16: 1he Lndocrlne SysLem

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A. Lndocrlnology ls Lhe sclenLlflc sLudy of hormones and Lhe endocrlne organs (p. 393, llg. 16.1).
1. Pormones are chemlcal messengers LhaL are released Lo Lhe blood and ellclL LargeL cell effecLs afLer a
perlod of a few seconds Lo several days.
2. Pormone LargeLs lnclude mosL cells of Lhe body, and regulaLe reproducLlon, growLh and
developmenL, elecLrolyLe, waLer, and nuLrlenL balance, cellular meLabollsm and energy balance, and
moblllzaLlon of body defenses.
3. Lndocrlne glands have no ducLs, and release hormones Lhrough dlffuslon.
4. Lndocrlne glands lnclude Lhe plLulLary, Lhyrold, paraLhyrold, adrenal, and plneal glands.
3. Several organs, such as Lhe pancreas, gonads (LesLes and ovarles), and placenLa, conLaln endocrlne
Llssue.
8. AuLocrlnes are local chemlcal messengers LhaL acL on Lhe same cells LhaL secreLe Lhem, whlle paracrlnes
are local chemlcal messengers LhaL acL on nelghborlng cells, raLher Lhan Lhe cells releaslng Lhem (p. 393).
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A. ChemlsLry of Pormones (p. 396)
1. Pormones are long-dlsLance chemlcal slgnals LhaL are secreLed by Lhe cells Lo Lhe exLracellular fluld
and regulaLe Lhe meLabollc funcLlons of oLher cells.
2. MosL hormones are amlno acld based, buL gonadal and adrenocorLlcal hormones are sLerolds,
derlved from cholesLerol.
3. Llcosanolds, whlch lnclude leukoLrlenes and prosLaglandlns, derlve from arachldonlc acld.
8. Mechanlsms of Pormone AcLlon (pp. 396-398, llgs. 16.2-16.4)
1. Pormones Lyplcally produce changes ln membrane permeablllLy or poLenLlal, sLlmulaLe synLhesls of
proLelns or regulaLory molecules, acLlvaLe or deacLlvaLe enzymes, lnduce secreLory acLlvlLy, or
sLlmulaLe mlLosls.
2. WaLer-soluble hormones (all amlno acld-based hormones excepL Lhyrold hormone) exerL Lhelr
effecLs Lhrough an lnLracellular second messenger LhaL ls acLlvaLed when a hormone blnds Lo a
membrane recepLor.
3. Llpld-soluble hormones (sLerolds and Lhyrold hormone) dlffuse lnLo Lhe cell, where Lhey blnd Lo
lnLracellular recepLors, mlgraLe Lo Lhe nucleus, and acLlvaLe speclflc LargeL sequences of unA.
4. Second-messenger sysLems, acLlvaLed when a hormone blnds Lo a plasma membrane recepLor,
acLlvaLe C proLelns wlLhln Lhe cell LhaL alLer enzyme acLlvlLy.
3. ulrecL gene acLlvaLlon occurs when a hormone blnds Lo an lnLracellular recepLor, whlch acLlvaLes a
speclflc reglon of unA, causlng Lhe producLlon of m8nA, and lnLlLlaLlon of proLeln synLhesls.
C. 1argeL Cell SpeclflclLy (p. 398)
1. Cells musL have speclflc membrane or lnLracellular recepLors Lo whlch hormones can blnd.
2. 1argeL cell response depends on Lhree facLors: blood levels of Lhe hormone, relaLlve numbers of
LargeL cell recepLors, and afflnlLy of Lhe recepLor for Lhe hormone.
3. 1argeL cells can change Lhelr senslLlvlLy Lo a hormone by changlng Lhe number of recepLors.
u. Palf-Llfe, CnseL, and uuraLlon of Pormone AcLlvlLy (p. 399)
1. 1he concenLraLlon of a hormone reflecLs lLs raLe of release, and Lhe raLe of lnacLlvaLlon and removal
from Lhe body.
2. 1he half-llfe of a hormone ls Lhe duraLlon of Llme a hormone remalns ln Lhe blood, and ls shorLesL for
waLer-soluble hormones.
3. 1argeL organ response and duraLlon of response vary wldely among hormones.
L. lnLeracLlon of Pormones aL 1argeL Cells (p. 600)
1. ermlsslveness occurs when one hormone cannoL exerL lLs full effecL wlLhouL anoLher hormone belng
presenL.
2. Synerglsm occurs when more Lhan one hormone produces Lhe same effecLs ln a LargeL cell, and Lhelr
comblned effecLs are ampllfled.
3. AnLagonlsm occurs when one hormone opposes Lhe acLlon of anoLher hormone.
l. ConLrol of Pormone 8elease (p. 600, llg. 16.4)
1. MosL hormone synLhesls and release ls regulaLed Lhrough negaLlve feedback mechanlsms.
2. Lndocrlne gland sLlmull may be humoral, neural, or hormonal.
3. nervous sysLem modulaLlon allows hormone secreLlon Lo be modlfled by hormonal, humoral, and
neural sLlmull ln response Lo changlng body needs.
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A. 1he plLulLary gland ls slLuaLed ln Lhe sella Lurclca of Lhe skull, and ls connecLed Lo Lhe braln vla Lhe
lnfundlbulum (p. 601, llg. 16.3).
8. 1he plLulLary has Lwo lobes: Lhe posLerlor plLulLary, or neurohypophysls, whlch ls neural ln orlgln, and Lhe
anLerlor plLulLary, or adenohypophysls, whlch ls glandular ln orlgln (pp. 601-603, llg. 16.3).
1. 1he hypoLhalamo-hypophyseal LracL ls a neural connecLlon beLween Lhe hypoLhalamus and Lhe
posLerlor plLulLary LhaL exLends Lhrough Lhe lnfundlbulum.
2. 1he hypoLhalamo-hypophyseal porLal sysLem ls a vascular connecLlon beLween Lhe hypoLhalamus and
Lhe anLerlor plLulLary LhaL exLends Lhrough Lhe lnfundlbulum.
C. AnLerlor lLulLary Pormones (pp. 603-603, llgs. 16.6-16.7, 1able 16.1)
1. 1he anLerlor plLulLary produces slx hormones, four of whlch are Lroplc hormones LhaL regulaLe
secreLlon of oLher hormones, as well as a prohormone.
a. ro-oplomelanocorLln (CMC) ls a prohormone LhaL can be spllL lnLo adrenocorLlcoLroplc
hormone, Lwo naLural oplaLes, and melanocyLe-sLlmulaLlng hormone.
b. CrowLh hormone acLs on LargeL cells ln Lhe llver, skeleLal muscle, bone, and oLher Llssues Lo cause
Lhe producLlon of lnsulln-llke growLh facLors (lCls).
c. 1hyrold-sLlmulaLlng hormone (1SP) promoLes secreLlon of Lhe Lhyrold gland.
d. AdrenocorLlcoLroplc hormone (AC1P) promoLes release of corLlcosLerold hormones from Lhe
adrenal corLex.
e. ConadoLroplns lSP (folllcle-sLlmulaLlng hormone) and LP (luLelnlzlng hormone) regulaLe funcLlon
of Lhe gonads.
f. rolacLln sLlmulaLes Lhe gonads and promoLes mllk producLlon ln humans.

u. 1he osLerlor lLulLary and PypoLhalamlc Pormones (pp. 603-608, 1able 16.1)
1. 1he posLerlor plLulLary produces Lwo neurohormones: oxyLocln, whlch promoLes uLerlne conLracLlon
and mllk e[ecLlon, and anLldlureLlc hormone (AuP), whlch prevenLs wlde swlngs ln waLer balance.
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A. 1he Lhyrold gland conslsLs of hollow folllcles wlLh folllcle cells LhaL produce Lhyroglobulln, and
parafolllcular cells LhaL produce calclLonln (p. 608, llg. 16.8).
8. 1hyrold hormone conslsLs of Lwo amlne hormones, Lhyroxlne (1
4
) and LrllodoLhyronlne (1
3
), LhaL acL on all
body cells Lo lncrease basal meLabollc raLe and body heaL producLlon (pp. 609-612, llgs. 16.9-16.10,
1able 16.2).
C. CalclLonln ls a pepLlde hormone LhaL lowers blood calclum by lnhlblLlng osLeoclasL acLlvlLy, and sLlmulaLes
Ca
2+
upLake and lncorporaLlon lnLo Lhe bone maLrlx (pp. 611-612).
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A. 1he paraLhyrold glands conLaln chlef cells LhaL secreLe paraLhyrold hormone, or paraLhormone (pp. 612-
613, llgs. 16.11-16.12).
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A. 1he adrenal glands, or suprarenal glands, conslsL of Lwo reglons: an lnner adrenal medulla and an ouLer
adrenal corLex (p. 614, llg. 16.13).
8. 1he adrenal corLex produces corLlcosLerolds from Lhree dlsLlncL reglons: Lhe zona glomerulosa, Lhe zona
fasclculaLa, and Lhe zona reLlcularls (pp. 614-618, llgs. 16.11-16-13, 1able 16.3).
1. MlneralocorLlcolds, mosLly aldosLerone, are essenLlal Lo regulaLlon of elecLrolyLe concenLraLlons of
exLracellular flulds.
2. AldosLerone secreLlon ls regulaLed by Lhe renln-angloLensln mechanlsm, flucLuaLlng blood
concenLraLlons of sodlum and poLasslum lons, and secreLlon of AC1P.
3. ClucocorLlcolds are released ln response Lo sLress Lhrough Lhe acLlon of AC1P.
4. ConadocorLlcolds are mosLly weak androgens, whlch are converLed Lo LesLosLerone and esLrogens ln
Lhe Llssue cells.
C. 1he adrenal medulla conLalns chromaffln cells LhaL synLheslze eplnephrlne and noreplnephrlne (pp. 618-
620, llgs. 16.13, 16.16, 1able 16.3).
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A. 1he only ma[or secreLory producL of Lhe plneal gland ls melaLonln, a hormone derlved from seroLonln, ln a
dlurnal cycle (p. 620).
8. 1he plneal gland lndlrecLly recelves lnpuL from Lhe vlsual paLhways ln order Lo deLermlne Lhe Llmlng of
day and nlghL (p. 620).
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A. 1he pancreas ls a mlxed gland LhaL conLalns boLh endocrlne and exocrlne gland cells (pp. 620-623, llgs.
16.17-16.19, 1able 16.3).
1. Clucagon LargeLs Lhe llver where lL promoLes glycogenolysls, gluconeogenesls, and release of glucose
Lo Lhe blood.
2. lnsulln lowers blood sugar levels by enhanclng membrane LransporL of glucose lnLo body cells.

8. Pormone SecreLlon by CLher Crgans (p. 623, 1able 16.3)
1. 1he aLrla of Lhe hearL conLaln speclallzed cells LhaL secreLe aLrlal naLrlureLlc pepLlde, resulLlng ln
decreased blood volume, blood pressure, and blood sodlum concenLraLlon.
2. 1he gasLrolnLesLlnal LracL conLalns enLeroendocrlne cells LhroughouL Lhe mucosa LhaL secreLe
hormones Lo regulaLe dlgesLlve funcLlons.
3. 1he kldneys produce eryLhropoleLln, whlch slgnals Lhe bone marrow Lo produce red blood cells.
4. 1he skln produces cholecalclferol, an lnacLlve form of vlLamln u
3
.
3. Adlpose Llssue produces lepLln, whlch acLs on Lhe CnS Lo produce a feellng of saLleLy, and reslsLln, an
lnsulln anLagonlsL.
6. CsLeoblasLs ln skeleLal Llssue secreLe osLeocalcln, a hormone LhaL promoLes lncreased lnsulln
secreLlon by Lhe pancreas and resLrlcLs faL sLorage by adlpocyLes.
7. 1he Lhymus produces LhymopoleLln, Lhymlc facLor, and Lhymosln, whlch are essenLlal for Lhe
developmenL of 1 lymphocyLes and Lhe lmmune response.
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! ChapLer 1: negaLlve feedback
! ChapLer 2: SLerolds, amlno aclds
! ChapLer 3: Ceneral cellular funcLlon
! ChapLer 6: 8one homeosLasls, eplphyseal plaLe
! ChapLer 11: noreplnephrlne and eplnephrlne
! ChapLer 12: PypoLhalamus
! ChapLer 19: PepaLlc porLal sysLem, blood pressure conLrol, aLrlal naLrlureLlc pepLlde and blood pressure
regulaLlon
! ChapLer 21: LffecL of Lhymlc hormones
! ChapLer 23: CasLrln and secreLln (hormones of Lhe dlgesLlve sysLem)
! ChapLer 24: lnsulln and glucagon effecLs, hormone funcLlon relaLed Lo general body meLabollsm
! ChapLer 23: AnLldlureLlc hormone funcLlon, aldosLerone effecLs on renal Llssue, renln-angloLensln mechanlsm of
blood pressure regulaLlon, role of aLrlal naLrlureLlc facLor and fluld-elecLrolyLe balance
! ChapLer 26: AnLldlureLlc hormone funcLlon, aldosLerone effecLs on renal Llssue, renln-angloLensln mechanlsm of
blood pressure regulaLlon, role of paraLhyrold hormone and calclum balance relaLed Lo developmenL, role of
aLrlal naLrlureLlc pepLlde and fluld-elecLrolyLe balance, esLrogen and glucocorLlcold funcLlon ln fluld and
elecLrolyLe balance
! ChapLer 27: luncLlon of gonadoLroplns, LesLosLerone producLlon, role of lSP and LP relaLed Lo reproducLlon,
role of relaxln and lnhlbln ln reproducLlon, ovarlan physlology, braln-LesLlcular axls
! ChapLer 28: SLlmulaLlon of mllk producLlon by Lhe mammary gland (due Lo prolacLln secreLlon), resulLs of
oxyLocln and prolacLln release, role of paraLhyrold hormone and calclum balance relaLed Lo developmenL,
funcLlons of human placenLal lacLogen and human chorlonlc LhyroLropln, prosLaglandlns and reproducLlve
physlology, role of relaxln