K.

Balachandran

To introduce the concepts, terminologies and technologies used in modern days data communication and computer networking.

To understand the concepts of data communications. To study the functions of different layers. To introduce IEEE standards employed in computer networking. To make the students to get familiarized with different protocols and network components.

Text book:
Behrouz A. Forouzan, Data communication and

Reference books

Networking, Tata McGraw-Hill, 2004.

James F. Kurose and Keith W. Ross, Computer

Networking: A Top-Down Approach Featuring the Internet, Pearson Education, 2003. Larry L.Peterson and Peter S. Davie, Computer Networks, Harcourt Asia Pvt. Ltd., Second Edition. Andrew S. Tanenbaum, Computer Networks, PHI, Fourth Edition, 2003. William Stallings, Data and Computer Communication, Sixth Edition, Pearson Education, 2000.

DATA COMMUNICATIONS DATA LINK LAYER NETWORK LAYER TRANSPORT LAYER APPLICATION LAYER

Components Direction of Data flow networks Components and Categories types of Connections Topologies Protocols and Standards ISO / OSI model Transmission Media Coaxial Cable Fiber Optics Line Coding Modems RS232 Interfacing sequences.

Why study data communications? Data communication exchange of data between two devices via a transmission medium Effectiveness depends on:
Delivery, Accuracy, Timeliness, Jitter

Sender Receiver Message Medium Protocol

Text represented as a bit pattern; codes often used:

ASCII; Extended ASCII; Unicode; ISO

Numbers represented by binary equivalent Images bit patterns representing pixels Audio Video

10

Simplex unidirectional; one transmits, other receives Half-duplex each can transmit/receive; communication must alternate Full-duplex both can transmit/receive simultaneously

11

Set of devices (nodes) connected by media Distributed processing Advantages

12

Performance affected by # users, type of medium, HW/SW Reliability measured by freq of failure, recovery time, catastrophe vulnerability Security protection from unauthorized access, viruses/worms

13

Point-to-point dedicated

Multipoint shared

14

Physical or logical arrangement 4 basic types: mesh, star, bus, ring May often see hybrid

15

LAN MAN WAN

Protocols:
Syntax: structure and format of the data Semantics: meaning of each section of bits

Timing

 De facto: standards not approved by standard

agencies De jure: legislated and officially recognized Standards Organizations:

ISO ITU- International Telecommunication Union CCITT: Consultative committee for International Telegraphy and Telephony ANSI: American National Standards Institute IEEE: institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers EIA: Electronics Industries Association

OSI (Open Systems Interconnect) Network architecture based on a proposal developed by ISO (International Standards Organization) to standardize the protocols used in various layers

Dedicated point-to-point links to every other device Advantages Disadvantages

20

Dedicated point-to-point links to central controller (hub) Controller acts as exchange Advantages Disadvantages

21

Transmission Medium and Physical Layer

22

Twisted-pair Cable

23

Categories of unshielded twisted-pair cables

24

(a) Category 3 UTP (b) Category 5 UTP

25

UTP connector

26

Medium is the physical path between transmitter and receiver in a data transmission system Guided Medium: waves are guided along a solid medium path (twisted pair, coaxial cable, and optical fiber). Unguided medium: waves are propagated through the atmosphere and inner/outerspace (satellite, laser, and wireless transmissions).

Physical description:
Each wire with copper conductor Separately insulated wires Twisted together to reduce cross talk

Often bundled into cables of two or four twisted pairs

If enclosed in a sheath then is shielded twisted pair (STP)

otherwise often for home usage unshielded twisted pair (UTP). Must be shield from voltage lines

Application:
Common in building for digital signaling used at

speed of 10s Mb/s (CAT3) and 100Mb/s (CAT5) over 100s meters. Common for telephone interconnection at home and office buildings Less expensive medium; limited in distance, bandwidth, and data rate.

Category CAT 1

Maximum data rate Less than 1 Mbps

Usual application analog voice (plain old telephone service) Integrated Services Digital Network Basic Rate Interface in ISDN Doorbell wiring Mainly used in the IBM Cabling System for token ring networks Voice and data on 10BASE-T Ethernet (certify 16Mhz signal) Used in 16Mbps Token Ring Otherwise not used much 100 Mbps TPDDI 155 Mbps asynchronous transfer mode (certify 100 Mhz signal)

CAT 2 CAT 3 CAT 4 CAT 5

4 Mbps 16 Mbps 20 Mbps 100 Mbps

Widely installed for use in business and corporation Ethernet and other types of LANs. Consists of inter copper insulator covered by cladding material, and then covered by an outer jacket Physical Descriptions
Inner conductor is solid copper metal

Separated by insulating material Outer conductor is braided shielded (ground) Covered by sheath material

Applications:
TV distribution (cable tv); long distance telephone transmission;

short run computer system links Local area networks

Transmission characteristics:
Can transmit analog and digital signals Usable spectrum for analog signaling is about 400 Mhz Amplifier needed for analog signals for less than 1 Km and less

distance for higher frequency Repeater needed for digital signals every Km or less distance for higher data rates Operation of 100s Mb/s over 1 Km.

Physical Description:

Glass or plastic core of optical fiber = 2 to125 m Cladding is an insulating material Jacket is a protective cover Laser or light emitting diode provides transmission light source

Applications:
Long distance telecommunication Greater capacity; 2 Gb/s over 10s of Km Smaller size and lighter weight Lower attenuation (reduction in strength of signal) Electromagnetic isolation not effected by external electromagnetic environment. more privacy Greater repeater spacing fewer repeaters, reduces line regeneration cost

multimode fiber is optical fiber that is designed to carry multiple light rays or modes concurrently, each at a slightly different reflection angle within the optical fiber core. used for relatively short distances because the modes tend to disperse over longer lengths (this is called modal dispersion) . For longer distances, single mode fiber (sometimes called monomode) fiber is used. In single mode fiber a single ray or mode of light act as a carrier

0.85, 1.30, 1.55 bands Bands are 25000 to 30000 GHz wide Dispersion: Spreading out in length as they propagate- Hyperbolic cosine Solitons: pulses which can travel 1000s of KMs without any appreciable shape dispersion

Band VLF LF MF HF VHF UHF SHF EHF

Range 330 KHz 30300 KHz 300 KHz3 MHz 330 MHz 30300 MHz 300 MHz3 GHz 330 GHz 30300 GHz

Propagation Ground Ground Sky Sky Sky and line-of-sight Line-of-sight Line-of-sight Line-of-sight

Application Long-range radio navigation

Radio beacons and navigational locators

AM radio

Citizens band (CB), ship/aircraft communication

VHF TV, FM radio UHF TV, cellular phones, paging, satellite Satellite communication Long-range radio navigation

Figure 7.19

Wireless transmission waves

43

Process of converting binary data to a digital signal

44

Residual direct-current (dc) components or zero frequencies are undesirable

Some systems do not allow

passage of a dc component; may distort the signal and create output errors DC component is extra energy and is useless

45

Includes timing information in the data being transmitted to prevent misinterpretation

Lack of synchronization
46

Unipolar Polar Bipolar

47

Simplest method; inexpensive Uses only one voltage level Polarity is usually assigned to binary 1; a 0 is represented by zero voltage

48

Potential problems:
DC component Lack of synchronization

49

Uses two voltage levels, one positive and one negative Alleviates DC component Variations
Nonreturn to zero (NRZ) Return to zero (RZ)

Manchester
Differential Manchester
50

Value of signal is always positive or negative NRZ-L

Signal level depends on bit represented; positive

NRZ-I (NRZ-Invert)

usually means 0, negative usually means 1 Problem: synchronization of long streams of 0s or 1s

Inversion of voltage represents a 1 bit 0 bit represented by no change Allows for synchronization
51

Uses an inversion at the middle of each bit interval for both synchronization and bit representation Negative-to-positive represents binary 1 Positive-to-negative represents binary 0 Achieves same level of synchronization with only 2 levels of amplitude

52

Inversion at middle of bit interval is used for synchronization Presence or absence of additional transition at beginning of interval identifies the bit Transition means binary 0; no transition means 1 Requires two signal changes to represent binary 0; only one to represent 1

53

RS-232 is the Serial interface on the PC Three major wires for the Serial interface:

Transmit - Pin 2
Receive - Pin 3 Ground - Pin 7 (25 pin connector) - Pin 5 (9 pin connector)
Tx Computer Device Rx Gnd Rx Gnd Tx

Transmit connects to Receive

54

TD: transmitted data RD: received data DSR: data set ready
indicate whether DCE is powered on

DTR: data terminal ready

indicate whether DTR is powered on turning off DTR causes modem to hang up the line

RI: ring indicator

ON when modem detects phone call

55

DCD: data carrier detect

ON when two modems have negotiated successfully and

RTS: request to send

the carrier signal is established on the phone line

ON when DTE wants to send data Used to turn on and off modems carrier signal in multi-

CTS: clear to send

point (i.e. multi-drop) lines Normally constantly ON in point-to-point lines

ON when DCE is ready to receive data

SG: signal ground

56

Means to ask the transmitter to stop/resume sending in data Required when:

DTE to DCE speed > DCE to DCE speed

(e.g. terminal speed = 115.2kbps and line speed = 33.6kbps, in order to benefit from modems data compression protocol) without flow control, the buffer within modem will overflow sooner or later the receiving end takes time to process the data and thus cannot be always ready to receive

57

Position of the data-link layer

Data link layer duties

LLC and MAC sublayers

IEEE standards for LANs

Error Detection and Correction

Note: Data can be corrupted during transmission. For reliable communication, errors must be detected and corrected.

Types of Error

Single-Bit Error Burst Error

Note: In a single-bit error, only one bit in the data unit has changed.

Single-bit error

Note: A burst error means that 2 or more bits in the data unit have changed.

Burst error of length 5

Detection Redundancy
Parity Check Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) Checksum

Note: Error detection uses the concept of redundancy, which means adding extra bits for detecting errors at the destination.

Redundancy

Detection methods

Even-parity concept

Note: In parity check, a parity bit is added to every data unit so that the total number of 1s is even (or odd for odd-parity).

Example 1
Suppose the sender wants to send the word world. In ASCII the five characters are coded as
1110111 1101111 1110010 1101100 1100100

The following shows the actual bits sent

11101110 11011110 11100100 11011000 11001001

Example 2
Now suppose the word world in Example 1 is received by the receiver without being corrupted in transmission.
11101110 11011110 11100100 11011000 11001001

The receiver counts the 1s in each character and comes up with even numbers (6, 6, 4, 4, 4). The data are accepted.

Example 3
Now suppose the word world in Example 1 is corrupted during transmission.
11111110 11011110 11101100 11011000 11001001

The receiver counts the 1s in each character and comes up with even and odd numbers (7, 6, 5, 4, 4). The receiver knows that the data are corrupted, discards them, and asks for retransmission.

Note: Simple parity check can detect all single-bit errors. It can detect burst errors only if the total number of errors in each data unit is odd.

Two-dimensional parity

Example 4
Suppose the following block is sent:
10101001 00111001 11011101 11100111 10101010 However, it is hit by a burst noise of length 8, and some bits are corrupted. 10100011 10001001 11011101 11100111 10101010 When the receiver checks the parity bits, some of the bits do not follow the even-parity rule and the whole block is discarded. 10100011 10001001 11011101 11100111 10101010

Note: In two-dimensional parity check, a block of bits is divided into rows and a redundant row of bits is added to the whole block.

CRC generator and checker

Binary division in a CRC generator

Binary division in CRC checker

A polynomial

A polynomial representing a divisor

Standard polynomials
Name CRC-8 CRC-10 ITU-16 ITU-32 Polynomial x8 + x2 + x + 1 x10 + x9 + x5 + x4 + x 2 + 1 x16 + x12 + x5 + 1 x32 + x26 + x23 + x22 + x16 + x12 + x11 + x10 + x8 + x7 + x5 + x4 + x2 + x + 1 Application ATM header ATM AAL HDLC LANs

Example 5
It is obvious that we cannot choose x (binary 10) or x2 + x (binary 110) as the polynomial because both are divisible by x. However, we can choose x + 1 (binary 11) because it is not divisible by x, but is divisible by x + 1. We can also choose x2 + 1 (binary 101) because it is divisible by x + 1 (binary division).

Example 6
The CRC-12

x12 + x11 + x3 + x + 1
which has a degree of 12, will detect all burst errors affecting an odd number of bits, will detect all burst errors with a length less than or equal to 12, and will detect, 99.97 percent of the time, burst errors with a length of 12 or more.

Checksum

Data unit and checksum

Note:
The sender follows these steps:
The unit is divided into k sections, each of n bits.

All sections are added using ones complement to get the sum.
The sum is complemented and becomes the checksum. The checksum is sent with the data.

Note:
The receiver follows these steps:
The unit is divided into k sections, each of n bits.

All sections are added using ones complement to get the sum.
The sum is complemented. If the result is zero, the data are accepted: otherwise, rejected.

Example 7
Suppose the following block of 16 bits is to be sent using a checksum of 8 bits.
10101001 00111001 The numbers are added using ones complement 10101001 00111001 -----------11100010 00011101 10101001 00111001 00011101

Sum Checksum

The pattern sent is

Example 8
Now suppose the receiver receives the pattern sent in Example 7 and there is no error.
10101001 00111001 00011101 When the receiver adds the three sections, it will get all 1s, which, after complementing, is all 0s and shows that there is no error. 10101001 00111001 00011101 Sum 11111111

Complement

00000000 means that the pattern is OK.

Example 9
Now suppose there is a burst error of length 5 that affects 4 bits.
10101111 11111001 00011101 When the receiver adds the three sections, it gets

10101111
11111001 00011101 Partial Sum Carry Sum Complement 1 11000101 1 11000110 00111001 the pattern is corrupted.

Correction

Retransmission

Forward Error Correction Burst Error Correction

Data and redundancy bits

Number of data bits m Number of redundancy bits r 2 3 3 3 Total bits m+r 3 5 6 7

1 2 3 4

5
6 7

4
4 4

9
10 11

Positions of redundancy bits in Hamming code

Redundancy bits calculation

Example of redundancy bit calculation

Error detection using Hamming code

Burst error correction example

 How to find an error?

Introducing redundancy -- using 2 bits message to send 1 bit information in the previous example. Message = information bits + redundant bits (checksum).

How to design codes that have error correction/detection capability?

Hamming distance between two code words: the number of different bits between the two code words.
E.g 010101 and 111000? Hamming distance = ?

Hamming distance of a complete code: the minimum Hamming distance any of the two codewords in the code.
E.g 010101, 111000, 000111, 111111 Hamming_distance= ?

Positions of redundancy bits in Hamming code

Redundancy bits calculation

10.16

Example of redundancy bit calculation

Data transmission in one direction only Both Transmitting and receiving host are always ready for operation Processing time can be ignored Infinite buffer size available Communication channels between IMPs never damages or loses frame No sequence Number, No acknowledgements Only event is FrameArrival arrival of undamaged frame

typedef enum {frme_arraival} event_type; #include protocol.h void sender1(void) { frame s; /*buffer for an outbound frame*/ packet buffer; /*buffer for an outbound packet*/ while (true) { from_network_layer(&buffer); s.info = buffer; to_physical_layer(&s); }

void receiver1(void) { frame r; /*buffers for the frames*/ event_type event; while (true) { wait_for_event(&event); from_physical_layer(&r); to_network_layer(&r.info);

Program to send the frame based on worst-case behavior Receiver providing feedback to the sender Sender sends one frame and then waits for an ACK before proceeding protocol works, all frames delivered in correct order requires little buffer space poor line utilization

typedef enum {frme_arraival} event_type; #include protocol.h void sender2(void) { frame s; /*buffer for an outbound frame*/ packet buffer; /*buffer for an outbound packet*/ while (true) { from_network_layer(&buffer); s.info = buffer; to_physical_layer(&s); wait_for_event(&event); }

void receiver1(void) { frame r,s; /*buffers for the frames*/ event_type event; while (true) { wait_for_event(&event); from_physical_layer(&r); to_network_layer(&r.info); to_physical_layer(&s); /*sending dummy frame to awaken sender */ }

Ambiguities with Stop-and-Wait [unnumbered frames] Time-out frame 0 ACK frame 1 frame 1 ACK frame 2

(a) Frame 1 lost

A

time

(b) ACK lost

A
frame 0 ACK

Time-out time

frame 1
ACK

frame 1

ACK

frame 2

In parts (a) and (b) transmitting station A acts the same way, but part (b) receiving station B accepts frame 1 twice.

ACKs introduce a new issue how long does receiver wait before sending ONLY an ACK frame.
We need an ACKTimer!!

sender timeout period needs to set longer.

Each outbound frame must contain a sequence number. With n bits for the sequence number field, the numbers range from 0 to maxseq. Sliding window :: sender has a window of frames and maintains a list of consecutive sequence numbers for frames that it is permitted to send without waiting for ACKs. receiver has a window that is a list of frame sequence numbers it is permitted to accept. Note sending and receiving windows do NOT have to be the same size. Windows can be fixed size or dynamically growing and shrinking.

Host is oblivious, message order at transport level is maintained. senders window :: frames sent but not yet ACKed. new packets from the Host cause the upper edge inside sender window to be incremented. ACKed frames from the receiver cause the lower edge inside window to be incremented. All frames in the senders window must be saved for possible retransmission and we need one timer per frame in the window.

If the maximum sender window size is B, the sender needs B buffers. If the sender window gets full (i.e., reaches its maximum window size, the protocol must shut off the Host (the network layer) until buffers become available. receiver window
Frames received with sequence numbers outside the receiver window are not accepted.

receiver window
Frames received with sequence numbers

outside the receiver window are not accepted. The receiver window size is normally static. The set of acceptable sequence numbers is rotated as acceptable frames arrive.

a receiver window size = 1 the protocol only accepts frames in order. There is referred to as Go Back N.

Standard Ways to ACK

1. ACK sequence number indicates the last frame successfully received. 2. ACK sequence number indicates the next frame the receiver expects to receive. Both of these can be strictly individual ACKs or represent cumulative ACKing. Cumulative ACKing is the most common technique.

A sliding window of size 1, with a 3-bit sequence number. (a) Initially. (b) After the first frame has been sent. (c) After the first frame has been received. (d) After the first acknowledgement has been received.

(b) Abnormal case. The notation is (seq, ack, packet number). An asterisk indicates where a network layer accepts a packet.

(a) Normal case.

Go Back N

Go-Back-4:
fr 0 fr 1 fr 2 fr 3 fr 4

4 frames are outstanding; so go back 4

fr 5 fr 6 fr 3 fr 4 fr 5 fr 6 fr 7 fr 8 fr 9

time

A C K 1

A C K 2

A C K 3

Out-of-sequence frames A C K 4 error

A C K 5

A C K 6

A C K7

A C K 8

A C K 9

ACKing next frame expected

Go Back N with NAK error recovery

Transmitter goes back to frame 1

Go-Back-7:
fr 0 fr 1 fr 2 fr 3 fr 4 fr 5 fr 1 fr 2 fr 3 fr 4 fr 5 fr 6 fr 7 fr 0

time

B
A C K 1 N A K 1 Out-of-sequence frames A C K 2 A C K 3 A C K 4 A C K 5 A C K 6 A C K 7

error
Copyright 2000 The McGraw Hill Companies Leon-Garcia & Widjaja: Communication Networks Figure 5.17

Selective Repeat with NAK error recovery

fr 0

fr 1

fr 2

fr 3

fr 4

fr 5

fr 6

fr 2

fr 7

fr 8

fr 9

fr 10

fr 11

fr 12

time

A C K 1

A C K 2

error

N A K 2

A C K 2

A C K 2

A C K 2

A C K 7

A C K 8

A C K 9

A C K 1 0

A C K 1 1

A C K 1 2

Copyright 2000 The McGraw Hill Companies

Leon-Garcia & Widjaja: Communication Networks

Figure 5.21

Higher Level Data Link Control :

Synchronous Data Link Control protocol [ IBMs]-

(SDLC) Advanced Data communication Control Procedure [ ANSIs]- (ADCCP) Higher Level Data Link Control Protocol [OSIs](HDLC) Link Access procedure [ X.25] - LAP

HDLC
Configurations and Transfer Modes Frames Frame Format Examples

Data Transparency

HDLC frame

HDLC frame types

I-frame

S-frame control field in HDLC

U-frame control field in HDLC

Table 11.1 U-frame control command and response

Command/response SNRM SNRME SABM SABME Meaning Set normal response mode Set normal response mode (extended) Set asynchronous balanced mode Set asynchronous balanced mode (extended)

UP
UI UA RD DISC DM RIM SIM RSET

Unnumbered poll
Unnumbered information Unnumbered acknowledgment Request disconnect Disconnect Disconnect mode Request information mode Set initialization mode Reset

XID
FRMR

Exchange ID
Frame reject

D SS SA A P P Upperlayer data

Control

Upper layer data

Address

Control

FCS

MAC header

MAC payload

FCS

Most popular packet-switched LAN technology Bandwidths: 10Mbps, 100Mbps, 1Gbps Max bus length: 2500m
500m segments with 4 repeaters

Bus and Star topologies are used to connect hosts

Hosts attach to network via Ethernet transceiver or hub or switch Detects line state and sends/receives signals Hubs are used to facilitate shared connections All hosts on an Ethernet are competing for access to the medium Switches break this model

Problem: Distributed algorithm that provides fair access

CS 640

137

Ethernet by definition is a broadcast protocol

Any signal can be received by all hosts Switching enables individual hosts to

communicate

Network layer packets are transmitted over an Ethernet by encapsulating Frame Format
64 Preamble 48 Dest addr
CS 640

48 Src addr

16 Type Body

32 CRC
138

Physical layer configurations are specified in three parts Data rate (10, 100, 1,000)
10, 100, 1,000Mbps

Signaling method (base, broad)

Baseband Digital signaling Broadband Analog signaling

Cabling (2, 5, T, F, S, L)

5 - Thick coax (original Ethernet cabling) F Optical fiber S Short wave laser over multimode fiber L Long wave laser over single mode fiber

CS 640

139

Developed in late 60s by Norm Abramson at Univ. of Hawaii (!!) for use with packet radio systems
Any station can send data at any time Receiver sends an ACK for data Timeout for ACK signals that there was a collision What happens if timeout is poorly timed? If there is a collision, sender will resend data after a random backoff

Utilization (fraction of transmitted frames avoiding collision for N nodes) was pretty bad
Max utilization = 18%

Slotted Aloha (dividing transmit time into windows) helped

Max utilization increased to 36%

CS 640

140

In Aloha, decisions to transmit are made without paying attention to what other nodes might be doing Ethernet uses CSMA/CD listens to line before/during sending If line is idle (no carrier sensed)

send packet immediately upper bound message size of 1500 bytes must wait 9.6us between back-to-back frames wait until idle and transmit packet immediately called 1-persistent sending Stop sending and jam signal Try again later

If line is busy (carrier sensed)

If collision detected

CS 640

141

Packet? No Sense Carrier Discard Packet attempts < 16

Send

Detect Collision Yes Jam channel b=CalcBackoff(); wait(b); attempts++;

attempts == 16
CS 640 142

Collisions are caused when two adaptors transmit at the same time (adaptors sense collision based on voltage differences)
Both found line to be idle Both had been waiting to for a busy line to become idle

A starts at time 0

Message almost there at time T when B starts collision!

How can we be sure A knows about the collision?

CS 640

143

How can A know that a collision has taken place?

IEEE 802.3 specifies max value of 2T to be 51.2us

There must be a mechanism to insure retransmission on collision As message reaches B at time T Bs message reaches A at time 2T So, A must still be transmitting at 2T

Send jamming signal after collision is detected to insure all hosts see collision
48 bit signal

This relates to maximum distance of 2500m between hosts At 10Mbps it takes 0.1us to transmit one bit so 512 bits (64B) take 51.2us to send So, Ethernet frames must be at least 64B long 14B header, 46B data, 4B CRC Padding is used if data is less than 46B

CS 640

144

time = 0

time = T

time = 2T

CS 640

145

If a collision is detected, delay and try again Delay time is selected using binary exponential backoff
1st time: choose K from {0,1} then delay = K * 51.2us 2nd time: choose K from {0,1,2,3} then delay = K * 51.2us nth time: delay = K x 51.2us, for K=0..2n 1 Note max value for k = 1023 give up after several tries (usually 16) Report transmit error to host

If delay were not random, then there is a chance that sources would retransmit in lock step Why not just choose from small set for K
This works fine for a small number of hosts Large number of nodes would result in more collisions

CS 640

146

Senders handle all access control Receivers simply read frames with acceptable address
Address to host
Address to broadcast Address to multicast to which host belongs

All frames if host is in promiscuous mode

CS 640

147

Fast Ethernet (100Mbps) has technology very similar to 10Mbps Ethernet

Uses different physical layer encoding (4B5B) Many NICs are 10/100 capable Can be used at either speed

Gigabit Ethernet (1,000Mbps)

Compatible with lower speeds Uses standard framing and CSMA/CD algorithm Distances are severely limited Typically used for backbones and inter-router connectivity Becoming cost competitive How much of this bandwidth is realizable?

CS 640

148

a carrier-sense, multiple access with collision detection (CSMA/CD) protocol for a bus topology

Token Bus protocol for a token-passing access method on a bus topology The topology of the computer network can include groups of workstations connected by long trunk cables token bus is used in some manufacturing environments, Ethernet and token ring standards have become more prominent in the office environment.

Token Ring protocol which, like Token Bus, is another token-passing access method, but for a ring topology

TOKEN RING NETWORK LIKE IEEE 802.5 TOKEN: A SPECIAL SEQUENCE OF BITS TOKEN CIRCULATES AROUND THE RING A STATION REMOVES THE TOKEN FROM RING BEFORE TRANSMISSION AFTER TRANSMISSION, THE STATION RETURNS THE TOKEN TO THE RING COLLISIONS ARE PREVENTED AS THERE IS ONLY ONE TOKEN IN THE RING

DUAL-COUNTER-ROTATING TOKEN RING ARCHITECTURE ONE RING IS PRIMARY AND THE OTHER SECONDARY UP TO 500 STATIONS WITH A MAXIMUM DISTANCE OF 2 KM BETWEEN ANY PAIR OF STATIONS FOR MULTIMODE FIBER WITH SINGLE-MODE FIBER THE DISTANCE CAN BE UP TO 40 KM MAXIMUM RING LENGTH IS 100 KM (TOTAL FIBER LENGTH IS 200 KM FOR TWO RINGS) USES 4B/5B ENCODING

FEATURES
TRANSMISSION RATE DATA RATE SIGNAL ENCODING MAXIMUM COVERAGE MAXIMUM NODES MAXIMUM DISTANCE BETWEEN NODES

FDDI
125 MBAUD 100 MBPS 4B/5B (80% EFFICIENT) 100 KM 500 2 KM (MULTIMODE FIBER) 40 KM (SINGLEMODE FIBER)

ETHERNET
20 MBAUD 10 MBPS MANCHESTER (50% EFFICIENT) 2.5 KM 1024 2.5 KM

TOKEN RING
8 & 32 MBAUD 4 & 16 MBPS DIFFERENTIAL MANCHESTER (50% EFFICIENT) CONFIGURATION DEPENDENT 250 300 M (RECOMMENDED 100 M)
154

802.11 is primarily concerned with the lower layers of the OSI model. Data Link Layer
Logical Link Control (LLC).

Medium Access Control (MAC).

Physical Layer
Physical Layer Convergence

Procedure (PLCP). Physical Medium Dependent (PMD).

Well-supported, stable, and cost effective, but runs in the 2.4 GHz range that makes it prone to interference from other devices (microwave ovens, cordless phones, etc) and also has security disadvantages. Limits the number of access points in range of each other to three. Has 11 channels, with 3 non-overlapping, and supports rates from 1 to 11 Mbps, but realistically about 4-5 Mbps max. Uses direct-sequence spread-spectrum technology.

Extension of 802.11b, with the same disadvantages (security and interference). Has a shorter range than 802.11b. Is backwards compatible with 802.11b so it allows or a smooth transition from 11b to 11g. Flexible because multiple channels can be combined for faster throughput, but limited to one access point. Runs at 54 Mbps, but realistically about 20-25 Mbps and about 14 Mbps when b associated Uses frequency division multiplexing

Completely different from 11b and 11g. Flexible because multiple channels can be combined for faster throughput and more access points can be co-located. Shorter range than 11b and 11g. Runs in the 5 GHz range, so less interference from other devices. Has 12 channels, 8 non-overlapping, and supports rates from 6 to 54 Mbps, but realistically about 27 Mbps max Uses frequency division multiplexing

Freedom You can work from any location that you can get a signal. Setup Cost No cabling required. Flexibility Quick and easy to setup in temp or permanent space. Scaleable Can be expanded with growth. Mobile Access Can access the network on the move.

Speed Slower than cable. Range Affected by various medium.

Travels best through open space. Reduced by walls, glass, water, etc

Security Greater exposure to risks.

Unauthorized access. Compromising data. Denial of service.

Note: A bridge has a table used in filtering decisions.

Bridge

Digital carrier systems

The hierarchy of digital signals that the telephone network

uses. Trunks and access links organized in DS (digital signal) hierarchy Problem: rates are not multiples of each other.

In the 1980s Bellcore developed the Synchronous Optical Network (SONET) standard. Previous efforts include: ISDN and BISDN.

Networks: SONET

163

SONET:: encodes bit streams into optical signals propagated over optical fiber. SONET defines a technology for carrying many signals of different capacities through a synchronous, flexible, optical hierarchy. A bit-way implementation providing end-to-end transport of bit streams. All clocks in the network are locked to a common master clock so that simple TDM can be used. Multiplexing done by byte interleaving. SONET is backward compatible to DS-1 and E-1 and forward compatible to ATM cells. Demultiplexing is easy.

SONET topology can be a mesh, but most often it is a dual ring. Standard component of SONET ring is an ADM (Add/Drop Multiplexer)
Drop one incoming multiplexed stream and

replace it with another stream. Used to make up bi-directional line switching rings.

Networks: SONET

165

a
ADM

ADM

ADM

ADM

c (a) Dual ring

c (b) Loop-around in response to fault

Leon-Garcia & Widjaja: Communication Networks

Copyright 2000 The McGraw Hill Companies

Figure 4.12

Networks: SONET

SONET Ring
Networks: SONET

(a)
STS PTE LTE

SONET Architecture
STS PTE

SONET Terminal

STE

STE

STE

LTE

Mux

reg
Section

reg
STS Line STS-1 Path

reg
Section

Mux

SONET Terminal

(b)

STE: Section Terminating Equipment, e.g. a repeater LTE: Line Terminating Equipment, e.g. a STS-1 to STS-3 multiplexer PTE: Path Terminating Equipment, e.g. an STS-1 multiplexer

path line
section optical line section optical

path

section
optical

section optical

section optical

line section optical

line

section
optical

Learning bridge

Loop problem

Prior to spanning tree application

Position of network layer

Network layer duties

Internetwork

Links in an internetwork

Network layer in an internetwork

Network layer at the source

Note: An IP address is a 32-bit address.

Note: The IP addresses are unique and universal.

Dotted-decimal notation

Note: The binary, decimal, and hexadecimal number systems are reviewed in Appendix B.

Example 1
Change the following IP addresses from binary notation to dotted-decimal notation. a. 10000001 00001011 00001011 11101111

b.

11111001 10011011 11111011 00001111

Solution
We replace each group of 8 bits with its equivalent decimal number (see Appendix B) and add dots for separation: a. 129.11.11.239 b. 249.155.251.15

Example 2
Change the following IP addresses from dotted-decimal notation to binary notation. a. 111.56.45.78

b.

75.45.34.78

Solution
We replace each decimal number with its binary equivalent (see Appendix B):

a. b.

01101111 00111000 00101101 01001110 01001011 00101101 00100010 01001110

Finding the address class

Example 3
Find the class of each address: a. b. 00000001 00001011 00001011 11101111 11110011 10011011 11111011 00001111

Solution
See the procedure in Figure 19.11. a. b. The first bit is 0; this is a class A address. The first 4 bits are 1s; this is a class E address.

Finding the class in decimal notation

Example 4
Find the class of each address: a. b. c. 227.12.14.87 252.5.15.111 134.11.78.56

Solution
a. b. c. The first byte is 227 (between 224 and 239); the class is D. The first byte is 252 (between 240 and 255); the class is E. The first byte is 134 (between 128 and 191); the class is B.

Netid and hostid

Blocks in class A

Blocks in class B

Blocks in class C

Network address

First Octet

IP Address Characteristics Addr. Class A B C D E

Most Significant BITS

0000 -1000 1100 1110 1111

Value Ranges 0-126 127 128-191 192-223 224 - 239 240 +

Network vs. Host

N.h.h.h N.N.h.h N.N.N.h Special Special

# NETWORK S
256 65,536 16,777,216 N/A N/A

# HOSTS 16,777,214 65,534 254 N/A N/A

Special - Local Loopback

5-4

The Optimality Principle Shortest Path Routing Flooding Distance Vector Routing Link State Routing Hierarchical Routing Broadcast Routing Multicast Routing Routing for Mobile Hosts Routing in Ad Hoc Networks

The first 5 steps used in computing the shortest path from A to D. The arrows indicate the working node.

(a) A subnet. (b) Input from A, I, H, K, and the new routing table for J.

The count-to-infinity problem.

Each router must do the following: 1. Discover its neighbors, learn their network address. 2. Measure the delay or cost to each of its neighbors. 3. Construct a packet telling all it has just learned. 4. Send this packet to all other routers. 5. Compute the shortest path to every other router.

(a) Nine routers and a LAN. (b) A graph model of (a).

A subnet in which the East and West parts are connected by two lines.

(a) A subnet. (b) The link state packets for this subnet.

The packet buffer for router B in the previous slide (Fig. 5-13).