Structural Geology Mineral Resources

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition
by Stephen Marshak 2011 W.W. Norton & Company
Chapter 15 Riches in Rock: Mineral Resources
Riches in Rock: Mineral Resources
Prepared by:
Ronald L. Parker, Senior Geologist

Fronterra Geosciences, Denver, Colorado Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak 2011, W. W. Norton Chapter 15: Riches in Rock: Mineral Resources
Introduction
Quest for mineral resources has a rich human history.
Native American copper trade, Spanish conquistadors. California and Klondike Gold Rushes.
Fig. 15.1
Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak 2011, W. W. Norton Chapter 15: Riches in Rock: Mineral Resources
Mineral Resources
Two major categories.
Metallic
Gold Silver Copper Lead Zinc Iron Aluminum
Nonmetallic
Sand and gravel Gypsum Halite Dimension stone
Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak
Fluorite cleavage octahedra
2011, W. W. Norton
Chapter 15: Riches in Rock: Mineral Resources
PowerPoint slides prepared by Ronald L. Parker, Fronterra Geosciences, 700 17th Street, Suite 900, Denver, CO, 80202

What Is a Metal?
Opaque, shiny, smooth, conductive solids. Metal properties derive from metallic chemical bonds.
Delocalized electrons move from atom to atom easily. Electron fluidity renders metals electrically conductive.
The pins on this computer processor are coated with a thin layer of gold.
What Is a Metal?
Not all metals behave the same way. Metal properties are due to bond type and structure.
Metals may be extremely hard (titanium) or soft (copper).
Ductileable to be drawn into thin wires. Ductile Malleable Malleable able to be hammered into thin sheets.
Fig. 15.2
The Discovery of Metals

Native metals occur naturally in a pure form.
Gold Silver Copper Iron
People have utilized native metals for thousands of years.

Toolseasily shaped by cold working. Tools Money Money rare and durable.
Fig. 15.3b


We use minerals that contain metals.
Metal ions are bonded to nonmetallic elements. MetalMetal -bearing minerals seldom resemble the pure metal.
Malachite, a copper ore mineral
Copper metal
Fig. 15.2
2011, W. W. Norton

Three principal metals today todaycopper, iron, and aluminum. Copper used first (4000 B.C.E.).
Smelting Cu sulfides is easiest. Copper was too soft for good tools or weapons.
The Sumerians discovered bronze (~2800 B.C.E.).

Copper alloyed with tin. Bronze is stronger than either metal alone.
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Iron is superior to copper or bronze.
Stronger Harder More abundant
Iron is much harder to smelt, however. It requires:

Much higher temperatures. Chemical reaction with carbon monoxide (CO).
CO is derived from burning with charcoal.
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Smelting, discovered by an unknown prehistoric genius? Smelting releases metals from ore minerals.
Different minerals require:
Different smelting techniques. Different temperatures.
Nonmetallic waste is called slag.
Fig. 15.4a

Steeliron smelted with carbon. Steel Blending metals creates alloys.
Alloys are unlike pure metals.
Bronze Bronze alloy of copper and tin. Brasscopper alloyed with zinc. Brass
Fig. 15.4b

There are 63 or so metals used in our modern world.
Precious metals metalsgold, silver and platinum. Base metals metalscopper, lead, zinc, and tin.
Before 1700, only nine metals were in use.

Au, Cu, Ag, Hg, Pb, Sn, Sb, Fe, and As.
2011, W. W. Norton

What Is an Ore?
Rock with metalmetal-rich minerals.
Concentrated enough to be economic to mine. Metal must be readily extracted from the mineral. Many different ore minerals. Many are sulfides or oxides. Often colorful minerals.
Fig. 15.5b
What Is an Ore?
Ores are not uniformly distributed through Earths crust. Geologic processes concentrate metals into deposits.
Concentration must be high enough to yield a profit. The amount of useful metal present is the ore grade. Different ores occur in different geologic settings.
Fig. 15.6
How Do Ore Deposits Form?

Ores form via geological processes.
Magmatic activity. Hydrothermal alteration. Secondary enrichment. Groundwater transport (MVT). Sedimentary processes. Residual weathering. Hydraulic sorting.
Fig. 15.5a


Magmatic deposits depositsfrom a cooling plutonic intrusion.
Sulfide minerals crystallize early and sink in magma. Form massive sulfide ores at the bottom of chamber. Sulfides include:
Pyrite. Chalcopyrite. Galena.
Fig. 5.11c
Fig. 15.7a

Hydrothermal deposits depositshot, chemically active water.
Hot fluid leaches metal ions out of rock near plutons. Minerals precipitate in lower P and T locations. Occur disseminated through intrusion or in veins.
Fig. 15.7b,c

Hydrothermal deposits depositsfound near midmid-ocean ridges.
Black smokers smokersoccur along all midmid-ocean ridges.
Seawater in cracked, hot crust is heated, leaching metals. Hot water hits the cold ocean and metals crystallize out.
Fig. 4.5b
Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak 2011, W. W. Norton
Fig. 15.7d


SecondarySecondary -enrichment deposits depositsadds O2, OH, and CO2.
Groundwater leaches and oxidizes primary sulfide ores. The secondary deposit often has beautiful minerals.
Malachite Azurite Turquoise
Fig. 15.8

Mississippi Valley ValleyType (MVT) ores.
Orogenic belts squeegee hot water through deep basins. The hot water leaches minerals and carries them along. Where basin brines surface and cool, they deposit metals. From leadlead-zinc (Pb (Pb-Zn) deposits in the Mississippi Valley.
2011, W. W. Norton

Sedimentary deposits depositsform under special conditions.
Banded iron formations (BIFs).
Layered gray iron oxides and red chert (jasper). Formed from 2.5 2.51.8 Ga from O2 buildup in the atmosphere.
Manganese (MnO2rich) nodules.

Rich in trace elements, these grow slowly on the seasea-floor
Fig. 15.9


Residual mineral deposits depositsrainy tropical settings.
Form via extreme chemical weathering in wet tropics. Intense weathering strips almost everything out of soil. The residual soil is enriched in Fe and Al oxides.
Bauxite Bauxite primary ore of aluminum.
Fig. 15.10
2011, W. W. Norton

Hydraulic sorting sortingplacer deposits from flowing water.
In high velocity water:
Low density minerals are suspended and washed away. HighHigh -density grains are concentrated by settling out.
Important for gold, tin, and iron. Best preserved in fossil stream sediments. Ore source can be traced upstream.
Fig. 15.11
Where Are Ore Deposits Found?

Tectonic processes are a dominant control.
Igneous and hydrothermal activity occur:
At plate boundaries. Along rifts. At hot spots.
Tectonic effects are overprinted by the hydrologic cycle.
2011, W. W. Norton

Ore Exploration and Production

Ores are located by evidence of metal enrichment.
Colorenrichment may brightly color rock and soil. Color Systematic geologic investigation investigationtechnology based.
Geophysical surveys surveysmagnetism, gravity, radioactivity. Geochemical surveys surveyswater, sediment, soil, and biota.
Fig. 15.12a,c

Geologists map jungles, deserts, tundras for ores. Once identified, a potential ore deposit is assessed by:
Geophysical response. Core drilling. Geochemical analyses.
If economic, a deposit is developed for mining.

Environmental concerns can be accommodated. Ore can be extracted for a profit.
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Type of mining depends on proximity to surface.
Shallow ore body bodyopenopen-pit mining. Deeper ore body bodyunderground mining.
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OpenOpen -pit mining miningshallow ore bodies.
Less expensive and dangerous than tunnel mines. Usually require ore within 100 m of the land surface.
OpenOpen -pit mining creates large excavations.

Rock is broken by explosives and removed for processing.
Ore metal is concentrated by treatment or smelting. Waste rock is stored in giant tailings piles.
Fig. 15.12d
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Underground mines minesore is obtained by tunneling.
Tunnels or vertical shafts are excavated. Ore is loosened by blasting and hauled to the surface. Underground mines are expensive and dangerous.
Tunnel collapses. Poisonous and explosive gases.
Fig. 15.12b
Nonmetallic Mineral Resources

Society uses many materials that dont contain metals. Called industrial minerals.
Dimension stone. Crushed stone/concrete. Other materials.
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Dimension stone stonerock slabs used as building material.
Rock is used for visual appeal and durability. Requires that rock with special properties be carefully cut.
Special type of quarrying tools and personnel. Cut and polished rock slabs are highly prized.
Fig. 15.13a

Crushed stone (aggregate) is used for many purposes.
Forms the foundation for all roads and railways. Raw material for cement, concrete, and asphalt. Used extensively in the modern world.
Chapter 15 Opener

Many nonmetallic minerals are common in homes.
Calcitebase material of cement and concrete. Calcite Clay Clay bricks, pottery, porcelain, and other ceramics. Gypsum Gypsum wallboard and plaster. Quartz Quartz used to make window glass. Rare earth elements (REEs) (REEs)highhigh-tech applications.
Fig. 15.14
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How Long Will Resources Last?

World demand for mineral resources is enormous.
Industrialized countries consume vast quantities. In the U.S. we use 4 billion tons of geologic materials/year.
Requires moving 18 billion tons of material. This is ~95x the annual sediment moved by the Mississippi.
Fig. 15.15
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Mineral resources are nonrenewable, like coal and oil.
They form as the result of geologic processes. These processes are too slow to generate new deposits. Thus, once mined, mineral resources are gone forever.
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We have calculated reserves for mineral resources. We can estimate the expected lifetime of resources.
Consumption rates. Reserve amounts.
Some mineral resources are running out. New technologies may extend these lifetimes.
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Continued use of scarce minerals will require:
Discovery of new sources. Increase in price to make hardhard-to to-get reserves profitable. Increased efficiency and conservation. Substitution. Recycling. Doing without.
2011, W. W. Norton

Mineral resources are unevenly distributed.
Dependent upon the geologic history of a region. Trade is needed to meet imbalances. Many wars have roots in mineral resource imbalances. Strategic minerals are a particularly sensitive topic.
Metals needed for national security and defense.
Manganese Platinum Chromium Cobalt
Rare earth elements have become important in in recent years.
2011, W. W. Norton
Mining and the Environment

Mineral extraction and processing leaves a big footprint.
Open-pit mines are large scars on the landscape. OpenMining creates huge volumes of waste tailings.
Tailings piles are often acidic and laden with toxic metals. Unvegetated tailing may be sources of dust and runoff.
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Sulfides react with O2 to form sulfuric acid (H2SO4). This reacts with water forming acid mine drainage (AMD).
Water from spoil piles is acidified (pH <5.7). Acidity dissolves iron, which then coats streams in rust. AMD mobilizes heavy metals and kills stream biota.
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Ore processing releases toxic chemicals. These can be dispersed to nearby areas by air and rain. Recent years have seen progress reducing impacts.
Improved cooperation of producers and consumers. Regulation of mining operations.
2011, W. W. Norton
Mineral Resources
Geology at a Glance
14

Useful Web Resources

USGS Mineral Resources Program
http://minerals.usgs.gov/
USGS Rare Earths Statistics and Information

http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/rare_earths/
WebElements
http://www.webelements.com/
U.S. Department of the Interior Office of Surface Mining

http://www.osmre.gov/index.shtm
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Acid Mine Drainage Site

http://water.epa.gov/polwaste/nps/acid_mne.cfm
2011, W. W. Norton
15

Structural Geology Mineral Resources

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Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition

by Stephen Marshak 2011 W.W. Norton & Company

Chapter 15 Riches in Rock: Mineral Resources

Riches in Rock: Mineral Resources

Ronald L. Parker, Senior Geologist

Fluorite cleavage octahedra

Chapter 15: Riches in Rock: Mineral Resources

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition

Chapter 15 Riches in Rock: Mineral Resources

The Discovery of Metals

People have utilized native metals for thousands of years.

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition

Chapter 15 Riches in Rock: Mineral Resources

The Discovery of Metals

Malachite, a copper ore mineral

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 15: Riches in Rock: Mineral Resources

The Discovery of Metals

The Sumerians discovered bronze (~2800 B.C.E.).

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 15: Riches in Rock: Mineral Resources

The Discovery of Metals

Iron is much harder to smelt, however. It requires:

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 15: Riches in Rock: Mineral Resources

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition

Chapter 15 Riches in Rock: Mineral Resources

The Discovery of Metals

Nonmetallic waste is called slag.

The Discovery of Metals

The Discovery of Metals

Before 1700, only nine metals were in use.

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 15: Riches in Rock: Mineral Resources

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition

Chapter 15 Riches in Rock: Mineral Resources

How Do Ore Deposits Form?

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition

Chapter 15 Riches in Rock: Mineral Resources

How Do Ore Deposits Form?

How Do Ore Deposits Form?

How Do Ore Deposits Form?

Chapter 15: Riches in Rock: Mineral Resources

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition

Chapter 15 Riches in Rock: Mineral Resources

How Do Ore Deposits Form?

How Do Ore Deposits Form?

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 15: Riches in Rock: Mineral Resources

How Do Ore Deposits Form?

Manganese (MnO2rich) nodules.

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition

Chapter 15 Riches in Rock: Mineral Resources

How Do Ore Deposits Form?

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 15: Riches in Rock: Mineral Resources

How Do Ore Deposits Form?

Where Are Ore Deposits Found?

Tectonic effects are overprinted by the hydrologic cycle.

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 15: Riches in Rock: Mineral Resources

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition

Chapter 15 Riches in Rock: Mineral Resources