Unit 1 Introduction Structure:

1.0 Objectives 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Network Structures 1.3 Network Architecture 1.4 OSI Reference Model: An Overview 1.5 Network Services 1.6 TCP/IP Protocol Suites 1.7 Summary 1.0 Objectives The main objective of this unit is to make the reader understand the concept of data communications and computer networks. After completion of this unit the reader would be able to: Explain the importance of Networks Define and describe the ISO OSI Model Describe the functionalities of each and every layer of the OSI Model State the terminology associated with Network Services Describe various Network Services like connectionless and connection oriented State the relationship between Network Services and Network Protocols Describe TCP/IP Protocol Suite

1.1 Introduction Computer is an information tool. Networks enhance the computers ability to exchange, preserve, and protect information. Networks make it easier to share expensive hardware and software. The type of information changes from business to business. The way that information is stored and worked with also varies.
Personal Computer (PC)

It is a fantastic information tool. A PC is shipped from the manufacturer with minimum software to make it run and marginally useful; it is up to the user to customize it for his / her own purpose.

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Figure 1.1: A computer is a versatile tool that can perform many tasks when configured with the software.

Information constantly flows through the business. A publishing house collects market projections, receives manuscript drafts, delivers edited proofs, requests corrections and elaboration, and finally a book is sent to be printed. Before networks, people had to personally move the information about, whether it was on paper, over the phone, or on floppy disk or magnetic tape. When you use a computer not connected to a network, you are working in a stand alone environment. In this environment, you can use software to produce data, graphics, spreadsheets, documents, and so on, but to share information; you must print it out or put it on a floppy disk or CD ROM so that someone else can use it. That is, you are moving the information about yourself rather than letting the computer do it for you .
The Network

Computers connected over a Network can make the information exchange easier and faster. His information moves directly from computer to computer rather than through a human intermediary. Due to this, people can concentrate on getting their work done rather than on moving information around the company. A group of computers and other devices connected together is called a Network, and the concept of connected computers sharing resources is called Networking.
LAN: (Local Area Network) A LAN is a number of computers connected to each other by

cables in a single location, usually a single floor of building or all the computers in a small company. A simple cabling method, known as the Bus Topology, allows about 30 computers on a maximum cable length of about 600 feet.

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Figure 1.2: A network is a number of computers linked together to share resources.

Figure 1.2 shows a simple LAN. LANs are perfect for sharing resources within a small geographical area (Approx. 500 Meters), but they cannot be used to connect distant sites. Another type of Network, called as Wide Area Network (WAN) addresses this need. WAN is a set of connecting links between LANs. The links in WAN can be made as follows: Over the telephone lines leased from various telephone companies. Using Satellite links Packet Radio Networks Microwave transceivers

Figure 1.3: A WAN links computers in different locations

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Most WANs are private and are owned by the businesses that operate with them. Many companies are forming private WANs, known as the Virtual Private Networks (VPNs), through encrypted communication over the Internet. WANs suffer from extremely limited bandwidth. A typical LAN transmits at 10 Mbps, or 10 Million bits per second. A T1 line considered as a fast WAN link transmits at 1.5 Mbps, or 1 million bits per second, which makes the sharing of resources over a WAN difficult. In general, WAN links are used only for inter-process communications to route short messages, such as e-mail or HTML traffic. 1.2 Network Structures In any network there exists a collection of machines for running user (or application) programs called Hosts. The Hosts are connected by the communication subnet, or just subnet. The job of the subnet is to carry messages from host to host. By separating the pure communication aspects of the network (the subnet) from the application aspects (the hosts), the complete network design is greatly simplified. In most Wide Area Networks, the subnet consists of two distinct components: Transmission Lines and Switching Elements. Transmission Lines (also called as circuits, channels, or trunks) move bits between machines. The Switching Elements are specialized computers to connect two or more transmission lines. When data arrives on an incoming line, the Switching Element must choose an outgoing line to forward them. The Switching Elements are also called as Interface Message Processors (IMPs). Each host is connected to one (or occasionally several) IMPs. All traffic to or from the host goes via its IMP. There are two types of designs for communication subnets: 1 Point to Point Channels Broadcast Channels

In Point-to-Point channels, the network contains numerous cables or leased telephone line, each one connecting a pair of IMPs. If two IMPs that do not share a cable nevertheless wish to communicate, they must do this indirectly, via other IMPs. When a message in the form of a packet is sent from one IMP to another IMP via one or more Intermediate IMPs, the packet is received at each intermediate IMP in its entirety, stored there until the required output line is free, and then forwarded. A subnet using this principle is called a point-to-point, store-and-forward, or packet-switched subnet. When a point-to-point subnet is used, an important design issue is what the IMP

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interconnection topology should look like; LANs have a symmetric topology, whereas WANs have asymmetric topology. 2 Broadcasting: Most LANs and a small number of WANs are of this type. In a LAN, the IMP is reduced to a single chip embedded inside the host, so that there is always one host per IMP, whereas in a WAN there may be many hosts per IMP. Broadcast Systems have a single communication channel shared by all other machines on the network. Packets sent by any machine are received by all the others. An address field within the packet specifies for whom it is intended. Upon receiving a packet, a machine checks the address field. If the packet is intended for some other machine, it is just ignored. Broadcast systems also support transmission to a subset of machines, something known as Multicasting. A common scheme is to have all addresses with high order bit set to 1. The remaining n-1 address bits form a bit map corresponding to n-1 groups. Each machine can subscribe to any or all of the n-1 groups. 1.3 Network Architecture Modern computer networks are designed in a highly structured way. In the following discussion, we examine some of the structuring techniques.
Protocol Hierarchies

To reduce their design complexity, most networks are organized as a series of layers or levels, each one built upon its predecessor. The number of layers, name, content, and function of each layer differs from network to network. In all networks, the purpose of each layer is to offer certain services to the higher layers, shielding those layers from details of how the offered services are actually implemented. Layer n on one machine carries on a conversation with layer n on another machine. The rules and conventions used in this conversation are collectively known as the Layer n protocol. The entities comprising the corresponding layers on different machines are called peer processes. It is the peer processes that communicate using the protocol. In reality, no data are directly transferred from layer n on one machine to layer n on another machine. Instead, each layer passes data and control inform ation to the layer immediately below it, until the lowest layer is reached. Below layer 1 is the physical medium through which the actual communication occurs. Between each pair of adjacent layers there is an interface. The interface defines which primitive operations and services the lower layer offers to the upper one. For the designers of a network one of the most important considerations is defining clean interfaces between the layers. Doing so, in turn, requires each layer perform a specific collection of well-understood functions. In addition to minimizing the amount of information that must be passed between layers, clean-cut interfaces also make it simpler to replace the implementation of
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one layer with a completely different implementation, because all that is required in the new implementation is that it offer exactly the same set of services as the to its upstairs neighbor as the old implementation did. The set of layers and protocols is called the Network Architecture. The specification of the architecture must contain enough information to allow an implementer to write the program or build the hardware for each layer so that it correctly obeys the appropriate protocol. Neither the details of the implementation nor the specification of the interfaces are part of the architecture because these are hidden away inside the machines and not visible from the outside. It is not even necessary that the interfaces on all machines in a network be the same, provided that each machine can correctly use all the protocols.
Design Issues for Layers

1. Every layer must have a mechanism for connection establishment. Since a network normally has many computers, some of which have multiple processes, a means is needed for a process on one machine to specify with whom it wants to establish a connection. As a consequence of having multiple destinations, some form of addressing is needed in order to specify a specific destination. 2. Mechanisms for terminating the connections when they are no longer needed. 3. Data Transfer Rules:
Simplex Communication:

In this type, data transfer occurs in only one direction, i.e., either from source to destination or destination to source machines.
Half-duplex Communication:

In this type, data transfer occurs in either directions, but not simultaneously.
Full-duplex Communication:

In this type, data transfer occurs in either direction simultaneously. The protocol must also determine the number of logical channels per connection along with their individual priorities. Many networks provide at least two logical connections per channel, one for normal data, and one for urgent data. 4. Error Control Mechanisms: It is one of the important issues since physical communication circuits are not perfect. Many error-correcting and detecting codes are known, but both ends of the connection must agree on which one is being used. In addition, the receiver must have some way of telling, the sender which messages have been correctly received and which has not. 5. Message Ordering: Not all communication channels preserve the ordering of messages sent on them. To deal with a possible loss of sequencing, the protocol
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must make explicit provision for the receiver to allow the pieces to be put back together properly. An obvious solution is to number the pieces, but this leaves open the question of what should be done with pieces that arrive out of order. 6. An issue that occurs at every level is how to keep a fast sender from swamping a slow receiver with data. All the proposed solutions have some kind of feedback mechanisms, wherein the receiver informs its current situation to the sender. 7. Another problem that must be solved at several levels is the inability of all processes to accept arbitrarily long messages. This property leads to mechanisms for disassembling, transmitting and then reassembling messages. A related issue is what to do when processes insist upon transmitting data in units that are so small that sending each one separately is inefficient. Here the solution is to gather together several small messages heading towards a common destination into a single large message and dismember the large message at the other site. 8. When it is inconvenient to set up a separate connection for each pair of communicating processes, the underlying layer may decide to use the same connection for multiple, unrelated conversations. As long as this multiplexing and demultiplexing is done transparently, it can be used by any layer. 9. When there are multiple paths between source and destination, a route must be chosen. Sometimes this decision must be split over two or more layers. 1.4 OSI Reference Model: An Overview The layered model that dominated data communications and networking literature before 1990 was the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model. Everyone believed that the OSI model would become the ultimate standard for data communications, but this did not happen. The TCP / IP protocol suite became the dominant commercial architecture because it was used and tested extensively in the Internet; the OSI model was never fully implemented. Established in 1947, the International Standards Organization (ISO) is a multinational body dedicated to worldwide agreement on International standards. An ISO standard that covers all aspects of network communications is the OSI model, which was first introduced in 1970s.
Open System: A set of protocols that allows any two different systems to communicate

regardless of their underlying architecture.

Purpose of OSI Model: It shows how to facilitate communication between different

systems without requiring changes to the logic of underlying hardware and software. The OSI model is not a protocol; it is a model for understanding and designing a network architecture that is flexible, robust, and interoperable. The OSI Model is a
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layered framework for the design of network systems that allows communication between all types of computer systems. It consists of seven separate but related layers, each of which defines a part of the process of moving information across a network.
Layered Architecture: The OSI Model is composed of seven ordered layers:

Layer 1 The Physical Layer Layer 2 The Data Link Layer Layer 3 The Network Layer Layer 4 The Transport Layer Layer 5 The Session Layer Layer 6 The Presentation Layer Layer 7 The Application Layer

Figure 1.5 below shows the layers involved when a message is sent from device A to device B. As the message travels from one device to another, it may pass through several intermediate nodes or devices. These intermediate nodes or devices usually involve only the first three layers of the OSI model.

Figure 1.5: The ISO OSI Model

In modeling the OSI model, the designers distilled the process of transmitting data to its most fundamental elements. They identified which networking functions had related uses and collected those functions into discrete groups that became the layers. Each layer defines a family of functions distinct from those of the other layers. By defining and
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localizing the functionality in this fashion, the designers created an architecture that is both comprehensive and flexible. Within a single machine, each layer calls upon the services of the layer below it. Between machines, layer x on one machine communicates with layer x on another machine. This communication is governed by an agreed upon series of rules and conventions called Protocols. The processes on each machine that communicates at a given layer are called peer-to-peer processes. Communication between machines is therefore a peer-to-peer process using the protocols appropriate to a given layer.
Peer-to-Peer Processes

At the physical layer, the communication is direct. In the figure above, device A sends a stream of bits to device B (through intermediate nodes). At the higher layers, communication must move down through the higher layers on device A, over to device B, and then back up through the layers. Each layer in the sending device adds its own information to the message it receives from the layer just above it and passes the whole package to the layer just below it. At layer 1 the entire package is converted to a form that can be transmitted to the receiving device. At the receiving machine, the message is unwrapped layer by layer, with each process receiving and removing the data meant for it.
Interfaces between Layers

The passing of the data and the information down through the layers of the sending device and back up through the layers of the receiving is made possible by an interface between each pair of adjacent layers. Each interface defines the information and services a layer must provide for the layers above it. Well defined interfaces and layer functions provide modularity to a network. As long as a layer provides the expected services to the layer above it, the specific implementation of its functions can be modified or replaced without requiring changes to the surrounding layers.
Layer Organization

The seven layers can be thought of as belonging to three subgroups. Layers 1, 2, and 3 are the network support layers; they deal with the physical aspects of moving data from one device to another. Layers 5, 6, and 7 can be thought of as user support layers; they allow interoperability among unrelated software systems. Layer 4 links two subgroups and ensures that what the lower layers have transmitted is in a form that the upper layers can use. The upper OSI layers are almost always implemented in software, except for the physical layer which is mostly implemented in hardware.
Layers in the OSI Model

This section discusses the functions of all the 7 layers of OSI model.
1. Physical Layer: This layer coordinates the functions required to carry a bit stream

over a physical medium. It deals with the electrical and mechanical specifications of
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the interface and transmission medium. It defines the procedures and functions that physical devices and interfaces have to perform for transmission to occur.
2. Data Link Layer: This layer transforms the physical layer, a raw transmission facility,

to a reliable link. It makes the physical layer appear error-free to the upper layer (to the Network layer). It is also responsible for other functions such as framing, error control, flow control, physical addressing, and access control mechanisms.
3. Network Layer: This layer is responsible for the source-to-destination delivery of a

packet, possibly across multiple networks (links). The Data Link Layer oversees the delivery of the packet between two systems on the same network (links), the network layer ensures that each packet gets from its point of origin to its final destination. If two systems are attached to the same link, there is no need for the network layer. However, if the two systems are attached to different networks (links) with connecting devices between the networks (links), there is often a need for the network layer to accomplish source-to-destination delivery. Other responsibilities of the Network layer include logical addressing, and routing. 4. Transport Layer: This layer is responsible for process-to-process delivery of the entire message. A process is an application program running on the host. The Network layer oversees the source-to destination delivery of individual packets; it does not recognize the relationship between those packets. It treats each packet independently, as though each piece belonged to a separate message, whether or not it does, The Transport layer, also ensures that the whole message arrives intact and in order, overseeing both error and flow control at the source to-destination level. 5. Session Layer: This layer acts as the network dialog controller. It establishes, maintains,
and synchronizes the interaction among communicating systems.

6. Presentation Layer: This layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information exchanged between two systems. The specific responsibilities of this layer include Translation, Encryption, and Compression. 7. Application Layer: This layer enables the user, whether human or software to access the network. It provides user interfaces and support for services such as electronic mail, remote file access and transfer, shared database management, and other types of distributed information services. Specific services offered by the Application layer include: Provision of Network Virtual terminals, File transfer, access, and management, mail services, and Directory Services.
Figure 1.6: Summary of Layers in OSI Model

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Data Transmission in OSI Model

The sending process has some data it wants to send to the receiving process. It gives the data to the application layer, which then attaches the application header, AH (which may be null), to the front of it and give the resulting item to the presentation layer. The presentation layer may transform this item in various ways, where they are actually transmitted to the receiving machine. On the machine various headers are stripped off one by one as the message propagates up the layers until it finally arrives at the receiving process. The key idea throughout is although actual data transmission is vertical, each layer is programmed as though it were really horizontal. 1.5 Network Services The real function of each layer is to provide services to the layer above it.
Network Services Terminology

1. Entities: They are the active elements in each layer. An entity can be a software entity (For example, a process) or a hardware entity (For example, an intelligent I/O chip). 2. Peer Entities: Entities in the same layer on different machines 3. Service Provider and Service User: The entities in layer N implement a service used by layer N+1. Layer N is called the Service Provider and layer N+1 is called the Service User. 4. Service Access Points (SAPs): Services are available as SAPs. The layer N SAPs are the places where layer N+1 can access the services offered. Each SAP has a unique address that identifies it. 5. Interface Data Unit (IDU): For two layers to exchange information there has to be an agreed upon set of rules about the interface. At a typical interface, the layer N+1 entity passes an IDU to the layer N entity through the SAP. 6. SDU (Service Data Unit): The IDU consists of an SDU (Service Data Unit) and some control information. The SDU is the information passed across the network to the peer entity and then up to layer N+1. The control information is needed to help the lower layer do its job, but is not part of the data itself. 7. PDU (Protocol Data Unit): In order to transfer the SDU, the layer N entity may have to fragment it into several pieces, each of which is given a header and sent as a separate PDU (Protocol Data Unit) such as a packet. The PDU headers are used by the peer entities to carry out their peer protocol. They identify which

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PDUs contain data and which contain control information, provide sequence number counts, and so on. 8. Connection Oriented Service: Modeled after the telephone system. To use a connection-oriented network service, the service user first establishes a connection, uses the connection, and terminates the connection. 9. Connection-less Service: Modeled after the Postal System. Each message carries the full destination address, and each one is routed through the system independent of all others.
Network Models

Computer networks are created by different entities. Standards are needed so that these heterogeneous networks can communicate with one another. The two best known standards are the OSI model and the Internet model. The OSI model defines a sevenlayer network; the Internet model defines a five-layer network. 1.6 TCP / IP Protocol Suite The TCP/IP protocol suite has become a staple of today's international society and global economy. Continually evolving standards provide a wide and flexible foundation on which an entire infrastructure of applications are built. Through these we can seek entertainment, conduct business, make financial transactions, deliver services, and much more. The Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) suite has become the industry-standard method of interconnecting hosts, networks, and the Internet. As such, it is seen as the engine behind the Internet and networks worldwide. Although TCP/IP supports a host of applications, both standard and nonstandard, these applications could not exist without the foundation of a set of core protocols. Additionally, in order to understand the capability of TCP/IP applications, an understanding of these core protocols must be realized. Architecture, History, Standards, and Trends Today, the Internet and World Wide Web (WWW) are familiar terms to millions of people all over the world. Many people depend on applications enabled by the Internet, such as electronic mail and Web access. In addition, the increase in popularity of business applications places additional emphasis on the Internet. The Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) protocol suite is the engine for the Internet and networks worldwide. Its simplicity and power has led to its becoming the single network protocol of choice in the world today. In this section, we give an overview of the TCP/IP protocol suite. We discuss how the Internet was formed, how it developed, and how it is likely to develop in the future.
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TCP/IP Architectural Model The TCP/IP protocol suite is so named for two of its most important protocols: Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and Internet Protocol (IP). A less used name for it is the Internet Protocol Suite, which is the phrase used in official Internet standards documents. Internetworking The main design goal of TCP/IP is to build an interconnection of networks, referred to as an internetwork, or internet, that provide universal communication services over heterogeneous physical networks. The clear benefit of such an internetwork is the enabling of communication between hosts on different networks, perhaps separated by a large geographical area. The words internetwork and internet are simply a contraction of the phrase interconnected network. However, when written with a capital I, the Internet refers to the worldwide set of interconnected networks. Therefore, the Internet is an internet, but the reverse does not apply. The Internet is sometimes called the connected Internet. The Internet consists of the following groups of networks: Backbones: Large networks that exist primarily to interconnect other networks. Also known as network access points (NAPs) or Internet Exchange Points (IXPs). Currently, the backbones consist of commercial entities. Regional networks connecting, for example, universities and colleges. Commercial networks providing access to the backbones to subscribers, and networks owned by commercial organizations for internal use that also have connections to the Internet. Local networks, such as campus-wide university networks.

In most cases, networks are limited in size by the number of users that can belong to the network, by the maximum geographical distance that the network can span, or by the applicability of the network to certain environments. For example, an Ethernet network is inherently limited in terms of geographical size. Therefore, the ability to interconnect a large number of networks in some hierarchical and organized fashion enables the communication of any two hosts belonging to this internetwork. Another important aspect of TCP/IP internetworking is the creation of a standardized abstraction of the communication mechanisms provided by each type of network. Each physical network has its own technology dependent communication interface, in the form of a programming interface that provides basic communication functions (primitives). TCP/IP provides communication services that run between the programming interface of a physical network and user applications. It enables a common interface for these applications, independent of the underlying physical network. The architecture of the physical network is therefore hidden from the user and from the developer of the application. The application need only code to the

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standardized communication abstraction to be able to function under any type of physical network and operating platform.

As is evident in figure 1.7, to be able to interconnect two networks, we need a computer that is attached to both networks and can forward data packets from one network to the other; such a machine is called a router. The term IP router is also used because the routing function is part of the Internet Protocol portion of the TCP/IP protocol suite. To be able to identify a host within the internetwork, each host is assigned an address, called the IP address. When a host has multiple network adapters (interfaces) such as with a router, each interface has a unique IP address. The IP address consists of two parts: IP address = <network number><host number> The network number part of the IP address identifies the network within the internet and is assigned by a central authority and is unique throughout the internet. The authority for assigning the host number part of the IP address resides with the organization that controls the network identified by the network number.

The TCP/IP protocol layers Like most networking software, TCP/IP is modeled in layers. This layered representation leads to the term protocol stack, which refers to the stack of layers in the protocol suite. It can be used for positioning (but not for functionally comparing) the TCP/IP protocol suite against others, such as Systems Network Architecture (SNA) and the Open System Interconnection (OSI) model. Functional comparisons cannot easily be extracted from this, because there are basic differences in the layered models used by the different protocol suites. By dividing the communication software into layers, the protocol stack allows for division of labor, ease of implementation and code testing, and the ability to develop alternative layer implementations. Layers communicate with those above and below via concise interfaces. In this regard, a layer provides a service to the layer directly above it and makes use of services provided by the layer directly below it. For example, the IP layer provides the ability to transfer data from one host to another without any guarantee to reliable delivery or duplicate suppression. Transport protocols such as TCP make use of this service to provide applications with reliable, in-order, data stream delivery.
These layers include:

(i)

Application layer: The application layer is provided by the program that uses TCP/IP for communication. An application is a user process cooperating with another process usually on a different host (there is also a benefit to application communication within a single host). Examples of applications
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(ii)

include Telnet and the File Transfer Protocol (FTP). The interface between the application and transport layers is defined by port numbers and sockets Transport layer: The transport layer provides the end-to-end data transfer by delivering data from an application to its remote peer. Multiple applications can be supported simultaneously. The most-used transport layer protocol is the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), which provides connection-oriented reliable data delivery, duplicate data suppression, congestion control, and flow control. Another transport layer protocol is the User Datagram Protocol. It provides connectionless, unreliable, best-effort service. As a result, applications using UDP as the transport protocol have to provide their own end-to-end integrity, flow control, and congestion control, if desired. Usually, UDP is used by applications that need a fast transport mechanism and can tolerate the loss of some data. Internetwork layer: The internetwork layer, also called the internet layer or the network layer, provides the virtual network image of an internet (this layer shields the higher levels from the physical network architecture below it). Internet Protocol (IP) is the most important protocol in this layer. It is a connectionless protocol that does not assume reliability from lower layers. IP does not provide reliability, flow control, or error recovery. These functions must be provided at a higher level. IP provides a routing function that attempts to deliver transmitted messages to their destination. A message unit in an IP network is called an IP datagram. This is the basic unit of information transmitted across TCP/IP networks. Other internetwork layer protocols are IP, ICMP, IGMP, ARP, and RARP. Network interface layer: The network interface layer, also called the link layer or the data-link layer, is the interface to the actual network hardware. This interface may or may not provide reliable delivery, and may be packet or stream oriented. In fact, TCP/IP does not specify any protocol here, but can use almost any network interface available, which illustrates the flexibility of the IP layer. Examples are IEEE 802.2, X.25 (which is reliable in itself), ATM, FDDI, and even SNA. TCP/IP specifications do not describe or standardize any network-layer protocols per se; they only standardize ways of accessing those protocols from the internetwork layer.

(iii)

(iv)

TCP/IP applications The highest-level protocols within the TCP/IP protocol stack are application protocols. They

communicate with applications on other internet hosts and are the user-visible interface to the TCP/IP protocol suite. All application protocols have some characteristics in common:

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They can be user-written applications or applications standardized and shipped with the TCP/IP product. Indeed, the TCP/IP protocol suite includes application protocols such as: Telnet for interactive terminal access to remote internet hosts File Transfer Protocol (FTP) for high-speed disk-to-disk file transfers Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) as an internet mailing system these are some of the most widely implemented application protocols, but many others also exist. Each particular TCP/IP implementation will include a lesser or greater set of application protocols. They use either UDP or TCP as a transport mechanism. Remember that UDP is unreliable and offers no flow-control; so in this case, the application has to provide its own error recovery, flow control, and congestion control functionality. It is often easier to build applications on top of TCP because it is a reliable stream, connection-oriented, congestion-friendly, and flow control-enabled protocol. As a result, most application protocols will use TCP, but there are applications built on UDP to achieve better performance through increased protocol efficiencies. Most applications use the client/server model of interaction.

IP Addressing IP addresses are represented by a 32-bit unsigned binary value. It is usually expressed in a dotted decimal format. For example, 9.167.5.8 is a valid IP address. The numeric form is used by IP software. The mapping between the IP address and an easier-toread symbolic name, for example, myhost.ibm.com, is done by the Domain Name System (DNS). To identify a host on the Internet, each host is assigned an address, the IP address, or in some cases, the Internet address. When the host is attached to more than one network, it is called multihomed and has one IP address for each network interface. The IP address consists of a pair of numbers: IP address = <network number><host number> The network number portion of the IP address is administered by one of three regional Internet registries (RIR): American Registry for Internet Numbers (ARIN): This registry is responsible for the administration and registration of Internet Protocol (IP) numbers for North America, South America, the Caribbean, and sub-Saharan Africa. Reseaux IP Europeans (RIPE): This registry is responsible for the administration and registration of Internet Protocol (IP) numbers for Europe, Middle East, and parts of Africa. Asia Pacific Network Information Centre (APNIC): This registry is responsible for the administration and registration of Internet Protocol (IP) numbers within the Asia Pacific region. IP addresses are 32-bit numbers represented in a dotted decimal form (as the decimal representation of four 8-bit values concatenated with dots). For example, 128.2.7.9 is an IP address with 128.2 being the network
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number and 7.9 being the host number. Next, we explain the rules used to divide an IP address into its network and host parts. The binary format of the IP address 128.2.7.9 is: 10000000 00000010 00000111 00001001 IP addresses are used by the IP protocol to uniquely identify a host on the Internet (or more generally, any internet). Strictly speaking, an IP address identifies an interface that is capable of sending and receiving IP datagram. One system can have multiple such interfaces. However, both hosts and routers must have at least one IP address, so this simplified definition is acceptable. IP datagrams (the basic data packets exchanged between hosts) are transmitted by a physical network attached to the host. Each IP datagram contains a source IPaddress and a destination IP address. To send a datagram to a certain IP destination, the target IP address must be translated or mapped to a physical address. This might require transmissions in the network to obtain the destination's physical network address.

Class-based IP addresses The first bits of the IP address specify how the rest of the address should be separated into its network and host part. The terms network address and netID are sometimes used instead of network number. Similarly, the terms host address and hostID are sometimes used instead of host number. Class A addresses: These addresses use 7 bits for the <network> and 24 bits for the <host> portion of the IP address. This allows for 27-2 (126) networks each with 224-2 (16777214) hosts a total of more than 2 billion addresses. Class B addresses: These addresses use 14 bits for the <network> and 16 bits for the <host> portion of the IP address. This allows for 214-2 (16382) networks each with 216-2 (65534) hosts a total of more than 1 billion addresses. Class C addresses: These addresses use 21 bits for the <network> and 8 bits for the <host> portion of the IP address. That allows for 221-2 (2097150) networks each with 28-2 (254) hosts a total of more than half a billion addresses. Class D addresses: These addresses are reserved for multicasting (a sort of broadcasting, but in a limited area, and only to hosts using the same Class D address). Class E addresses: These addresses are reserved for future or experimental use. Class A address is suitable for networks with an extremely large number of hosts. Class C addresses are suitable for networks with a small number of hosts. This means that
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medium-sized networks (those with more than 254 hosts or where there is an expectation of more than 254 hosts) must use Class B addresses. However, the number of small- to medium-sized networks has been growing very rapidly. It was feared that if this growth had been allowed to continue unabated, all the available Class B network addresses would have been used by the mid-1990s. This was termed the IP address exhaustion problem. The division of an IP address into two parts also separates the responsibility of selecting the complete IP address. The network number portion of the address is assigned by the RIRs. The host number portion is assigned by the authority controlling the network. As shown in the next section, the host number can be further subdivided: This division is controlled by the authority that manages the network. It is not controlled by the RIRs. Reserved IP addresses A component of an IP address with a value of all bits 0 or all bits 1 has a special meaning: All bits 0: An address with all bits zero in the host number portion is interpreted as this host (IP address with <host address>=0). All bits zero in the network number portion is this network (IP address with <network address>=0). When a host wants to communicate over a network, but does not yet know the network IP address, it can send packets with <network address>=0. Other hosts in the network interpret the address as meaning this network. Their replies contain the fully qualified network address, which the sender records for future use. All bits 1: An address with all bits 1 is interpreted as all networks or all hosts. For example, the following means all hosts on network 128.2 (Class B address): 128.2.255.255 this is called a directed broadcast address because it contains both a valid <network address> and a broadcast <host address>. Loopback: The Class A network 127.0.0.0 is defined as the loopback network. Addresses from that network are assigned to interfaces that process data within the local system. These loopback interfaces do not access a physical network. Special use IP addresses: RFC 3330 discusses special use IP addresses. We provide a brief description of these IP addresses in Table 1.1.

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