O Si Al Fe Ca Na K Mg 46.6% 27.7% 8.1% 5.0% 3.6% 2.8% 2.6% 2.1% 1.5%
74.3% of crustal minerals!
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Silicate Minerals
Silicates are known as the rockrock-forming minerals. They dominate Earths crust and mantle.
Made of oxygen and silicon with other atoms.
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Silicate Minerals
The SiO44- anionic unit: the siliconsilicon-oxygen tetrahedron.
Four O atoms are bonded to a central Si atom. Define the corners of a fourfour-sided geometric figure. The silica tetrahedron is the building block of silicates. The silica tetrahedron can be portrayed in different ways:
Spheres. A ball and stick model. Polyhedra.
Fig. 5.13a
Silicate Minerals
Silicates are divided into several groups.
Based on how silica tetrahedra are arranged. The groups vary by how silica tetrahedra share oxygen. The amount of shared oxygen determines the Si:O ratio.
Si:O ratio is an important control on:

Melting temperature. Mineral structure and cations present. Susceptibility to chemical weathering.
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Whence Diamonds?
Diamonds originate under extremely high pressure.
~150 km deep deepin the upper mantle. Pure carbon is compressed into the diamond structure.
Rifting causes deep mantle rock to move upward. Diamonds are found in kimberlite pipes.
Box 5.3
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Useful Web Resources

Read Marshak Chapter 5 The Mineralogical Society of America
http://www.minsocam.org/
USGS Mineral Resources Program http://minerals.usgs.gov/ USGS Mineral Resources OnOn-Line Spatial Data
http://tin.er.usgs.gov/
David Barthelmys Mineralogy Database http://webmineral.com/ The Mineralogical Record http://www.mineralogicalrecord.com/contents.asp Mindat.org Mindat.org the Largest Mineral Database on the Internet http://www.mindat.org/
2011, W. W. Norton
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Introduction To Geology Plate Tectonics, Structural Geology Drifting Continents and Spreading Seas, Plate Tectonics, Minerals

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Introduction To Geology Plate Tectonics, Structural Geology Drifting Continents and Spreading Seas, Plate Tectonics, Minerals

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Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition

by Stephen Marshak 2011 W.W. Norton & Company

Chapter 5 Patterns in Nature: Minerals

Ronald L. Parker, Senior Geologist

Why Study Minerals?

Minerals are important to humans.

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 5: Patterns in Nature: Minerals

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 5: Patterns in Nature: Minerals

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition

Chapter 5 Patterns in Nature: Minerals

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 5: Patterns in Nature: Minerals

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 5: Patterns in Nature: Minerals

Subtle distinction: living organisms can create minerals.

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 5: Patterns in Nature: Minerals

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition

Chapter 5 Patterns in Nature: Minerals

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 5: Patterns in Nature: Minerals

Common products of living organisms.

Most minerals are NOT organic.

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 5: Patterns in Nature: Minerals

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition

Chapter 5 Patterns in Nature: Minerals

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 5: Patterns in Nature: Minerals

Faces and angles reflect crystalline structure.

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition

Chapter 5 Patterns in Nature: Minerals

What Is inside a Crystal?

What Is inside a Crystal?

Bonds may vary by direction in a mineral.

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 5: Patterns in Nature: Minerals

What Is inside a Crystal?

Polymorph Polymorph same composition; different structure.

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition

Chapter 5 Patterns in Nature: Minerals

Ionic size depends on # of electrons: anions are bigger.

Packing configurations define a geometric shape.

What Is inside a Crystal?

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition

Chapter 5 Patterns in Nature: Minerals

What Is inside a Crystal?

Symmetry characteristics are diagnostic.

How Do We See inside Crystals?

How Do We See inside Crystals?

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 5: Patterns in Nature: Minerals

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition

Chapter 5 Patterns in Nature: Minerals

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 5: Patterns in Nature: Minerals

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 5: Patterns in Nature: Minerals

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 5: Patterns in Nature: Minerals

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition