Formulas Uniform Acc.

x= (u+v)t x=ut + at x=vt - at

2 2 2 2

Speed = Velocity = Acceleration =

km/h -> m/s (Divide by 3.6) m/s -> km/h (multiply by 3.6) Distance-Time Gradient is Velocity; Velocity-Time: Gradient is Acceleration, Area below graph is displacement/distance Acceleration-Time: Area below graph is Velocity; Newtons 1 Law (Inertia) Every object continues in its state of rest or uniform motion unless made to change by a non-zero net force. rd Newtons 3 Law For every action force there is an equal and opposite reaction force
2 st

v =u + 2ax
Newtons 2 Law
nd

Sum of Forces = Mass (kg) x Acceleration (m/s ) When a = 0, object is at rest or uniform motion Vector specifies unit, magnitude and direction Displacement is a measure of the change in position of an object Velocity is a measure of the time rate of displacement, or the time rate of change in position Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity Weight is the force applied to an object due to gravitational attraction The normal reaction is a force that acts perpendicularly to a surface as a result of an object applying a force to the surface Gravitational Field Strength: force of gravity on a unit of mass, measured in N/kg Instantaneous velocity: Velocity at an instant of time, midpoint of average velocity of time interval during constant acceleration

In a Lift: Fnormal Fgravity, if normal force = 0 then weightlessness Tension Q (on trailer): Ftension - Ffriction= (pulley) Weight Tension Tension Q (on car): Fdriving Ftension Ffriction = Inertia: tendency of an object to continue doing what it is doing and resist change Terminal Velocity: drag= weight, constant velocity but Net Force = 0 Friction: force applied to the surface of an object when it is pushed or pulled against the surface of an object Reduce Friction through lubrication, reduce mass, reduce roughness, and decrease surface area Total final momentum = Total initial momentum Collision: To reduce the net force acting on objects -> must increase time interval over which the momentum change occurs Force-Time: impulse is area below graph, 2 1N= 1 kg m/s , 1N s = 1 kg m/s m1v1 + m2v2 = m1u1 + m2u2 (no external forces) Momentum: tendency of an object to keep moving with the same speed and direction P (kg m/s) = m x v | Changing momentum depends on mass and amount of change in velocity Impulse = change in momentum, measured in N s.

If net force is acting on the body, perpendicular to the direction of motion then no work has been done Newton-Metres: Area below graph is work Mechanical Energy: energy of a body due to its motion or = mv mu = m(v-u)=m v position Kinetic Energy: energy carried by a moving body, Ek= , Joules Power is the rate at which energy is transferred or transformed, (flight) power generated by the plane engine

If Kinetic Energy is lost, collisions are not elastic Gravitational Potential Energy: energy stored in a body due to its position relative to another object to which it is attracted by gravity, measured in Joules 2 Egp=m (kg) x g (9.8 m/s ) x h (metres) Egp=Area under acc-dist. x mass ( Strain/Elastic Potential Energy: energy stored in a body that has been stretched/compressed, measured in Joules W= (Area below Force-Displacement graph) Hookes Law: behaviour of ideal spring, force required to compress/stretch spring is directly proportional to the change in length of the spring F F=-k F= Force exerted on spring (N), k=Spring constant (N/m), x=displacement of spring (m) Strain Potential Energy: Fnetav=m aav = Ek/x

Ramp questions (projectile motion)

R= Distance between ramps (m), g= 10 m/s

Circular Motion, where velocity is tangential to circular motion

Grav. Force

- Mass doesnt not affect velocity -angle changes speed, larger = more speed

Keplers Orbital Law

G= Gravational Constant: 6.67 x 10

-11

N m /kg

R = Distance btn centres of bodies (m) M= big mass, m= small mass (kg)
Vertical Circular Motion - Top and Bottom are important Top

R= distance between centre of mass of planet to star (m) T= Orbital Period in seconds M= Mass of star at centre (eg: sun) (kg) 3 2 Graphing R versus T , finding gradient will allow you to find M (mass at centre)

FN

FG
-11 2 Bottom G= Gravational Constant: 6.67 x 10 N m /kg

FN

R = Distance btn centres of bodies (m) , M= bigDown mass, m= small mass (kg) Upside

M= mass of larger object (kg) m= mass of smaller object (kg) R= distance from centre of mass (m) g = Grav. Field Strength (N/kg) Radius of Earth: 6.38 x 106 m Mass of Earth: 5.98 x 1024 kg

FG FN =0

FG

Derived Formulas

Irregular Orbit, eg: Halleys Comet (Highly Elliptical Orbit) Why Velocity is faster when it approaches the Sun & Earth? In all orbits the Total Energy = Gpe + KE, is a constant value. As the Gpe is lower when the comet approaches the sun (due to a lower radius), the KE is greater to compensate for this change, which results in a greater velocity when the comet approaches the Sun. Area under acel.-dist. graph x mass = J (Gpe) Area under Grav. Field Strength radius x mass= Gpe

V=IR Q (quantity of charge C) = I (Amps) x t (s)

V= (emf) = E (energy transformed, Joules) = Power (watts) x time (s) = I2Rt = Power (watts)= VI = I2R = Terminal Voltage = (emf) I x r (internal resistance) If no current, then V = =IR + Ir or (V+Ir) R= ( -V)/I

Cost = Energy (kWh) x Rate (c/kWh) J -> kWh = Divide (3.6 x 106 )& (vice versa) = 103 Mega = 106 Giga = 109 Milli = 10-3 Micro = 106 Nano=10-9 1C = 6.242 x 1018 e 1 e (elementary charge) = 1.602 x 10-19 coulombs Vout=[ ] x Vin | Vout = VR2 E (Joules) = V x Q = V x I (A) x t (s) Vrms=

Current Capacity= Current x Time; IT=

T(s)= Amplifier

Optical Transducers

1. LDR light affects resistance, slow, not suitable for transmitting data 2. Photodiode really fast, Photoconductive mode reverse bias, negative current increases with more light intake, current varies with light intensity Photovoltaic mode forward bias, gets more voltage, used in solar panels More incident light in intensity ( means greater photocurrent 3. Photo-transistor doesnt require as much light to amplify, built in gain, far more sensitive to low light levels, slower than photodiode (10x) Electrical to Light 1. LED p-n combine to produce 1 photon of light 2. Laser Diode monochromatic light (one wavelength), greater intensity, narrow beam

DC bias added in order to move input voltage into linear region to avoid clipping Capacitor in circuit removes DC from circuit.

cutoff (minimum Vin) Linear region

Saturation (maximum Vout)

Audio Signal (baseband) + Carrier Signal (higher frequency) = Modulated Radio Wave (Amplitude Modulation)

Pulse Code Modulation 1. Sampling- takes voltage value at regular time intervals 2. Quantization- Rounds voltage to a certain precision eg:3 d.ps 3. Encoding translate voltage to binary number 2n=10n

Forces that affect structures

(Yield point)